Counterintelligence ( counter-intelligence ) or counterespionage ( counter-espionage ) is any activity aimed at protecting an agency's intelligence program from an opposition's intelligence service. It includes gathering information and conducting activities to prevent espionage , sabotage , assassinations or other intelligence activities conducted by, for, or on behalf of foreign powers, organizations or persons.
190-619: The Funkabwehr , "Radio Defense Corps," was a radio counterintelligence organization created in 1940 by Hans Kopp of the German Nazi Party High Command during World War II . It was the principal organization for the monitoring of illicit broadcasts. The formal name of the organization was Funkabwehr des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht ( German : Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, Wehrmachtnachrichtenverbindungen, Funküberwachung ) (OKW/WNV/FU). Its most notable breakthrough occurred on 26 June 1941, when tracing teams at
380-537: A computer monitor instead of a printer (though the term "TTY" is still occasionally used to refer to them, such as in Unix systems). Teleprinters are still widely used in the aviation industry (see AFTN and airline teletype system ), and variants called Telecommunications Devices for the Deaf (TDDs) are used by the hearing impaired for typed communications over ordinary telephone lines. The teleprinter evolved through
570-499: A printing telegraph system. Joy Morton needed to determine whether this was worthwhile and so consulted mechanical engineer Charles L. Krum , who was vice president of the Western Cold Storage Company. Krum was interested in helping Pearne, so space was set up in a laboratory in the attic of Western Cold Storage. Frank Pearne lost interest in the project after a year and left to get involved in teaching. Krum
760-486: A trained intuition possible connections and is trying to research them. Adding the new tools and techniques to [national arsenals], the counterintelligence community will seek to manipulate foreign spies, conduct aggressive investigations, make arrests and, where foreign officials are involved, expel them for engaging in practices inconsistent with their diplomatic status or exploit them as an unwitting channel for deception, or turn them into witting double agents. "Witting"
950-415: A "60 speed" machine is geared at 45.5 baud (22.0 ms per bit), a "66 speed" machine is geared at 50.0 baud (20.0 ms per bit), a "75 speed" machine is geared at 56.9 baud (17.5 ms per bit), a "100 speed" machine is geared at 74.2 baud (13.5 ms per bit), and a "133 speed" machine is geared at 100.0 baud (10.0 ms per bit). 60 speed became the de facto standard for amateur radio RTTY operation because of
1140-507: A "FLASH PRIORITY" tape into a reader while it was still coming out of the punch. Routine traffic often had to wait hours for relay. Many teleprinters had built-in paper tape readers and punches, allowing messages to be saved in machine-readable form and edited off-line . Communication by radio, known as radioteletype or RTTY (pronounced ritty ), was also common, especially among military users. Ships, command posts (mobile, stationary, and even airborne) and logistics units took advantage of
1330-574: A computer, and responses printed. Some teleprinter models could also be used to create punched tape for data storage (either from typed input or from data received from a remote source) and to read back such tape for local printing or transmission. A teleprinter attached to a modem could also communicate through telephone lines . This latter configuration was often used to connect teleprinters to remote computers, particularly in time-sharing environments. Teleprinters have largely been replaced by fully electronic computer terminals which typically have
1520-425: A current to displace the armature of an electromagnet, which moved a marker, therefore recording the breaks in the current. Cooke & Wheatstone received a British patent covering telegraphy in 1837 and a second one in 1840 which described a type-printing telegraph with steel type fixed at the tips of petals of a rotating brass daisy-wheel, struck by an "electric hammer" to print Roman letters through carbon paper onto
1710-547: A daily basis. The interdependence of the US counterintelligence community is also manifest in its relationships with liaison services. The counterintelligence community cannot cut off these relationships because of concern about security, but experience has shown that it must calculate the risks involved. On the other side of the CI coin, counterespionage has one purpose that transcends all others in importance: penetration. The emphasis which
1900-526: A different aspect of counterintelligence, such as domestic, international, and counter-terrorism. Some states will formalize it as part of the police structure, such as the United States' Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Others will establish independent bodies, such as the United Kingdom's MI5 , others have both intelligence and counterintelligence grouped under the same agency, like
2090-793: A different design of teleprinter. In 1944 Kleinschmidt demonstrated their lightweight unit to the Signal Corps and in 1949 their design was adopted for the Army's portable needs. In 1956, Kleinschmidt Labs merged with Smith-Corona , which then merged with the Marchant Calculating Machine Co. , forming the SCM Corporation. By 1979, the Kleinschmidt division was turning to Electronic Data Interchange and away from mechanical products. Kleinschmidt machines, with
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#17327971737182280-469: A drum. This sequence could also be transmitted automatically upon receipt of an ENQ (control E) signal, if enabled. This was commonly used to identify a station; the operator could press the key to send the station identifier to the other end, or the remote station could trigger its transmission by sending the ENQ character, essentially asking "who are you?" British Creed & Company built teleprinters for
2470-447: A few control characters, such as carriage return and line feed, have retained their original functions (although they are often implemented in software rather than activating electromechanical mechanisms to move a physical printer carriage) but many others are no longer required and are used for other purposes. Some teleprinters had a "Here is" key, which transmitted a fixed sequence of 20 or 22 characters, programmable by breaking tabs off
2660-613: A first step in which the prisoner is given the choice of co-operating or facing severe consequence up to and including a death sentence for espionage. Co-operation may consist of telling all one knows about the other service but preferably actively assisting in deceptive actions against the hostile service. Defensive counterintelligence specifically for intelligence services involves risk assessment of their culture, sources, methods and resources. Risk management must constantly reflect those assessments, since effective intelligence operations are often risk-taking. Even while taking calculated risks,
