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82-592: The campaign of Redwood Summer was an environmental battle to save the old growth forests in Northern California due to the forests rapid depletion of about 95%. There were two big incidents that caused the Earth First! activists to act. The first incident was when the California elections were coming up, which included the decision of if California Proposition 130 was to be passed or not. In

164-418: A forest dynamics perspective, old-growth forest is in a stage that follows understory reinitiation stage. Those stages are: Of importance is that while the stand switches from one tree community to another, the stand will not necessarily go through old-growth stage between those stages. Some tree species have a relatively open canopy. That allows more shade-tolerant tree species to establish below even before

246-607: A free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. In brief – Forests, biodiversity and people​ , FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP. Samoa, California Samoa (formerly Brownsville ) is a census-designated place in Humboldt County , California . It is located 1.5 miles (2.4 km) northwest of Eureka , at an elevation of 23 feet (7 m). Samoa

328-640: A prisoner of war camp for Native Americans captured in the Bald Hills War ; the Humboldt Bay Life-Saving Station in 1878; and the stonemason finishing yard and trans-shipment point for foundation stones for the St. George Reef Light from 1883 to 1891 at Paysonville. The nongovernmental settlement was named Brownsville after James Henry Brown, a dairy farmer who settled his ranch on the present site of Samoa in 1865. James Brown

410-432: A biodiversity that is different from other forest stages. The characteristic topography of much old-growth forest consists of pits and mounds. Mounds are caused by decaying fallen trees, and pits ( tree throws ) by the roots pulled out of the ground when trees fall due to natural causes, including being pushed over by animals. Pits expose humus -poor, mineral-rich soil and often collect moisture and fallen leaves, forming

492-450: A broken wrist, while, Bari was in critical condition due to a shattered pelvis and internal injuries. She was also left permanently disabled due to the injuries she sustained. After the incident, both Bari and Cherney were charged with transporting an explosive device as the FBI and Oakland Police Department (OPD) claimed that both of the activists had knowledge of the bomb in the vehicle and

574-577: A different potential to store carbon. For example, this potential is particularly high in the Pacific Northwest where forests are relatively productive, trees live a long time, decomposition is relatively slow, and fires are infrequent. The differences between forests must, therefore, be taken into consideration when determining how they should be managed to store carbon. A 2019 study projected that old-growth forests in Southeast Asia ,

656-767: A different spatial location relative to the main canopy, hence each one receives a different amount of light. The mixed age of the forest is an important criterion in ensuring that the forest is a relatively stable ecosystem in the long term. A climax stand that is uniformly aged becomes senescent and degrades within a relatively short time to result in a new cycle of forest succession . Thus, uniformly aged stands are less stable ecosystems. Boreal forests are more uniformly aged, as they are normally subject to frequent stand-replacing wildfires. Forest canopy gaps are essential in creating and maintaining mixed-age stands. Also, some herbaceous plants only become established in canopy openings, but persist beneath an understory. Openings are

738-563: A healthy fungal ecosystem, and presence of indicator species. Old-growth forests are often biologically diverse , and home to many rare species , threatened species , and endangered species of plants and animals, such as the northern spotted owl , marbled murrelet and fisher , making them ecologically significant. Levels of biodiversity may be higher or lower in old-growth forests compared to that in second-growth forests, depending on specific circumstances, environmental variables, and geographic variables. Logging in old-growth forests

820-457: A high incidence of foggy days caused mariners to call the approach to Humboldt Bay a "graveyard of the Pacific" in days before modern navigational aids were available. Even when the fog bank was no more than a threat on the horizon, landmarks on the higher ground east of Humboldt Bay were obscured by a low overcast of smoke from lumber mills and homes using wood fuel. Despite the construction of

902-473: A long period of time without disturbance . Due to this, old-growth forests exhibit unique ecological features. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines primary forests as naturally regenerated forests of native tree species where there are no clearly visible indications of human activity and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed. One-third (34 percent) of

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984-410: A moist, relatively mild climate, some old-growth trees have attained notable height and girth (DBH: diameter at breast height), accompanied by notable biodiversity in terms of the species supported. Therefore, for most people, the physical size of the trees is the most recognized hallmark of old-growth forests, even though the ecologically productive areas that support such large trees often comprise only

