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35-514: Randle Cotgrave was an English lexicographer . In 1611 he compiled and published A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues , a bilingual dictionary that represented a breakthrough at the time and remains historically important. Born into a Cheshire family, Cotgrave may possibly be Randal, son of William Cotgreve of Christleton in Cheshire (died c. 1634), who is mentioned in a pedigree of

70-597: A base and mechanicall generation, that suffers no respect to weigh down a private gain." Thus it appears that Cotgrave was still in Lord Burghley's service. If he is the same as the "Randal Cotgreve" of the Harleian MS, he later became registrar to the Bishop of Chester and married Ellinor Taylor of that city, by whom he had four sons, William, Randolf, Robert and Alexander, and a daughter Mary. The 1632 edition of

105-411: A branch of linguistics pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language. A person devoted to lexicography is called a lexicographer and is, according to a jest of Samuel Johnson , a "harmless drudge". Generally, lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use. Such

140-633: A combined annual conference since 2010, with the Association for Language Testing and Assessment of Australia and New Zealand (ALTAANZ) later joining the now three-way conference collaboration. The Southern African Applied Linguistics Association (SAALA) was founded in 1980. There are currently four publications associated with SAALA including the Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies Journal (SAJALS). The British Association for Applied Linguistics (BAAL)

175-425: A copy of the first edition to Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales , eldest son of James I , and received from him a gift of ten pounds. Cotgrave's dictionary, though not free of ludicrous mistakes, was for its time an unusually careful and intelligent piece of lexicography, still referred to by students of English and of French philology. Two autograph letters of Cotgrave are extant, addressed to M. Beaulieu, secretary to

210-400: A dictionary is usually called a general dictionary or LGP dictionary (Language for General Purpose). Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g. legal lexicography . Such a dictionary

245-432: A dictionary), 'dictionary use' (or observing the reference acts and skills of dictionary users), and 'dictionary IT' (or applying computer aids to the process of dictionary compilation). One important consideration is the status of 'bilingual lexicography', or the compilation and use of the bilingual dictionary in all its aspects (see e.g. Nielsen 1994). In spite of a relatively long history of this type of dictionary, it

280-658: A dictionary. They are responsible for arranging lexical material (usually alphabetically ) to facilitate understanding and navigation. Coined in English 1680, the word "lexicography" derives from the Greek λεξικογράφος ( lexikographos ), "lexicographer", from λεξικόν ( lexicon ), neut. of λεξικός lexikos , "of or for words", from λέξις ( lexis ), "speech", "word" (in turn from λέγω ( lego ), "to say", "to speak" ) and γράφω ( grapho ), "to scratch, to inscribe, to write". Practical lexicographic work involves several activities, and

315-469: A recognized field of study at the aforementioned university. In 1948, the Research Club at Michigan established Language Learning: A Journal of Applied Linguistics , the first journal to bear the term applied linguistics. In the late 1960s, applied linguistics began to establish its own identity as an interdisciplinary field of linguistics concerned with real-world language issues. The new identity

350-567: A response to the narrowing of focus in linguistics with the advent in the late 1950s of generative linguistics , and has always maintained a socially-accountable role, demonstrated by its central interest in language problems. Although the field of applied linguistics started in Europe and the United States, the field rapidly flourished in the international context. Applied linguistics first concerned itself with principles and practices on

385-513: Is an interdisciplinary field . Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism , conversation analysis , contrastive linguistics , language assessment , literacies , discourse analysis , language pedagogy , second language acquisition , language planning and policy , interlinguistics , stylistics , language teacher education , forensic linguistics , culinary linguistics , and translation . The tradition of applied linguistics established itself in part as

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420-401: Is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education , psychology , communication research , information science , natural language processing , anthropology , and sociology . Applied linguistics is a practical use of language. Applied linguistics

455-621: Is an officially bilingual (English and French) scholarly association with approximately 200 members. They produce the Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics and hold an annual conference. The Irish Association for Applied Linguistics /Cumann na Teangeolaíochta Feidhmí (IRAAL) was founded in 1975. They produce the journal Teanga , the Irish word for 'language'. In 1982, the Japan Association of Applied Linguistics (JAAL)