2850-418: A form of punched tape . The last Silent 700 was the 1987 700/1200 BPS, which was sold into the early 1990s. A global teleprinter network called Telex was developed in the late 1920s, and was used through most of the 20th century for business communications. The main difference from a standard teleprinter is that Telex includes a switched routing network, originally based on pulse-telephone dialing, which in
3040-462: A function of the central office which received traffic and wireless telegraphy intercept material from the Aussenstellen and to some extent direct from the intercept companies, and kept records and case histories which were presumably more or less duplicates of those compiled at the Aussenstellen. Task allocation appears to have been carried out by both the Aussenstellen and headquarters, though
3230-629: A group opposing a recognized government by criminal or military means, as well as conducting clandestine intelligence and covert operations against the government in question, which could be one's own or a friendly one. Counterintelligence and counterterrorism analyses provide strategic assessments of foreign intelligence and terrorist groups and prepare tactical options for ongoing operations and investigations. Counterespionage may involve proactive acts against foreign intelligence services, such as double agents , deception , or recruiting foreign intelligence officers. While clandestine HUMINT sources can give
3420-515: A key role in providing indications and warning of terrorist and other force protection threats. Teleprinter A teleprinter ( teletypewriter , teletype or TTY ) is an electromechanical device that can be used to send and receive typed messages through various communications channels, in both point-to-point and point-to-multipoint configurations. Initially, from 1887 at the earliest, teleprinters were used in telegraphy . Electrical telegraphy had been developed decades earlier in
3610-470: A keyboard, replaced two trained Morse code operators. The teleprinter system improved message speed and delivery time, making it possible for messages to be flashed across a country with little manual intervention. There were a number of parallel developments on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In 1835 Samuel Morse devised a recording telegraph, and Morse code was born. Morse's instrument used
3800-597: A law enforcement framework. In France, a senior anti-terror magistrate is in charge of defense against terrorism. French magistrates have multiple functions that overlap US and UK functions of investigators, prosecutors, and judges. An anti-terror magistrate may call upon France's domestic intelligence service Direction générale de la sécurité intérieure (DGSI), which may work with the Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure (DGSE), foreign intelligence service. Spain gives its Interior Ministry, with military support,
3990-415: A letter of the alphabet and when pressed caused the corresponding letter to print at the receiving end. A "shift" key gave each main key two optional values. A 56-character typewheel at the sending end was synchronised to coincide with a similar wheel at the receiving end. If the key corresponding to a particular character was pressed at the home station, it actuated the typewheel at the distant station just as
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#17327971737184180-469: A long-range DF platoon ( German : Fenfeldzug ) and a short-range DF platoon ( German : Nahfeldzug ). Each short range DF platoon contained five sections, each of two DF cars. Including administrative staff, the total strength of each company was about 130 including command. After the Armistice of Cassibile , Company No. 1 became responsible for Italy, while retaining part of its sphere of activity in
4370-612: A mobile basis ( German : Verbindungsorgane ) but otherwise continued to carry out their former duties. The duties of the Offizier für Funkabwehr were unchanged by the reorganisation. In the autumn of 1944, all intercept companies of the WNV/FU III were organised into a regiment called the Supervisory ( German : Überwachungs ) Regiment, that was part of OKW . The regiment was under the command of an Oberstleutnant de Bary,
4560-423: A moving paper tape. In 1841 Alexander Bain devised an electromagnetic printing telegraph machine. It used pulses of electricity created by rotating a dial over contact points to release and stop a type-wheel turned by weight-driven clockwork; a second clockwork mechanism rotated a drum covered with a sheet of paper and moved it slowly upwards so that the type-wheel printed its signals in a spiral. The critical issue
4750-588: A paper ribbon, which was then cut and glued into telegram forms. Siemens & Halske , later Siemens , a German company, founded in 1847. The Teletype Corporation , a part of American Telephone and Telegraph Company 's Western Electric manufacturing arm since 1930, was founded in 1906 as the Morkrum Company. In 1925, a merger between Morkrum and Kleinschmidt Electric Company created the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Company. The name
4940-487: A paper tape punch ("reperforator") was installed at subscriber newspaper sites. Originally these machines would simply punch paper tapes and these tapes could be read by a tape reader attached to a "Teletypesetter operating unit" installed on a Linotype machine . The "operating unit" was essentially a tape reader which actuated a mechanical box, which in turn operated the Linotype's keyboard and other controls, in response to
5130-652: A particular radio transmitter as one used only by a particular country, detecting that transmitter inside one's own country suggests the presence of a spy that counterintelligence should target. In particular, counterintelligence has a significant relationship with the collection discipline of HUMINT and at least some relationship with the others. Counterintelligence can both produce information and protect it. All US departments and agencies with intelligence functions are responsible for their own security abroad, except those that fall under Chief of Mission authority. Governments try to protect three things: In many governments,
5320-566: A patent. In 1924 Britain's Creed & Company , founded by Frederick G. Creed , entered the teleprinter field with their Model 1P, a page printer, which was soon superseded by the improved Model 2P. In 1925 Creed acquired the patents for Donald Murray's Murray code, a rationalised Baudot code. The Model 3 tape printer, Creed’s first combined start-stop machine, was introduced in 1927 for the Post Office telegram service. This machine printed received messages directly on to gummed paper tape at
5510-588: A position to issue directions through its chief to the signals organisations of each of the services. In the cases of the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe , this power of direction was practically ineffective. In the case of the Army, there was closer coordination since the chief of the WNV combined this post with that of the chief of the army signals service of HNW ( German : Heeresnachrichtenwesen ) This position
5700-514: A print head, very similar to the 14 elements on a modern fourteen-segment display , each one selected independently by one of the 14 bits during transmission. Because it does not use a fixed character set, but instead builds up characters from smaller elements, the ETK printing element does not require modification to switch between Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek characters. In 1931, American inventor Edward Kleinschmidt formed Kleinschmidt Labs to pursue