1066-515: A proper investigation and having a lack of evidence. In the coming years and after both Bari and Cherney's names were cleared, they sued the FBI for violating their constitutional right. On June 11, 2002, roughly twelve years after the bombing, the jury found that the FBI unlawfully violated the pair's first and fourth amendment rights by arresting them, charging them, searching their homes, and defamation of character. The jury awarded Darryl Cherney and

1148-555: A result of a spike still being embedded in a piece of wood. After the incident, Earth First! declared that it would stop using tree spiking as means of disrupting the logging industry as it posed threats to human life. On multiple occasions, the campaigners used obstructive practices to try to stop the destruction of the redwood forests. In many instances, the activists chained themselves to trees, stood between bulldozers and trees, blocked trucks, and disabled machinery at night. On one occasion, forty-four activists were arrested in front of

1230-704: A result of industrial logging operations. In 2006, about 61,000 hectares of tall-eucalypt RFA old-growth forests remained unprotected. Recent logging attempts in the Upper Florentine Valley have sparked a series of protests and media attention over the arrests that have taken place in this area. Additionally, Gunns Limited , the primary forestry contractor in Tasmania, has been under recent criticism by political and environmental groups over its practice of woodchipping timber harvested from old-growth forests. Increased understanding of forest dynamics in

1312-550: A result of tree death due to small impact disturbances such as wind, low-intensity fires, and tree diseases. Old-growth forests are unique, usually having multiple horizontal layers of vegetation representing a variety of tree species , age classes, and sizes, as well as "pit and mound" soil shape with well-established fungal nets . As old-growth forest is structurally diverse, it provides higher-diversity habitat than forests in other stages. Thus, sometimes higher biological diversity can be sustained in old-growth forests, or at least

1394-432: A severe disturbance, such as wildfire, insect infestation, or harvesting, is often called second-growth or 'regeneration' until enough time passes for the effects of the disturbance to be no longer evident. Depending on the forest, this may take from a century to several millennia. Hardwood forests of the eastern United States can develop old-growth characteristics in 150–500 years. In British Columbia , Canada, old growth

1476-486: A source of raw materials. These services include making breathable air, making pure water, carbon storage, regeneration of nutrients, maintenance of soils, pest control by insectivorous bats and insects, micro- and macro-climate control, and the storage of a wide variety of genes. The effects of old-growth forests in relation to global warming have been addressed in various studies and journals. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said in its 2007 report : "In

1558-511: A standstill. The drop of profit made Louisiana-Pacific fire some of their employees, which, caused even greater tension between the Redwood Summer protestors and the employees of the timber companies. Not only did the employees fear losing their jobs, some employees stated that the actions of Earth First! against the logging industry tarnished their family legacy and some claimed that they feared going to work. The growing agitation between

1640-412: A substrate for seedling trees. Intact soils harbor many life forms that rely on them. Intact soils generally have very well-defined horizons, or soil profiles . Different organisms may need certain well-defined soil horizons to live, while many trees need well-structured soils free of disturbance to thrive. Some herbaceous plants in northern hardwood forests must have thick duff layers (which are part of

1722-400: A thick organic layer that is able to nurture certain types of organisms. Mounds provide a place free of leaf inundation and saturation, where other types of organisms thrive. Standing snags provide food sources and habitat for many types of organisms. In particular, many species of dead-wood predators, such as woodpeckers , must have standing snags available for feeding. In North America,

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1804-417: A useful number to measure. So, some forests may be excluded from being categorized as old-growth even if they have old-growth attributes just because they are too young. Also, older forests can lack some old-growth attributes and be categorized as old-growth just because they are so old. The idea of using age is also problematic, because human activities can influence the forest in varied ways. For example, after

1886-584: A very small portion of the total area that has been mapped as old-growth forest. (In high-altitude, harsh climates, trees grow very slowly and thus remain at a small size. Such trees also qualify as old growth in terms of how they are mapped, but are rarely recognized by the general public as such.) The debate over old-growth definitions has been inextricably linked with a complex range of social perceptions about wilderness preservation, biodiversity, aesthetics, and spirituality, as well as economic or industrial values. In logging terms, old-growth stands are past

1968-404: Is 95564. The community is inside area code 707 . The seaward side of the peninsula is Samoa Beach. The great green combers of winter gales hump and crest about a half-mile offshore where the 30-foot (9.1 m) swell curve parallels the shoreline. During such storms, little can be seen between the breakers and the beach except the smoky spume of crests blown off by the wind. Varying currents and

