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53-590: The Rastrojero was developed by the state owned Industrias Aeronáuticas y Mecánicas del Estado during the epoch of stimulus to the local work force and support to domestic industry under the presidency of General Juan Domingo Perón . For the production of this vehicle, IAME used parts from Empire Tractors, which had been purchased from the United States a few years after end of World War II . These initial tractors had some design problems, and were eventually discontinued. Finally, these tractors were converted by

106-584: A 4-speed gear box. Despite this motor change, Borgward continued to provide transmissions. In 1974, minor redesign changes were made on the front and rear of the body. Despite several attempts by the Ministry of Aeronautics and Defense to stop their production, the Rastrojero's production continued. The engineers, technicians and employees of the factory, fearing production would be shut down, were guaranteed its production until 1979. During this time,

159-556: A chassis similar to the 1937 Ford with a body similar to the Turismo Carretera cars of the time. The load was built in wood, to optimize costs and time. The prototypes were released in May 1952, with a huge success so the initial limited production of 2,500 "tractors" became production series. In 1955 the Rastrojero was powered with a diesel engine by Borgward. A part of the classic pickup, the Rastrojero had other versions such as

212-482: A controlled amount of the substance. Francesco Lana de Terzi measured the pressure of air at sea level and in 1670 proposed the first scientifically credible lifting medium in the form of hollow metal spheres from which all the air had been pumped out. These would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship . His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today; by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, and by venting

265-474: A four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws. He did at least understand that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object." ( Newton would not publish the Third law of motion until 1687.) His analysis led to the realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, and his later designs included a mechanical power source such as a spring. Da Vinci's work

318-473: A group of technicians and engineers who worked on making the new truck. The original Rastrojero pickup truck first rolled off the assembly line in 1952. From 1952 to 1954, a Willys-Overland 2,199 cm (134 cu in) gasoline engine from the Empire Tractor purchase were used and, starting in 1954, a 42 horsepower Borgward D4M diesel engine of 1758 cm with indirect injection. Particular attention

371-604: A lifting gas, though practical demonstration awaited a gas-tight balloon material. On hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers' invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a gas-tight material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during

424-592: A light truck (named "Camión Frontal", produced 1969–79 with the same body than Borgward B611) an omnibus (mainly used as school bus ), and a 4-door sedan, the Rastrojero Conosur , specifically designed for use in taxi fleet. The IAME Tractor Factory and Motorcycles had two significatie products, the Pampa tractor and the Puma motorcycle. The Pampa was developed to provide agricultural machinery to satisfy

477-528: A portable boat, the sailing school Tero ( sailboat ), a Canadian canoe and an outboard motor Surubí. Aeronautics Aeronautics is the science or art involved with the study, design , and manufacturing of air flight -capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere . While the term originally referred solely to operating the aircraft, it has since been expanded to include technology, business, and other aspects related to aircraft. The term " aviation "

530-409: A total of five series, with the last two being the most popular among users. In general, the Puma was mostly used by low and mid classes, being regarded as a reliable product at an affordable price. In 1966 the factory was closed, so the production ceased. At the time of the closure, IAME had sold a total of 105,675 Puma motorcycles. Production also included boating with tourism boats, fishing boats,

583-602: A van based on that truck, and the Rastrojero Conosur , which is a sedan based on the second-generation Rastrojero that was designed exclusively to be used in taxi fleets. By instruction from the government's National Reorganization Process prevailing in Argentina , the production of the Rastrojero and all of its derivatives ended in 1979. Industrias Aeron%C3%A1uticas y Mec%C3%A1nicas del Estado Industrias Aeronáuticas y Mecánicas del Estado (Spanish for State Aeronautical and Mechanical Industries , abbreviated IAME )

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636-418: Is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction . Rocket engines push rockets forwards simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast. Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th-century China . Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry

689-491: Is sometimes used interchangeably with aeronautics, although "aeronautics" includes lighter-than-air craft such as airships , and includes ballistic vehicles while "aviation" technically does not. A significant part of aeronautical science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics , which deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft. Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made from

742-421: Is the art or practice of aeronautics. Historically aviation meant only heavier-than-air flight, but nowadays it includes flying in balloons and airships. Aeronautical engineering covers the design and construction of aircraft, including how they are powered, how they are used and how they are controlled for safe operation. A major part of aeronautical engineering is aerodynamics , the science of passing through