5890-842: A printing telegraph with the Postal Telegraph Company in Boston and New York in 1910. It became popular with railroads, and the Associated Press adopted it in 1914 for their wire service . Morkrum merged with their competitor Kleinschmidt Electric Company to become Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Corporation shortly before being renamed the Teletype Corporation. Italian office equipment maker Olivetti (est. 1908) started to manufacture teleprinters in order to provide Italian post offices with modern equipment to send and receive telegrams. The first models typed on
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6080-581: A rate of 65 words per minute. Creed created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals on to paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System, which could run at an unprecedented 200 words per minute. His system
6270-547: A receiving teleprinter to cycle continuously, even in the absence of stop bits. It prints nothing because the characters received are all zeros, the ITA2 blank (or ASCII ) null character . Teleprinter circuits were generally leased from a communications common carrier and consisted of ordinary telephone cables that extended from the teleprinter located at the customer location to the common carrier central office . These teleprinter circuits were connected to switching equipment at
6460-530: A reperforator could be used to make a perforated copy of the message. As there was no longer a direct correlation between the operator's hand movement and the bits transmitted, there was no concern about arranging the code to minimize operator fatigue, and instead Murray designed the code to minimize wear on the machinery, assigning the code combinations with the fewest punched holes to the most frequently used characters . The Murray code also introduced what became known as "format effectors" or " control characters " –
6650-546: A result, the National Anti-Terrorism Coordination Center was created. Spain's 3/11 Commission called for this center to do operational coordination as well as information collection and dissemination. The military has organic counterintelligence to meet specific military needs. Frank Wisner , a well-known CIA operations executive said of the autobiography of Director of Central Intelligence Allen W. Dulles , that Dulles "disposes of
6840-428: A series of inventions by a number of engineers, including Samuel Morse , Alexander Bain , Royal Earl House , David Edward Hughes , Emile Baudot , Donald Murray , Charles L. Krum , Edward Kleinschmidt and Frederick G. Creed . Teleprinters were invented in order to send and receive messages without the need for operators trained in the use of Morse code. A system of two teleprinters, with one operator trained to use
7030-538: A small intercept station under its control. It was established in April 1943 to combat the resistance movement in southern France and was at first known as Sonderkommando A.S ( Armée secrète ). It was essentially a mobile unit and visited numerous placed in southern France, principally Marseilles and Lyons , until it finally settled in Lyons. It appears to have carried out most of the normal functions of an Aussenstelle and
7220-401: A teleprinter is a simple series DC circuit that is interrupted, much as a rotary dial interrupts a telephone signal. The marking condition is when the circuit is closed (current is flowing), the spacing condition is when the circuit is open (no current is flowing). The "idle" condition of the circuit is a continuous marking state, with the start of a character signalled by a "start bit", which
7410-511: A time if properly lubricated. The Model 15 stands out as one of a few machines that remained in production for many years. It was introduced in 1930 and remained in production until 1963, a total of 33 years of continuous production. Very few complex machines can match that record. The production run was stretched somewhat by World War II—the Model 28 was scheduled to replace the Model 15 in the mid-1940s, but Teletype built so many factories to produce
7600-813: A warrant, etc. The Russian Federation 's major domestic security organization is the FSB , which principally came from the Second Chief Directorate and Third Chief Directorate of the USSR's KGB . Canada separates the functions of general defensive counterintelligence ( contre-ingérence ), security intelligence (the intelligence preparation necessary to conduct offensive counterintelligence), law enforcement intelligence, and offensive counterintelligence. Military organizations have their own counterintelligence forces, capable of conducting protective operations both at home and when deployed abroad. Depending on
7790-520: A whole and that it was only the intercept personnel ( German : Überwachungstäbe ) which were primarily concerned with intercept work. The proportion which this represented of the work of the Aussenstellen varied from case to case, though by the time that the Radio Surveillance Departments ( German : Funküberwachungsabteilungen ) were created they appear to have been almost exclusively engaged in these duties. FU/III provided
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7980-492: A wide range of functions, certainly including military or counterintelligence activities, but also humanitarian aid and aid to development ("nation building"). Terminology here is still emerging, and "transnational group" could include not only terrorist groups but also transnational criminal organization. Transnational criminal organizations include the drug trade, money laundering, extortion targeted against computer or communications systems, smuggling, etc. "Insurgent" could be
8170-466: Is a term of intelligence art that indicates that one is not only aware of a fact or piece of information but also aware of its connection to intelligence activities. Victor Suvorov , the pseudonym of a former Soviet military intelligence ( GRU ) officer, makes the point that a defecting HUMINT officer is a special threat to walk-in or other volunteer assets of the country that he is leaving. Volunteers who are "warmly welcomed" do not take into consideration
8360-428: Is active measures against those hostile services. This is often called counterespionage : measures taken to detect enemy espionage or physical attacks against friendly intelligence services, prevent damage and information loss, and, where possible, to turn the attempt back against its originator. Counterespionage goes beyond being reactive and actively tries to subvert hostile intelligence service, by recruiting agents in
8550-412: Is always a space. Following the start bit, the character is represented by a fixed number of bits, such as 5 bits in the ITA2 code, each either a mark or a space to denote the specific character or machine function. After the character's bits, the sending machine sends one or more stop bits. The stop bits are marking, so as to be distinct from the subsequent start bit. If the sender has nothing more to send,