2050-414: Is a contentious issue in many parts of the world. Excessive logging reduces biodiversity, affecting not only the old-growth forest itself, but also indigenous species that rely upon old-growth forest habitat. Some forests in the old-growth stage have a mix of tree ages, due to a distinct regeneration pattern for this stage. New trees regenerate at different times from each other, because each of them has

2132-669: Is affected. Climate change showed an impact on the mortality of some dominant tree species, as observed in the Korean pine . Climate change also showed an effect on the composition of species when forests were surveyed over a 10- and 20-year period, which may disrupt the overall productivity of the forest. According to the World Resources Institute , as of January 2009, only 21% of the original old-growth forests that once existed on Earth are remaining. An estimated one-half of Western Europe's forests were cleared before

2214-615: Is defined as 120 to 140 years of age in the interior of the province where fire is a frequent and natural occurrence. In British Columbia's coastal rainforests , old growth is defined as trees more than 250 years, with some trees reaching more than 1,000 years of age. In Australia, eucalypt trees rarely exceed 350 years of age due to frequent fire disturbance. Forest types have very different development patterns, natural disturbances and appearances. A Douglas-fir stand may grow for centuries without disturbance while an old-growth ponderosa pine forest requires frequent surface fires to reduce

2296-545: Is located in the northern peninsula of Humboldt Bay and is the site of the Samoa Cookhouse , one of the last remaining original lumber camp–style cookhouses . The name Samoa is used interchangeably to refer to the peninsula it occupies. The population was 258 at the 2010 census. Samoa was given its current name in honor of a contemporary crisis in the Samoan Islands in 1890s. It was assumed that its harbor

2378-433: Is more accurate in forests where the species that constitute old-growth have long lifespans and succession is slow. Common cultural definitions and common denominators regarding what comprises old-growth forest, and the variables that define, constitute and embody old-growth forests include: Additionally, in mountainous, temperate landscapes (such as Western North America), and specifically in areas of high-quality soil and

2460-919: Is not the most commercially viable timber—in British Columbia, Canada, harvesting in the coastal region is moving to younger second-growth stands. A 2001 scientific symposium in Canada found that defining old growth in a scientifically meaningful, yet policy-relevant, manner presents some basic difficulties, especially if a simple, unambiguous, and rigorous scientific definition is sought. Symposium participants identified some attributes of late-successional, temperate-zone, old-growth forest types that could be considered in developing an index of "old-growthness" and for defining old-growth forests: Structural features: Compositional features: Process features: Old-growth forests provide ecosystem services that may be far more important to society than their use as

2542-557: Is seen as extremely economically unproductive, as timber can only be collected from falling trees, and also potentially damaging to nearby managed groves by creating environments conducive to root rot. It may be more productive to cut the old growth down and replace the forest with a younger one. The island of Tasmania , just off the southeast coast of Australia, has the largest amount of temperate old-growth rainforest reserves in Australia with around 1,239,000 hectares in total. While

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2624-518: The Arcata Bottoms. The peninsula is about 10 miles (16 km) long by 1 mile (1.6 km). This area is vulnerable to tsunamis as its average elevation above sea level is only 3 feet (0.91 m). It also contains the unincorporated community of Manila and a United States Coast Guard station. Residential expansion is proposed that would double the size of Manila, which currently has neither fire or police services of its own. The ZIP Code

2706-697: The Köppen Climate Classification system, Samoa has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate , abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps. The 2010 United States Census reported that Samoa had a population of 258. The population density was 308.4 inhabitants per square mile (119.1/km ). The racial makeup of Samoa was 198 (76.7%) White , 1 (0.4%) African American , 9 (3.5%) Native American , 0 (0.0%) Asian , 0 (0.0%) Pacific Islander , 31 (12.0%) from other races , and 19 (7.4%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 52 persons (20.2%). The Census reported that 258 people (100% of

2788-486: The Middle Ages , and 90% of the old-growth forests that existed in the contiguous United States in the 1600s have been cleared. The large trees in old-growth forests are economically valuable, and have been subject to aggressive logging throughout the world. This has led to many conflicts between logging companies and environmental groups . From certain forestry perspectives, fully maintaining an old-growth forest