795-462: Is widely acknowledged as the founder of modern aeronautics. He was first called the "father of the aeroplane" in 1846 and Henson called him the "father of aerial navigation." He was the first true scientific aerial investigator to publish his work, which included for the first time the underlying principles and forces of flight. In 1809 he began the publication of a landmark three-part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation" (1809–1810). In it he wrote

848-461: The Rozière. The principle was to use the hydrogen section for constant lift and to navigate vertically by heating and allowing to cool the hot air section, in order to catch the most favourable wind at whatever altitude it was blowing. The balloon envelope was made of goldbeater's skin . The first flight ended in disaster and the approach has seldom been used since. Sir George Cayley (1773–1857)

901-407: The "flying man". He was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful flights with gliders , therefore making the idea of " heavier than air " a reality. Newspapers and magazines published photographs of Lilienthal gliding, favourably influencing public and scientific opinion about the possibility of flying machines becoming practical. His work lead to him developing the concept of

954-495: The Instituto Aerotécnico. The main purpose of the recently created business was to produce automobiles, aircraft, motorcycles, and tractors, setting the serial production date on 1 November 1952. The company began operations at Fábrica Militar de Aviones . IAME conglomerate took the legal form of company self-sufficient, with a directory, general administration and administrations of factories. The first directory

1007-518: The Italian explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current. The Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys. An early European to provide any scientific discussion of flight was Roger Bacon , who described principles of operation for the lighter-than-air balloon and the flapping-wing ornithopter , which he envisaged would be constructed in

1060-650: The US tractors were retired, Brigadier San Martín (president of IAME) took those tractors to use some of their components to create a new and improved model. The results were two vehicles, the Gauchita –a prototype similar to the Station Wagon by American manufacturer Willys – and a pickup (then named "Rastrojero"). Developed in 1955, the Gauchita was powered with a D4M18 Borgward diesel engine. The Rastrojero had

1113-405: The air becomes compressed, typically at speeds above Mach 1. Transonic flow occurs in the intermediate speed range around Mach 1, where the airflow over an object may be locally subsonic at one point and locally supersonic at another. A rocket or rocket vehicle is a missile , spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle which obtains thrust from a rocket engine . In all rockets, the exhaust

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1166-544: The air. With the increasing activity in space flight, nowadays aeronautics and astronautics are often combined as aerospace engineering . The science of aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft. The study of aerodynamics falls broadly into three areas: Incompressible flow occurs where the air simply moves to avoid objects, typically at subsonic speeds below that of sound (Mach 1). Compressible flow occurs where shock waves appear at points where

1219-534: The aspect of a tougher vehicle. Its design featured a bodywork made entirely of steel with fully floating cab and separate cargo section for the two door models while the cab and box were built into an integrated assembly for the four doors models. However, there were also models that still had flat beds with wooden boxes and drop-sides . In addition to its aesthetics, its powertrain had been modified as well. The new model came equipped with an Indenor XD 4.88 52 hp 4-cylinder diesel engine sourced from Peugeot , with

1272-533: The beginning of the 1950s, some of the most developed countries in Latin America (Argentina, Brazil and Mexico) were in process to substitute imports. Therefore, the local industry was revitalised in order to build automobiles. In 1949, President of Argentina Juan Perón signed a decree to refurbish part of the Aircraft Factory, adapting it to start manufacturing automobiles. José Higinio Monserrat

1325-494: The country. His proposal was rejected by the foreign manufacturers, arguing that Argentina lacked the necessary expertise for the task and admitting only have a few autoparts Argentina invoice or final assembly in the country of foreign auto parts. Decree nº 24.103 dated on 30 November 1951 set the establishment of "Fábrica de Motores y Automotores" ( Motor and motorcar factory ) which was absorved in 1952 by "Industrias Aeronáuticas y Mecánicas del Estado" (IAME), which also took over

1378-564: The date stipulated by Perón to release a prototype (90 days) was about to be reached, the development of a fully-manufactured tractor was dismissed. Instead, IAME used the tractors built in Germany with slight modifications on their fronts, releasing them as "new" products. The first prototype was finished in October 1952, and two months later, 15 Pampa tractors were tested in agricultural works. The local subsidiary of Fiat gave assistance for