8740-410: Is an established term of art in the counterintelligence community, and, in today's world, "foreign" is shorthand for "opposing." Opposition might indeed be a country, but it could be a transnational group or an internal insurgent group. Operations against a FIS might be against one's own nation, or another friendly nation. The range of actions that might be done to support a friendly government can include
8930-467: Is essential. Accordingly, each counterintelligence organization will validate the reliability of sources and methods that relate to the counterintelligence mission in accordance with common standards. For other mission areas, the USIC will examine collection, analysis, dissemination practices, and other intelligence activities and will recommend improvements, best practices, and common standards. Intelligence
9120-548: Is much older than the Kleinschmidt and Morkrum inventions. It was already proposed by D'Arlincourt in 1870. Instead of wasting time and money in patent disputes on the start-stop method, Kleinschmidt and the Morkrum Company decided to merge and form the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Company in 1924. The new company combined the best features of both their machines into a new typewheel printer for which Kleinschmidt, Howard Krum, and Sterling Morton jointly obtained
9310-570: Is penetrated. A high-level defector can also do this, but the adversary knows that he defected and within limits can take remedial action. Conducting CE without the aid of penetrations is like fighting in the dark. Conducting CE with penetrations can be like shooting fish in a barrel . In the British service, the cases of the Cambridge Five , and the later suspicions about MI5 chief Sir Roger Hollis caused great internal dissension. Clearly,
9500-456: Is present. Selective fading causes the mark signal amplitude to be randomly different from the space signal amplitude. Selective fading, or Rayleigh fading can cause two carriers to randomly and independently fade to different depths. Since modern computer equipment cannot easily generate 1.42 bits for the stop period, common practice is to either approximate this with 1.5 bits, or to send 2.0 bits while accepting 1.0 bits receiving. For example,
9690-480: Is really specific to countering HUMINT , but, since virtually all offensive counterintelligence involves exploiting human sources, the term "offensive counterintelligence" is used here to avoid some ambiguous phrasing. Other countries also deal with the proper organization of defenses against Foreign Intelligence Services (FIS), often with separate services with no common authority below the head of government. France , for example, builds its domestic counterterror in
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#17327971737189880-415: Is the focus of Project Slammer. Without undue violations of personal privacy, systems can be developed to spot anomalous behavior, especially in the use of information systems. Decision makers require intelligence free from hostile control or manipulation. Since every intelligence discipline is subject to manipulation by our adversaries, validating the reliability of intelligence from all collection platforms
10070-460: Is thwarting efforts by hostile intelligence services to penetrate the service. Offensive counterintelligence is having identified an opponent's efforts against the system, trying to manipulate these attacks by either "turning" the opponent's agents into double agents or feeding them false information to report. Many governments organize counterintelligence agencies separately and distinct from their intelligence collection services. In most countries
10260-436: Is usually one of several belonging to a more or less large espionage organisation. The moment a clandestine transmitter sends treasonable traffic, it becomes an underground station. A method of discovering a secret agent and clandestine traffic according to radio intercept procedure, and fishing it out of the mass of regular traffic was only possible when every intercept operator, or at least every analysis station, had access to
10450-705: Is vulnerable not only to external but also to internal threats. Subversion, treason, and leaks expose vulnerabilities, governmental and commercial secrets, and intelligence sources and methods. The insider threat has been a source of extraordinary damage to US national security, as with Aldrich Ames , Robert Hanssen , and Edward Lee Howard , all of whom had access to major clandestine activities. Had an electronic system to detect anomalies in browsing through counterintelligence files been in place, Robert Hanssen 's searches for suspicion of activities of his Soviet (and later Russian) paymasters might have surfaced early. Anomalies might simply show that an especially-creative analyst has
10640-591: The Boers , the British government authorized the formation of a new intelligence section in the War Office , MO3 (subsequently redesignated MO5) headed by Melville, in 1903. Working under-cover from a flat in London, Melville ran both counterintelligence and foreign intelligence operations, capitalizing on the knowledge and foreign contacts he had accumulated during his years running Special Branch . Due to its success,
10830-576: The CR (Carriage Return) and LF (Line Feed) codes. A few of Baudot's codes moved to the positions where they have stayed ever since: the NULL or BLANK and the DEL code. NULL/BLANK was used as an idle code for when no messages were being sent. In the United States in 1902, electrical engineer Frank Pearne approached Joy Morton , head of Morton Salt , seeking a sponsor for research into the practicalities of developing
11020-688: The Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS). Modern tactics of espionage and dedicated government intelligence agencies developed over the course of the late-19th century. A key background to this development was the Great Game – the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire throughout Central Asia between 1830 and 1895. To counter Russian ambitions in
11210-593: The GPO 's teleprinter service. The Gretag ETK-47 teleprinter developed in Switzerland by Edgar Gretener in 1947 uses a 14-bit start-stop transmission method similar to the 5-bit code used by other teleprinters. However, instead of a more-or-less arbitrary mapping between 5-bit codes and letters in the Latin alphabet , all characters (letters, digits, and punctuation) printed by the ETK are built from 14 basic elements on
11400-534: The Gestapo . This liaison appears to have worked sufficiently well for normal operational purposes. The commander of Abwehr Leistelle III West stated that relations between their units and local units of the WNV/FU III were always very close and that valuable assistance had been given and received by both sides. However, the degree of cordiality and confidence involved varied considerably with personalities and in many cases mutual distrust between offices prevented all but
11590-705: The Gruppenleiter and executive chief of WNV/FU III. This change was exactly parallel to the formation slightly earlier of the Nachrichten Regiment 506 under Major Poretschkin to include the whole of the signals staff of the Mill.Amt. of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA). Both were purely administrative changes and the command, deployment and duties of the intercept companies was in no way affected. The intercept organisation of