2870-717: The Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) attempted to prevent the clearfelling of defined "old-growth forests". This led to struggles over what constitutes "old growth". For example, in Western Australia, the timber industry tried to limit the area of old growth in the karri forests of the Southern Forests Region; this led to the creation of the Western Australian Forests Alliance , the splitting of

2952-597: The ecosystem services they provide. This can be a point of contention when some in the logging industry desire to harvest valuable timber from the forests, destroying the forests in the process, to generate short-term profits, while environmentalists seek to preserve the forests in their pristine state for benefits such as water purification , flood control , weather stability, maintenance of biodiversity, and nutrient cycling . Moreover, old-growth forests are more efficient at sequestering carbon than newly planted forests and fast-growing timber plantations , thus preserving

3034-535: The spotted owl is well known for needing standing snags for nesting habitat. Fallen timber, or coarse woody debris , contributes carbon -rich organic matter directly to the soil , providing a substrate for mosses , fungi, and seedlings , and creating microhabitats by creating relief on the forest floor. In some ecosystems such as the temperate rain forest of the North American Pacific coast , fallen timber may become nurse logs , providing

3116-404: The Earth First! protestors used against the loggers was symbolic actions. On many instances the protestors camouflaged themselves using nature, such as leaves and sticks, and sang Native American war cries. The protestors would also dress in animal costumes and, more particularly, wore costumes and patterns depicting that of the threatened spotted owl . The habitat of the threatened species was in

3198-585: The Humboldt Harbor Light and the Table Bluff Light at least twenty-seven vessels had gone ashore in this vicinity before the cruiser USS Milwaukee (C-21) grounded here on January 13, 1917, and broke up in the pounding surf. The cruiser, disregarding recommendations of local mariners, was attempting to salvage the submarine USS H-3 (SS-30) . The submarine had gone aground on December 15, 1916; and its crew were living in tents on

3280-652: The Liberal Government of Western Australia and the election of the Gallop Labor Government. Old-growth forests in this region have now been placed inside national parks . A small proportion of old-growth forests also exist in South-West Australia and are protected by federal laws from logging, which has not occurred there for more than 20 years. In British Columbia , Canada , old-growth forests must be maintained in each of

3362-416: The act of inserting a metal spike in the base of a redwood tree thus making it impossible for loggers to cut down the tree without damaging or destroying their equipment. However, one event made environmental groups, including Earth First!, denounce tree spiking. A factory worker was severely injured and almost lost his life due to the malfunctioning of the machine that he was using. The machine malfunctioned as

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3444-446: The atmosphere. Proponents of harvesting the forest argue the carbon stored in wood is available for use as biomass energy (displacing fossil fuel use), although using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , volatile organic compounds , particulates, and other pollutants, in some cases at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas. Each forest has

3526-540: The beach. The submarine was later salvaged by the Mercer-Fraser Company building a track of balks across the Samoa peninsula and jacking the submarine up onto rollers to be towed across and relaunched into Humboldt Bay. This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F and cold, rainy winters that include a layer of morning fog. According to

3608-412: The bomb accidentally exploded. After Cherney was treated, he was arrested at the hospital, while Bari stayed hospitalized due to her injuries. Both adamantly denied any knowledge or involvement in the bomb. Bari and Cherney claimed that they had received many death threats in the previous weeks making them believe that the bomb was an assassination attempt. Despite their claims, the FBI and OPD still pursued

3690-712: The county, showing that by 1922, the region of Samoa was parceled into an extractive resource industry. The largest tracts of land belonged to Hammond Lumber Company, while other enterprises included the Little River Redwood Company, the San Francisco Land Company, Big Lagoon Lumber Company, and Dolbeer & Carson Lumber Company, the latter owning the northerly marsh inlets stretching between the modern-day Arcata Bottoms and Mad River. Hammond Lumber Company railroads brought logs and lumber to Samoa from Little River and Big Lagoon until

3772-403: The criminal charges against the pair. Despite the accusations, the Redwood Summer campaign quickly gained national attention as the media frenzied around the details of the bombing and the accusations made against the activists. This made the campaign quickly gain recognition and momentum. Bari and Cherney's case eventually made it to trial where they were found not guilty due to the FBI not doing