1431-612: The earliest times, typically by constructing wings and jumping from a tower with crippling or lethal results. Wiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the study of bird flight. Medieval Islamic Golden Age scientists such as Abbas ibn Firnas also made such studies. The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley in 1799, both began their investigations with studies of bird flight. Man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In 1282

1484-527: The evolution of the body was nil because of these attempts to cut its production. In spite of that, there was still significant evolution of its power plant, beginning with gasoline engines getting 65HP, passing up the Borgward diesel with 42HP and ending with the Indenor XD2 diesel with 68HP. At the time, the factory had offered different models based on the Rastrojero; among those is a cab over truck,

1537-475: The filling process. The Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the balloon rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design, which brought the paper closer to the fire. On their free flight, De Rozier and d'Arlandes took buckets of water and sponges to douse these fires as they arose. On

1590-413: The first scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is confined within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of air." He identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: thrust , lift , drag and weight and distinguished stability and control in his designs. He developed the modern conventional form of

1643-476: The fixed-wing aeroplane having a stabilising tail with both horizontal and vertical surfaces, flying gliders both unmanned and manned. He introduced the use of the whirling arm test rig to investigate the aerodynamics of flight, using it to discover the benefits of the curved or cambered aerofoil over the flat wing he had used for his first glider. He also identified and described the importance of dihedral , diagonal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to

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1696-434: The future. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an "aether" whose composition he did not know. In the late fifteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci followed up his study of birds with designs for some of the earliest flying machines, including the flapping-wing ornithopter and the rotating-wing helicopter . Although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as

1749-400: The gas contained in a second, inner ballonet. On 19 September 1784, it completed the first flight of over 100 km, between Paris and Beuvry , despite the man-powered propulsive devices proving useless. In an attempt the next year to provide both endurance and controllability, de Rozier developed a balloon having both hot air and hydrogen gas bags, a design which was soon named after him as

1802-522: The lifting containers to lose height. In practice de Terzi's spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases. From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons. Their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short-lived due to its effect on

1855-533: The manufacture of the vehicle through some cooperation agreements. The Pampa tractor was produced in Estación Ferreyra, Córdoba Province, with the first models released to public (12 units) in 1954, offered at m$ n 85,000, lower than similar products by those times. A total of 3,760 were produced from 1953 to 1963, when the Government sold the factory to private company Perkins. Manufactured in

1908-760: The modern wing. His flight attempts in Berlin in the year 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight and the " Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat " is considered to be the first air plane in series production, making the Maschinenfabrik Otto Lilienthal in Berlin the first air plane production company in the world. Otto Lilienthal is often referred to as either the "father of aviation" or "father of flight". Other important investigators included Horatio Phillips . Aeronautics may be divided into three main branches, Aviation , Aeronautical science and Aeronautical engineering . Aviation

1961-406: The motorcycle was well received, encouraging IAME to produce more models. The second series was launched in 1956, with 56,928 units sold. The fourth series (no "third" series were released) came in 1959, with changes in its design. That series (consisting of two different models) sold 36,755 units, while the fifth (and last) generation was launched in 1963, with 1,936 motorcycles sold. The Puma had

2014-685: The needs of local farmers. The project to manufacture tractors in Argentina stated in June 1952, with the idea of a vehicle that could be operated easily. The original idea for the development of an Argentine tractor was to use German Lanz Bulldog D 9506 tractor (produced by Heinrich Lanz AG ) as inspiration. The D9506 was a simple vehicle that could be fueled with different combustibles such as gasoil, kerosene, raw oil, animal grease and even parafine. Two D9506 units were brought from Uruguay to analize their mechanism and components, nevertheless and due to

2067-536: The other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern. As a result of these exploits, the hot air balloon became known as the Montgolfière type and the gas balloon the Charlière . Charles and the Robert brothers' next balloon, La Caroline , was a Charlière that followed Jean Baptiste Meusnier 's proposals for an elongated dirigible balloon, and was notable for having an outer envelope with

2120-500: The paper as it condensed. Mistaking smoke for a kind of steam, they began filling their balloons with hot smoky air which they called "electric smoke" and, despite not fully understanding the principles at work, made some successful launches and in 1783 were invited to give a demonstration to the French Académie des Sciences . Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c.  1780 to propose its use as

2173-527: The plant of Córdoba, development of this motorcycle started in June 1952, with the purpose of manufacturing a simple and effective vehicle. In May 1953 the factory is established near Villa Carlos Paz in Córdoba Province, with the first prototype being launched months later, inspired on a German Göricke model that had been given to Perón as a gift. The Puma was equipped with a Sachs engine and kick pedal. Due to its low price and good performance,