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#173279717371811780-700: The Luftwaffe Intercept Companies of WNV/FU III on the Balkans and Italy , and these probably came under the control of the Officer for Radio Control Eastern Europe. The branch offices were quite independent of the Offizier für Funkabwehr, although they exercised operation control of the Intercept Companies. The Offizier für Funkabwehr were in fact, HQ administrative officers who dealt with the daily administration and supply to
11970-601: The Mechanics Institute in New York in 1844. Landline teleprinter operations began in 1849, when a circuit was put in service between Philadelphia and New York City. In 1855, David Edward Hughes introduced an improved machine built on the work of Royal Earl House. In less than two years, a number of small telegraph companies, including Western Union in early stages of development, united to form one large corporation – Western Union Telegraph Co. – to carry on
12160-670: The Russian Empire , was also tasked with countering enemy espionage. Its main concern was the activities of revolutionaries, who often worked and plotted subversive actions from abroad. It set up a branch in Paris , run by Pyotr Rachkovsky , to monitor their activities. The agency used many methods to achieve its goals, including covert operations , undercover agents , and "perlustration"—the interception and reading of private correspondence. The Okhrana became notorious for its use of agents provocateurs , who often succeeded in penetrating
12350-607: The WNV/Chi . This department was primarily concerned with the provision of ciphers for the OKW and deciphering of political and diplomatic material, for the latter purpose it controlled its own long-range intercept stations. It did not, however, have any special section set aside for clandestine traffic and, during the first two years of the war, although it received material intercepted by WNV/FU, this appears to have received scant attention and results were negligible. This state of affairs led
12540-411: The 1975 Model 745 and 1983 Model 707 were even small enough to be sold as portable units. Certain models came with acoustic couplers and some had internal storage, initially cassette tape in the 1973 Models 732/733 ASR and later bubble memory in the 1977 Models 763/765, the first and one of the few commercial products to use the technology. In these units their storage capability essentially acted as
12730-486: The 5 bit ITA2 code and generally worked at 60 to 100 words per minute. Later teleprinters, specifically the Teletype Model 33 , used ASCII code, an innovation that came into widespread use in the 1960s as computers became more widely available. "Speed", intended to be roughly comparable to words per minute , is the standard term introduced by Western Union for a mechanical teleprinter data transmission rate using
12920-787: The 5-bit Baudot code and the much later seven-bit ASCII code, there was a six-bit code known as the Teletypesetter code (TTS) used by news wire services. It was first demonstrated in 1928 and began to see widespread use in the 1950s. Through the use of "shift in" and "shift out" codes, this six-bit code could represent a full set of upper and lower case characters, digits, symbols commonly used in newspapers, and typesetting instructions such as "flush left" or "center", and even "auxiliary font", to switch to italics or bold type, and back to roman ("upper rail"). The TTS produces aligned text, taking into consideration character widths and column width, or line length. A Model 20 Teletype machine with
13110-399: The 5-bit ITA2 code that was popular in the 1940s and for several decades thereafter. Such a machine would send 1 start bit, 5 data bits, and 1.42 stop bits. This unusual stop bit time is actually a rest period to allow the mechanical printing mechanism to synchronize in the event that a garbled signal is received. This is true especially on high frequency radio circuits where selective fading
13300-587: The 9th (dolmetscher) Company of the Heer and Luftwaffe Signals School in Halle . In early 1941, the whole school moved to Leipzig where it was attached to ( German : Nachrichtenlehrregiment ) and at the same time, the 9th company was expanded to form the 9th and 10th companies. In May of the same year, the two companies were transferred to Meissen and later reorganised into three companies called ( German : Nachrichtendolmetscherersatzabteilung ). This rapid expansion
13490-431: The Aussenstellen of WNV/FU III. Previously all traffic had been forwarded by a roundabout route from intercept units through Aussenstellen and headquarters Auswertung to Referat 12. In the case of traffic that was being currently read this imposed great delays when the solved message might be locally of immediate operational value. To counter this, cryptographers were first sent to Aussenstelle Paris to solve such traffic on
13680-529: The Aussenstellen appears to have been deliberately undertaken to avoid the loss of time involved in handling all material in Berlin. A second advantage was that the personnel of the Aussenstellen could gain a far clearer and more detailed understanding of the local C.E. position and so were better placed to coordinate the work of the intercept units with Abwehr III and the other security services in their areas. The allotment of numbers to commitments remained throughout
13870-797: The Balkans and part of the eastern front. A distinct central discrimination and control centre was at the same time established by the Orpo in Berlin-Spandau , the chief of which was responsible to the Chief Signals Officer, Orpo and from then on the theoretical independence of the two organisations was complete. Co-ordination was maintained by a Joint Signals Board in Berlin, under the chairmanship of Chef WNV, Erich Fellgiebel , which dealt with matters of general organisation. It would appear that in practice, however, reasonably close liaison
14060-540: The Balkans. This necessitated the creation of a new short-range D/F platoon and additions to the long-range intercept and DF strength. Intercept stations were established at Recoaro Terme and Treviso where there was also a long-range DF unit. The short-range DF platoon was split into two squads, one being maintained at Rome until the evacuation, the other in Venice and Treviso areas. Counterintelligence Many countries will have multiple organizations focusing on
14250-567: The British were penetrated by Philby, but it has never been determined, in any public forum, if there were other serious penetrations. In the US service, there was also significant disruption over the contradictory accusations about moles from defectors Anatoliy Golitsyn and Yuri Nosenko , and their respective supporters in CIA and the British Security Service (MI5) . Golitsyn was generally believed by Angleton. George Kisevalter ,
14440-695: The CIA operations officer that was the CIA side of the joint US-UK handling of Oleg Penkovsky , did not believe Angleton's theory that Nosenko was a KGB plant. Nosenko had exposed John Vassall , a KGB asset principally in the British Admiralty, but there were arguments Vassall was a KGB sacrifice to protect other operations, including Nosenko and a possibly more valuable source on the Royal Navy. Defensive counterintelligence starts by looking for places in one's own organization that could easily be exploited by foreign intelligence services (FIS). FIS