3854-472: The depletion of the old-growth forests in California and more regulations are in place to protect the forests, logging of the forests continues. The Redwood Summer campaign gained international attention and made many people aware of the destruction of the old growth forests. Old-growth forest An old-growth forest (also referred to as primary forest ) is a forest that has developed over

3936-421: The economic optimum for harvesting—usually between 80 and 150 years, depending on the species. Old-growth forests were often given harvesting priority because they had the most commercially valuable timber, they were considered to be at greater risk of deterioration through root rot or insect infestation, and they occupied land that could be used for more productive second-growth stands. In some regions, old growth

4018-430: The environmentalist and the loggers caused confrontation between the two groups. There were instances where the activists said to have filed charges with the police because some loggers were hostile towards them. The protestors also report that workers threw rocks at them and one activist was hit with the handle of an axe. On another occasion, a logger severally beat an activist. At times, the protestors reported that some of

4100-436: The forest will switch back to understory reinitiation stage. Using the stand dynamics definition, old-growth can be easily evaluated using structural attributes. However, in some forest ecosystems, this can lead to decisions regarding the preservation of unique stands or attributes that will disappear over the next few decades because of natural succession processes. Consequently, using stand dynamics to define old-growth forests

4182-472: The forests is vital to climate change mitigation . Old-growth forests tend to have large trees and standing dead trees, multilayered canopies with gaps that result from the deaths of individual trees, and coarse woody debris on the forest floor. The trees of old-growth forests develop distinctive attributes not seen in younger trees, such as more complex structures and deeply fissured bark that can harbor rare lichens and mosses. A forest regenerated after

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4264-427: The landscape patterns and habitat conditions normally maintained in nature . This coarse filter approach to biodiversity conservation recognizes ecological processes and provides for a dynamic distribution of old growth across the landscape. And all seral stages—young, medium, and old—support forest biodiversity. Plants and animals rely on different forest ecosystem stages to meet their habitat needs. In Australia ,

4346-525: The late 20th century led the scientific community to identify a need to inventory, understand, manage, and conserve representative examples of old-growth forests with their associated characteristics and values. Literature around old growth and its management is inconclusive about the best way to characterize the true essence of an old-growth stand. A better understanding of natural systems has resulted in new ideas about forest management, such as managed natural disturbances, which should be designed to achieve

4428-400: The late Judi Bari $ 4.4 million. During Redwood Summer, the Earth First! activists used a variety of methods, including standard protesting techniques, during the campaign. Earth First! activists claimed to be non violent, using civil and passive disobedient actions to save the redwood forests . One of the more controversial tactics that the activists used was tree spiking . Tree spiking was

4510-620: The local Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) was originally designed to protect much of this natural wealth, many of the RFA old-growth forests protected in Tasmania consist of trees of little use to the timber industry. RFA old-growth and high conservation value forests that contain species highly desirable to the forestry industry have been poorly preserved. Only 22% of Tasmania's original tall-eucalypt forests managed by Forestry Tasmania have been reserved. Ten thousand hectares of tall-eucalypt RFA old-growth forest have been lost since 1996, predominantly as

4592-408: The logging of 30% of the trees, less time is needed for old-growth to come back than after removal of 80% of the trees. Although depending on the species logged, the forest that comes back after a 30% harvest may consist of proportionately fewer hardwood trees than a forest logged at 80% in which the light competition by less important tree species does not inhibit the regrowth of vital hardwoods. From

4674-413: The long term, a sustainable forest management strategy aimed at maintaining or increasing forest carbon stocks, while producing an annual sustained yield of timber, fibre, or energy from the forest, will generate the largest sustained mitigation benefit." Old-growth forests are often perceived to be in equilibrium or in a state of decay. However, evidence from analysis of carbon stored above ground and in

4756-545: The main gate of the Louisiana-Pacific Pulp Mill in Samoa, California . On June 21, 1990, protestors blocked a logging truck that was carrying logged redwoods resulting in the activists’ arrests. After the arrests, however, about twenty other protestors climbed on top of one logging truck, which, blocked twenty-two other logging trucks, halting the production of the logging company. A consistent tactic that

4838-481: The majority of which are in Indonesia and Malaysia , are able to sequester carbon or be a net emitter of greenhouse gases based on deforestation scenarios over the subsequent decades. Old-growth forests have the potential to impact climate change, but climate change is also impacting old-growth forests. As the effects of global warming grow more substantial, the ability of old-growth forests to sequester carbon