490-657: Is often said to be less developed in a number of respects than its unilingual counterpart, especially in cases where one of the languages involved is not a major language. Not all genres of reference works are available in interlingual versions, e.g. LSP , learners' and encyclopedic types, although sometimes these challenges produce new subtypes, e.g. 'semi-bilingual' or 'bilingualised' dictionaries such as Hornby's (Oxford) Advanced Learner's Dictionary English-Chinese , which have been developed by translating existing monolingual dictionaries (see Marello 1998). Traces of lexicography can be identified as early late 4th millennium BCE, with

525-526: Is or has been for many years," and thanks him for his kindness in "so often dispensing with the ordinary assistance of an ordinary servant." The dictionary first appeared in 1611. It includes many French proverbs , some English equivalents, and a few in Latin. A second edition was published in 1632 together with an English-French dictionary by Robert Sherwood. Later editions revised and enlarged by James Howell appeared in 1650, 1660 and 1673. The author presented

560-556: Is the practice of creating books, computer programs, or databases that reflect lexicographical work and are intended for public use. These include dictionaries and thesauri which are widely accessible resources that present various aspects of lexicology, such as spelling, pronunciation, and meaning. Lexicographers are tasked with defining simple words as well as figuring out how compound or complex words or words with many meanings can be clearly explained. They also make decisions regarding which words should be kept, added, or removed from

595-464: Is usually called a specialized dictionary or Language for specific purposes dictionary and following Nielsen 1994, specialized dictionaries are either multi-field, single-field or sub-field dictionaries. It is now widely accepted that lexicography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub-branch of applied linguistics , as the chief object of study in lexicography is the dictionary (see e.g. Bergenholtz/Nielsen/Tarp 2009). Lexicography

630-548: The 15th century, lexicography flourished. Dictionaries became increasingly widespread, and their purpose shifted from a way to store lexical knowledge to a mode of disseminating lexical information. Modern lexicographical practices began taking shape during the 18th and 19th centuries, led by notable lexicographers such as Samuel Johnson , Vladimir Dal , the Brothers Grimm , Noah Webster , James Murray , Peter Mark Roget , Joseph Emerson Worcester , and others. During

665-452: The 20th century, the invention of computers changed lexicography again. With access to large databases, finding lexical evidence became significantly faster and easier. Corpus research also enables lexicographers to discriminate different senses of a word based on said evidence. Additionally, lexicographers were now able to work nonlinearly, rather than being bound to a traditional lexicographical ordering like alphabetical ordering . In

700-528: The British ambassador at Paris. The first, dated 27 November 1610, relates to the progress being made with printing his dictionary, saying he had received valuable help from Beaulieu himself and from a Mr Limery. The other letter, states that he has sent his correspondent two copies of his book and requests payment of twenty-two shillings, "which they cost me, who have not been provident enough to reserve any of them, and therefore am forced to be beholden for them to

735-604: The Cotgreve family in Harley MS 1500, fol. 118. He was educated at Cambridge University , and entered St John's College , Cambridge, through the Lady Margaret foundation, on 10 November 1587. He later became secretary to William Cecil, Lord Burghley , the eldest son of Thomas, the first earl of Exeter. In dedicating to Burghley his French–English dictionary, Cotgrave says that to his patron's favour he owes "all that he

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770-731: The applied linguistics of mother tongue teaching and teaching English to immigrants. The Australian tradition shows a strong influence of continental Europe and of the US, rather than of Britain. Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (ALAA) was established at a national congress of applied linguists held in August 1976. ALAA holds a joint annual conference in collaboration with the Association for Applied Linguistics in New Zealand (ALANZ). The Canadian Association of Applied Linguistics / L'Association Canadienne de Linguistique appliquée (CAAL/ACLA),

805-403: The basis of linguistics. In the early days, applied linguistics was thought as "linguistics-applied" at least from the outside of the field. In the 1960s, however, applied linguistics was expanded to include language assessment, language policy , and second language acquisition. As early as the 1970s, applied linguistics became a problem-driven field rather than theoretical linguistics , including