14630-510: The DF bearings supplied by the DF stations. Rosters were also submitted that enabled the unit to work on the most advantageous possible allocation of frequencies. The DF Plotting and evaluation section handled the assignment of frequencies in the roster. In this way, the DF stations who were in the best geographic and technical position to take bearings on a given transmitter, were assigned the job, and could be checked as to whether they had accomplished
14820-566: The East and South East. There were established in a progressive manner, with Paris being established in 1940, Brussels in September 1943. The stations in Paris and Vienna were considered control centres ( German : Leitstellen ) for the branch control centres, the Aussenstellen, within their areas. In a number of cases, the location of the Aussenstellen were moved in conformity with the withdrawal of
15010-687: The Funkabwehr station at Zelenogradsk discovered the Rote Kapelle , an anti-Nazi resistance movement in Berlin and two Soviet espionage rings operating in German-occupied Europe and Switzerland during World War II. The Funkabwehr was dissolved on 30 April 1945. The Radio Defense Corps of the OKW was given the task of picking up and locating by Direction finding (DF) transmitters of secret agents , and other clandestine 'underground' transmitters. An underground transmitter
15200-612: The Funkabwehr. The Aussenleitstellen in Paris and Vienna were reorganised into mobile units and were renamed to ( German : Funküberwachungsabteilung I ) or Wireless Surveillance Department, for the western unit, unit II for the south-east. The Warsaw unit was converted into Fünkuverwachungs Abt III, covering the east. Each Fünkuverwachungs Abt was directly subordinated to the ( German : Höherer Nachrichtenführer ) (C.S.O), Intelligence HQ, of their respective commands, but in all other respects their status and functions remained unchanged. The remaining Aussenstellen were similarly reorganised on
15390-542: The Funkmessstelle whose liaison was restricted to the Sicherheitspolizei . During the year 1943, the Orpo established complete independence of the control of the OKW and this resulted in a fairly strict geographical division of responsibility between the intercept services of the police and those of the OKW. WNV/FU III assumed responsibility for northern France, Belgium, and southern Netherlands, Italy,
15580-474: The German armed forces, as the war progressed. Responsibility for the Intercept Companies was subordinated to the Officer for Radio Control West Europe( German : Offizier für Funkabwehr West-Europa ) in the western theatre and for the eastern front, Officer for Radio Control Eastern Europe ( German : Offizier für Funkabwehr Ost-Europa ). There does not appear to have been an equivalent post in connection with
15770-775: The Government Committee on Intelligence, with support from Richard Haldane and Winston Churchill , established the Secret Service Bureau in 1909 as a joint initiative of the Admiralty , the War Office and the Foreign Office to control secret intelligence operations in the UK and overseas, particularly concentrating on the activities of the Imperial German government. Its first director
15960-640: The Gruppenleiter Major von Bary, there was separate administrative and discrimination sections for both the east and the west. A parallel division was made maintained in the cryptographic work of the Referat Vauck. The administrative and executive control of the intercept units in their respective zones was the responsibility of the two Offizier für Funkabwehr, who were subordinated to the Gruppenleiter. Their offices and staffs were at
16150-409: The Intercept Companies, while the Aussenstellen, or branch offices acted as independent staffs for intelligence and liaison and to some extent for discrimination and cryptography, receiving intelligence from the intercept units and issuing commitments to them, but not holding executive control over them. The final reorganisation occurred during the summer of 1944, when the prospect of Allied invasion in
16340-487: The KGB places on penetration is evident in the cases already discussed from the defensive or security viewpoint. The best security system in the world cannot provide an adequate defense against it because the technique involves people. The only way to be sure that an enemy has been contained is to know his plans in advance and in detail. Moreover, only a high-level penetration of the opposition can tell you whether your own service
16530-581: The Model 15 during World War II, it was more economical to continue mass production of the Model 15. The Model 15, in its receive only, no keyboard, version was the classic "news Teletype" for decades. Several different high-speed printers like the "Ink-tronic" etc. Texas Instruments developed its own line of teletypes in 1971, the Silent 700 . Their name came from the use of a thermal printer head to emit copy, making them substantially quieter than contemporary teletypes using impact printing , and some such as
16720-626: The Morkrum Printing Telegraph. In 1916, Edward Kleinschmidt filed a patent application for a typebar page printer. In 1919, shortly after the Morkrum company obtained their patent for a start-stop synchronizing method for code telegraph systems, which made possible the practical teleprinter, Kleinschmidt filed an application titled "Method of and Apparatus for Operating Printing Telegraphs" which included an improved start-stop method. The basic start-stop procedure, however,
16910-614: The Netherlands, Norway and the Eastern Front. The Orpo Companies were known as police radio reconnaissance Companies ( German : Polizei-Funkaufklärungskompanien ). For administration and discipline Orpo intercept units came under the local C.S.O. of the Orpo. Operationally, they were controlled by the evaluation centre of the WNV/FU III in Berlin, though the Police Radio Control Centre in Berlin, that
17100-425: The Officer for Radio Control presumably maintained contact with this department. The Offizier für Funkabwehr did not have any responsibility for the central Auswertung or discrimination section or for the Aussenstellen, though they presumably maintained fairly close contact with the officers in charge of these. The Auswertung had a single chief but was organised into east and west sections. These were responsible for
17290-589: The Orpo Intercept service took place during 1943. The post office work of the Radio Control Centre at Berlin was expanded into an independent discrimination and control centre known as the German : Funkmessleitstelle Berlin. This nevertheless continued to cooperate closely with the WNV/FU III and, through the latter, with the cryptographers of Referat Vauck that was run by Wilhelm Vauck . At