4920-615: The north and south jetties have unusual concrete breakers known as dolos , which resemble toy jacks . The breakers were built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers to withstand the area's heavy seas, and were featured by Huell Howser on PBS 's California's Gold (Episode #803). Samoa peninsula includes the Manila and Samoa Dunes (some of the most ecologically diverse areas in California) and stretches to

5002-412: The old growth forests, which, at the time, was threatened by the logging practices. Tree sitting was a strategy used to protect the trees that were marked to be logged down. Activists would camp in the old growth trees, sometimes for extended periods of times, to prevent the trees from being destroyed. Due to the protests, the logging practices and factory production slowed down and, sometimes, were at

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5084-500: The old growth forests. On May 24, 1990, right before the kick off of Redwood Summer the campaign leader, Judi Bari, and a fellow activist, Darryl Cherney, were on their way to The Seeds of Peace House, an activist support group, in Oakland, California. While Bari was driving, a bomb underneath Bari's seat exploded. After the explosion, both were immediately transported to the hospital. Cherney had serious injuries to his face and obtained

5166-616: The population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized. There were 91 households, out of which 28 (30.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 21 (23.1%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 13 (14.3%) had a female householder with no husband present, 13 (14.3%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 23 (25.3%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships , and 0 (0%) same-sex married couples or partnerships . 18 households (19.8%) were made up of individuals, and 1 (1.1%) had someone living alone who

5248-524: The province's ecological units to meet biodiversity needs. In the United States , from 2001, around a quarter of the federal forests are protected from logging. In December 2023, Biden's administration introduced a rule, according to which, logging is strongly limited in old growth forests, but permitted in "mature forests", representing a compromise between the logging industry and environmental activists. In 2006, Greenpeace identified that

5330-403: The railway trestles were destroyed by wildfire in 1945. Georgia-Pacific Corporation purchased the Samoa sawmill complex in 1956 and began operation of a plywood mill in 1958. A modern sawmill replaced the original sawmill facilities in 1964. A pulp mill began operation in 1965. Some of the older worker housing was razed during construction of modern mill facilities, but the Samoa Cookhouse

5412-401: The rate of logging of the old growths forests due to the companies owner, Charles Hurwitz , being in debt after purchasing Pacific Lumber company with junk bonds . Many think that the increase of logging was so Hurwitz could try and get out of his debt. Earth First! response was to start Redwood Summer expose the big logging companies, making legislation make stricter laws about the logging of

5494-607: The shade-tolerant species and regenerate the canopy species. In the boreal forest of Canada , catastrophic disturbances like wildfires minimize opportunities for major accumulations of dead and downed woody material and other structural legacies associated with old growth conditions. Typical characteristics of old-growth forest include the presence of older trees, minimal signs of human disturbance, mixed-age stands, presence of canopy openings due to tree falls, pit-and-mound topography , down wood in various stages of decay, standing snags (dead trees), multilayered canopies, intact soils ,

5576-462: The soil has shown old-growth forests are more productive at storing carbon than younger forests. Forest harvesting has little or no effect on the amount of carbon stored in the soil, but other research suggests older forests that have trees of many ages, multiple layers, and little disturbance have the highest capacities for carbon storage. As trees grow, they remove carbon from the atmosphere, and protecting these pools of carbon prevents emissions into

5658-516: The soil profile). Fungal ecosystems are essential for efficient in-situ recycling of nutrients back into the entire ecosystem. Stand age can also be used to categorize a forest as old-growth. For any given geographical area, the average time since disturbance until a forest reaches the old growth stage can be determined. This method is useful, because it allows quick and objective determination of forest stage. However, this definition does not provide an explanation of forest function. It just gives

5740-533: The summer of 1990, logging companies feared a new law passing in the upcoming November ballot that would make the restrictions tighter for logging practices of the old-growth forests. If Proposition 130 (Restrictions on Logging and Bonds for Forests) passed, it would mean that there would have been new restrictions on logging practices and sale of timber. It would have also authorized the sale of $ 742 million in bonds to acquire forestlands and for compensation of timber employees. The organizers of Earth First! predicted that

5822-544: The timber companies would increase their logging significantly in the summer in order to get as much timber as possible before the November 1990 ballot. Proposition 130 did not pass. The second incident began when the news of the Pacific Lumber Company being bought out by Maxxam Inc. was made public. After the company was purchased, they publicized their plan to increase their logging practices by doubling