840-466: The compilation of well-crafted dictionaries requires careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects: One important goal of lexicography is to keep the lexicographic information costs incurred by dictionary users as low as possible. Nielsen (2008) suggests relevant aspects for lexicographers to consider when making dictionaries as they all affect the users' impression and actual use of specific dictionaries. Theoretical lexicography concerns

875-554: The dictionary was evidently taken through the press by the author, the year of whose death is given in Cooper's "Memorials of Cambridge" as 1634. In fact he died in 1652 and was buried at St Bartholomew the Great church, London, on 21 March. Lexicography There is some disagreement on the definition of lexicology , as distinct from lexicography. Some use "lexicology" as a synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean

910-505: The discipline begins to develop more steadily. Lengthier glosses started to emerge in the literary cultures of antiquity, including Greece, Rome , China, India, Sasanian Persia , and the Middle East. In 636, Isidore of Seville published the first formal etymological compendium. The word dictionarium was first applied to this type of text by the late 14th century. With the invention and spread of Gutenberg's printing press in

945-427: The early 21st century, the increasing ubiquity of artificial intelligence began to impact the field, which had traditionally been a time-consuming, detail-oriented task. The advent of AI has been hailed by some as the "end of lexicography". Others are skeptical that human lexicographers will be outmoded in a field studying the particularly human substance of language. Applied linguistics Applied linguistics

980-577: The first known examples being Sumerian cuneiform texts uncovered in the city of Uruk . Ancient lexicography usually consisted of word lists documenting a language's lexicon . Other early word lists have been discovered in Egyptian , Akkadian , Sanskrit , and Eblaite , and take the shape of mono- and bilingual word lists. They were organized in different ways including by subject and part of speech. The first extensive glosses , or word lists with accompanying definitions, began to appear around 300 BCE, and

1015-446: The same aspects as lexicography, but aims to develop principles that can improve the quality of future dictionaries, for instance in terms of access to data and lexicographic information costs. Several perspectives or branches of such academic dictionary research have been distinguished: 'dictionary criticism' (or evaluating the quality of one or more dictionaries, e.g. by means of reviews (see Nielsen 1999), 'dictionary history' (or tracing

1050-444: The solution of language-related problems in the real world. By the 1990s, applied linguistics had broadened including critical studies and multilingualism. Research in applied linguistics was shifted to "the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world problems in which language is a central issue." In the United States, applied linguistics also began narrowly as the application of insights from structural linguistics—first to

1085-661: The teaching of English in schools and subsequently to second and foreign language teaching. The linguistics applied approach to language teaching was promulgated most strenuously by Leonard Bloomfield , who developed the foundation for the Army Specialized Training Program , and by Charles C. Fries, who established the English Language Institute (ELI) at the University of Michigan in 1941. In 1946, Applied linguistics became

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1120-402: The traditions of a type of dictionary or of lexicography in a particular country or language), 'dictionary typology' (or classifying the various genres of reference works, such as dictionary versus encyclopedia, monolingual versus bilingual dictionary, general versus technical or pedagogical dictionary), 'dictionary structure' (or formatting the various ways in which the information is presented in

1155-475: Was established in 1967. Its mission is "the advancement of education by fostering and promoting, by any lawful charitable means, the study of language use, language acquisition and language teaching and the fostering of interdisciplinary collaboration in this study [...]". BAAL hosts an annual conference, as well as many additional smaller conferences and events organised by its Special Interest Groups (SIGs). The American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL)

1190-678: Was established in the Japan Association of College English Teachers (JACET) to engage in activities on a more international scale. In 1984, JAAL became an affiliate of the International Association of Applied Linguistics (AILA). The Applied Linguistics Association of New Zealand (ALANZ) produces the journal New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics and has been collaborating with the Applied Linguistics Association of Australia in

1225-530: Was solidified by the creation of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 1977. The International Association of Applied Linguistics was founded in France in 1964, where it is better known as Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée or AILA. AILA has affiliates in more than thirty countries, some of which are listed below. Australian applied linguistics took as its target

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