17480-521: The Orpo company and arranged cooperation for it from the fighting forces. While relations did not appear to have been too happy, Norway seemed to be the one area in which something approaching a single joint intercept service under police predominance was established. On both the western and eastern fronts, however, the Orpo units operated quite independently of the Aussenstellen, while in the eastern theatre, they maintained close contact in dealing with partisan traffic with KONA 6 . The main reorganisation of
17670-661: The Orpo developed along similar lines to those taken by units directly controlled by WNV/FU III. At the outbreak of the war, the Orpo controlled six small intercept and four DF stations in the Reich. This organisation was expanded rapidly with the increase of the German-occupied territory. The first Orpo intercept unit moved into Norway in May 1940, and into the Netherlands shortly afterwards, expansion into France, Poland, and
17860-400: The Orpo intercept units almost exactly the same function as the Aussenstellen did for the OKW, except that the Funkmessstelle were in direct command of their subordinate units and there was not in the Orpo organisation any equivalent of the Officer for Radio Control in WNV/FU III. The HQ of the WNV/FU III appeared to have two primary roles. The roles were executive and administrative control of
18050-483: The Radio Communication Group 3 of AgWNV, was the principal German unit dealing with signals security, the interception of clandestine traffic and the location, by technical means, of agents' transmitters. The WNV/FU ( German : Wehrmachtnachrichtenverbindungen/Funkwesen ) formed the wireless department of the signals directorate of the OKW. As a department of the OKW, the WNV was theoretically in
18240-622: The Soviet Union followed later. These first units were extremely small, the unit that was sent to Norway consisted of initially three men only, while in November 1941, the Orpo station in Netherlands consisted of no more than four intercept banks, but expansion was fairly rapid and by 1943, each Orpo company approximated the size of the OKW Intercept Company. Three companies existed by this time covering respectively France and
18430-540: The TWX service was provided by the same telephone central office that handled voice calls, using class of service to prevent POTS customers from connecting to TWX customers. Telex is still in use in some countries for certain applications such as shipping, news, weather reporting and military command. Many business applications have moved to the Internet as most countries have discontinued telex/TWX services. In addition to
18620-537: The Teletype Corporation ceased in 1990, bringing to a close the dedicated teleprinter business. Despite its long-lasting trademark status, the word Teletype went into common generic usage in the news and telecommunications industries. Records of the United States Patent and Trademark Office indicate the trademark has expired and is considered dead. Teletype machines tended to be large, heavy, and extremely robust, capable of running non-stop for months at
18810-410: The United States was provided by Western Union. AT&T developed a competing network called " TWX " which initially also used rotary dialing and Baudot code, carried to the customer premises as pulses of DC on a metallic copper pair. TWX later added a second ASCII-based service using Bell 103 type modems served over lines whose physical interface was identical to regular telephone lines. In many cases,
19000-488: The WNV/FU III and the army intercept service. The intercept service provided the bulk of the personnel for the WNV/FU II and also did a certain amount of operational work on behalf of this organisation in the case of agent transmitters in the operational areas. The division of responsibility between the intercept service and the WNV/FU III in respect of traffic of partisans and saboteurs was not clearly defined, but in general
19190-550: The ability of operators to send reliable and accurate information with a minimum of training. Amateur radio operators continue to use this mode of communication today, though most use computer-interface sound generators, rather than legacy hardware teleprinter equipment. Numerous modes are in use within the "ham radio" community, from the original ITA2 format to more modern, faster modes, which include error-checking of characters. A typewriter or electromechanical printer can print characters on paper, and execute operations such as move
19380-801: The actions of the Pan-Slavist movement operating out of Serbia . After the fallout from the Dreyfus affair of 1894–1906 in France, responsibility for French military counter-espionage passed in 1899 to the Sûreté générale —an agency originally responsible for order enforcement and public safety—and overseen by the Ministry of the Interior . The Okhrana initially formed in 1880 to combat political terrorism and left-wing revolutionary activity throughout
19570-620: The activities of revolutionary groups – including the Bolsheviks . Integrated counterintelligence agencies run directly by governments were also established. The British government founded the Secret Service Bureau in 1909 as the first independent and interdepartmental agency fully in control over all government counterintelligence activities. Due to intense lobbying from William Melville and after he obtained German mobilization plans and proof of their financial support to
19760-492: The appropriate section of Referat Vauck. This department was located close to WNV/FU III and cooperation between the two staffs appeared to be intimate. Referat Vauck gave considerable assistance in analysing changing Call sign and QRX systems and similar coded W/T procedures. Details of all W/T communications other than those the army were passed to the Auswertung for discrimination purposes. The headquarters of WNV/FU III
19950-462: The army. In the spring of 1942 however, a new special section was established as Referat 12 in In 7/VI to handle agent traffic. This development coincided with the posting to In 7/VI of Oberleutnant Wilhelm Vauck , a cryptanalyst of great ability, who became Director of the new Referat 12. From this time onwards, Referat 12 worked in close contact with WNV/FU III and handled all the traffic intercepted by
20140-637: The autumn of 1943, the headquarters moved to Dorf Zinna . The final movements of the department are somewhat confused. It appears to have been transferred to Halle at the beginning of 1945 and later south Germany. There are reports of the remnants of units subordinated to Major von Wedel at Lake Constance . Throughout all these moves FU/III was accompanied by the cryptographers of Referat Vauck both in Inspectorate In 7/VI as Referat 12 and in OKW/CHI as Referat X. The Aussenstellen represented WNV/FU as
20330-538: The business of telegraphy on the Hughes system. In France, Émile Baudot designed in 1874 a system using a five-unit code, which began to be used extensively in that country from 1877. The British Post Office adopted the Baudot system for use on a simplex circuit between London and Paris in 1897, and subsequently made considerable use of duplex Baudot systems on their Inland Telegraph Services. During 1901, Baudot's code
20520-462: The carriage back to the left margin of the same line ( carriage return ), advance to the same column of the next line ( line feed ), and so on. Commands to control non-printing operations were transmitted in exactly the same way as printable characters by sending control characters with defined functions (e.g., the line feed character forced the carriage to move to the same position on the next line) to teleprinters. In modern computing and communications