5904-549: The understory reinitiation stage. The shade-tolerant trees eventually outcompete the main canopy trees in stem-exclusion stage. Therefore, the dominant tree species will change, but the forest will still be in stem-exclusion stage until the shade-tolerant species reach old-growth stage. Tree species succession may change tree species' composition once the old-growth stage has been achieved. For example, an old boreal forest may contain some large aspen trees, which may die and be replaced by smaller balsam fir or black spruce. Consequently,

5986-421: The workers threw eggs at them, spat on them, and verbally threaten them. Despite this, however, protestors also report that many of the loggers they encountered disagreed with them, but were respectful and friendly. Some employees also admitted to fearing their job security due to the clear cutting of trees because if there are no trees left to log, they don't have a job. Though more attention has been brought to

6068-471: The world has 1.11  billion   ha (2.7 billion acres) of primary forest remaining. Combined, three countries (Brazil, Canada, and Russia) host more than half (61 percent) of the world's primary forest. The area of primary forest has decreased by 81 million ha (200 million acres) since 1990, but the rate of loss more than halved in 2010–2020 compared with the previous decade. Old-growth forests are valuable for economic reasons and for

6150-500: The world's forests are primary forests. Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife habitats that increases the biodiversity of the forested ecosystem . Virgin or first-growth forests are old-growth forests that have never been logged. The concept of diverse tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters, and diverse tree species and classes and sizes of woody debris. As of 2020 ,

6232-413: The world's remaining intact forest landscapes are distributed among the continents as follows: [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​ , FAO, FAO. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

6314-480: Was 0%; the rental vacancy rate was 2.2%. 2 people (0.8% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 256 people (99.2%) lived in rental housing units. In the state legislature , Samoa is in the 2nd Senate District , represented by Democrat Mike McGuire , and the 2nd Assembly District , represented by Democrat Jim Wood . Federally, it is in California's 2nd congressional district , represented by Democrat Jared Huffman . In

6396-747: Was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84. There were 47 families (51.6% of all households); the average family size was 2.87. The population was spread out, with 47 people (18.2%) under the age of 18, 59 people (22.9%) aged 18 to 24, 96 people (37.2%) aged 25 to 44, 47 people (18.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 9 people (3.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 126.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 137.1 males. There were 98 housing units at an average density of 117.2 per square mile (45.3/km ), of which 91 were occupied, of which 1 (1.1%) were owner-occupied, and 90 (98.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate

6478-878: Was chartered in 1893 to connect the Samoa sawmill and associated worker housing facilities to the city of Arcata and timberlands near the Mad River. The Samoa sawmill was the largest in Humboldt County when purchased by Andrew B. Hammond in 1900. The Samoa post office opened in 1894. A sash and door factory was added to the mill complex by 1909, and the company was reorganized as the Hammond Lumber Company in 1912. Hammond Lumber Company built an emergency shipyard during World War I , and seven wooden steam-ships were built at Samoa between 1917 and 1919. The 1921–22 Belcher Atlas of Humboldt County breaks down private and commercial land ownership throughout

6560-463: Was preserved. The Samoa mill complex was transferred to Louisiana-Pacific Corporation during a Federal Trade Commission action initiated in 1972 The last old-growth timber was milled in 1980, and the area was set for sale in 2001. The coastal bar separating Humboldt Bay from the Pacific Ocean has been breached by a dredged channel to allow commercial shipping to enter the bay. The tips of

6642-498: Was similar to the harbor of Pago Pago in American Samoa , and the town was consequentially named Samoa. It was originally known as Brownsville, named for James D.H. Brown, who was the owner of a dairy ranch established in 1859. Prior to private settlement of the area, the north spit at the entrance to Humboldt Bay was used by a series of federal government projects including the 1851 to 1892 Humboldt Harbor Light ; in 1862,

6724-602: Was the first permanent white settler on the north peninsula of Humboldt Bay. He was born in Quincy, Illinois, in 1830 and came to Humboldt County in 1853, until a group of Eureka businessmen formed the Samoa Land and Improvement Company in 1889. Vance Lumber Company purchased the Humboldt Bay frontage from Samoa Land and Improvement Company for construction of a large sawmill in 1892. Eureka and Klamath River Railroad

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