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2226-487: The production and adaptation of use. When licenses were not acquired, projects initiated were highly influenced by the original models in question. The military dictatorship that ruled Argentina during the National Reorganization Process set the closure of IME on May 22, 1979. Then Minister of Economy, José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz , carried out the decision alleging economic reasons. By

2279-410: The understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes . Another significant invention was the tension-spoked wheel, which he devised in order to create a light, strong wheel for aircraft undercarriage. During the 19th century Cayley's ideas were refined, proved and expanded on, culminating in the works of Otto Lilienthal . Lilienthal was a German engineer and businessman who became known as

2332-534: Was a state-owned entity and autarchic conglomerate of factories of Argentina created in 1951 to promote the manufacture of aircraft and automobiles during the Juan Perón administration. The company was established to manufacture automobiles in the country, taking advantage of the advances of Aerotechnical Institute of Córdoba Province. At its peak, IAME manufactured (apart from automobiles) airplanes, tractors, motorcycles, motorboats, and weapons. In 1956, it

2385-709: Was appointed as the first director of the Automobile Factory while engineer Raúl Gómez, who work at the Aerotechnical Institute of Córdoba ("Institec"), was another key figure of IAME. The first car manufactured by IAME was the Justicialista model in 1952. This car had a body designed in Argentina but inspired on the Chevrolet models of those times. They were powered with Wartburg engines imported from Germany. The first prototype

2438-545: Was cancelled while the sedan and small pickup lasted until 1957. The most successful model by IAME was the Rastrojero , a small utility pickup truck with 60,000 units produced. The Rastrojero was originally thought as a tractor to replace some cheap units imported from the United States (a total of 2,500 that had been purchased at a low price but were dismissed after a brief period due to multiple failures). After

2491-617: Was chaired by Juan Ignacio San Martin. Financing funds came from a loan from the Industrial Bank of Argentina of $ 53,000,000, guaranteed by the State under the doctrine of Peronism. The IAME had 12,000 workers and managers at the time. There were many projects, following a low-cost policy that allowed mass production to achieve low manufacturing costs. It also acquired licenses to produce locally European automotive models of low cost and easy maintenance-mainly Germans-to ensure expertise in

2544-631: Was developed and built in only 90 days, using national materials for manufacturing it. The Justicialista line included a sedan, the chatita (small pickup), van, and a sport coupe. They were sold at low prices, with a total of 3,730 units produced. After General Perón was deposed by the Revolución Libertadora in 1955, the Justicialista was rebranded as Graciela by the Military Government. The sport version

2597-575: Was finally shut down in 1979 by the military dictatorship that ruled Argentina during the National Reorganization Process . After completion of the Five-Year Plans ("Plan Quinquenal"), the administration of President Juan Perón had failed to establish a solid foundation for the growth of heavy industry. The trade balance in the automotive heading was unfavorable in 1951, imported around 20,000 units. Therefore, Perón met with representatives of major foreign automakers to boost car production in

2650-410: Was given to the front fender design, bearing in mind that it would be a vehicle for the rural and off road use. The fender lines were designed similar in shape to the ones used at the time for Turismo Carretera road racing , so the vehicle would not collect excessive amounts of mud under the fenders. In 1968, the Rastrojero's body got a complete redesign. The new model's styling was more car-like with

2703-443: Was lost after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley . The modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileo 's experiments in which he showed that air has weight. Around 1650 Cyrano de Bergerac wrote some fantasy novels in which he described the principle of ascent using a substance (dew) he supposed to be lighter than air, and descending by releasing

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2756-416: Was renamed "Dirección Nacional de Fabricación e Investigación Aeronáutica" (Spanish for National Directorate of Aeronautical Manufacturing and Research , abbreviated "DINFIA"). In 1967, it was established that DINFIA would focus on aeronautics and aerospace , while the automotive division would be taken over by another company created with that purpose, "Industrias Mecánicas del Estado" (IME). The company

2809-586: Was the enabling technology of the Space Age , including setting foot on the Moon . Rockets are used for fireworks , weaponry, ejection seats , launch vehicles for artificial satellites , human spaceflight and exploration of other planets. While comparatively inefficient for low speed use, they are very lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large accelerations and of attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency. Chemical rockets are

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