20710-511: The central discrimination of all signals and traffic forwarded by the Aussenstellen, the intercept units and the Orpo Funkmessleitstelle. This work included the allotment of numbers to transmissions frequencies covered, allocation of tasks and control of the fixed D/F network for which a separate section existed. Central records and case histories of all commitments were maintained and the Auswertung passed all traffic received to
20900-413: The central headquarters, but they spent a considerable portion of their time visiting the units they were in command of. Their main duties consisted in the provision of personnel and equipment for the companies. FU/III had no equipment depot or workshops of its own, all equipment being drawn from FU/II which formed the central body for all provision of equipment to all departments of WNV/FU. For this purpose
21090-488: The central office for Telex and TWX service. Private line teleprinter circuits were not directly connected to switching equipment. Instead, these private line circuits were connected to network hubs and repeaters configured to provide point to point or point to multipoint service. More than two teleprinters could be connected to the same wire circuit by means of a current loop . Earlier teleprinters had three rows of keys and only supported upper case letters. They used
21280-594: The code had been betrayed. Final analysts had the duty of: Every month the Final Analysis section of the Funkabwehr forwarded a report to the High Command. During the last period of the war, the report was divided for security reasons into a report on the situation in the east, and a report on the west. The OKW/WFSt/WNV/FU III ( German : Oberkommando der Wehrmacht/Wehrmachtführungsstab/Amtsgruppe Wehrmachtnachrichtenverbindungen/Funkwesen III/Funkabwehr ),
21470-480: The colonial rivalries between the major European powers and to the accelerating development of military technology. As espionage became more widely used, it became imperative to expand the role of existing police and internal security forces into a role of detecting and countering foreign spies. The Evidenzbureau (founded in the Austrian Empire in 1850) had the role from the late-19th century of countering
21660-487: The control of WNV/FU III. They continued to carry their former intercept company numbers. Five such companies were formed, two being created initially in early 1942 from the Luftwaffe intercept service to cover the Balkans . These radio monitoring ( German : Funküberwachungs ) companies formed the principal operational resources of the Funkabwher. These were geographically placed as follows: Operational control of
21850-644: The counterintelligence mission is spread over multiple organizations, though one usually predominates. There is usually a domestic counterintelligence service, usually part of a larger law enforcement organization such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the United States . The United Kingdom has the separate Security Service , also known as MI5, which does not have direct police powers but works closely with law enforcement especially Special Branch that can carry out arrests, do searches with
22040-513: The country, there can be various mixtures of civilian and military in foreign operations. For example, while offensive counterintelligence is a mission of the US CIA 's National Clandestine Service , defensive counterintelligence is a mission of the U.S. Diplomatic Security Service (DSS), Department of State , who work on protective security for personnel and information processed abroad at US Embassies and Consulates. The term counter-espionage
22230-568: The direction of James Jesus Angleton . Later, operational divisions had subordinate counterintelligence branches, as well as a smaller central counterintelligence staff. Aldrich Ames was in the Counterintelligence Branch of Europe Division, where he was responsible for directing the analysis of Soviet intelligence operations. US military services have had a similar and even more complex split. This kind of division clearly requires close coordination, and this in fact occurs on
22420-685: The discovery of the agent. All matters pertaining to clandestine traffic were worked on by a section that had no particular subsection in charge of analysis. The technical spotting and removal of clandestine transmitters was the work of the Ordnungspolizei , known colloquially as the Orpo. The most developed section was the Office of Unknown Traffic It was considered the most important. Its work depended whether underground nets, which were operating with new traffic characteristics and new methods, could be spotted in time. The volume of unknown traffic
22610-562: The event that a so-called G-V Game, i.e. playback, was to be carried out, the Funkabwehr conducted the technical execution, while the information to be contained in the messages was furnished by the head office of the Reich Security Main Office , or Military High Command. To carry out a G-V Game means to have a captured enemy agent continue operations against the parent service which they had been previously operating. The fact that they are doing this must not become known to
22800-420: The exact locations, or triangles of error as a value, was calculated by a specialist called Dr. Dürminger. Every day, the data for the next day were sent out by teleprinter to the subordinate units. The data consisted of frequencies, call signs , expected times of transmission and related information about the enemy traffic. Also included were the DF bearing fixes on enemy transmitters, which were calculated from
22990-444: The existing gap in national level coverage, as well as satisfying the combatant commander's intelligence requirements. Military police and other patrols that mingle with local people may indeed be valuable HUMINT sources for counterintelligence awareness, but are not themselves likely to be CFSOs. Gleghorn distinguishes between the protection of national intelligence services, and the intelligence needed to provide combatant commands with
23180-414: The fact that they are despised by hostile intelligence agents. The Soviet operational officer, having seen a great deal of the ugly face of communism, very frequently feels the utmost repulsion to those who sell themselves to it willingly. And when a GRU or KGB officer decides to break with his criminal organization, something which fortunately happens quite often, the first thing he will do is try to expose
23370-404: The first time, governments had access to peacetime, centralized independent intelligence and counterintelligence bureaucracy with indexed registries and defined procedures, as opposed to the more ad hoc methods used previously. Collective counterintelligence is gaining information about an opponent's intelligence collection capabilities whose aim is at an entity. Defensive counterintelligence
23560-411: The following: The Companies and intercept stations reported all DF bearing and intercepts directly by teletype to regimental level. The DF plotting and evaluation section made a central plotting of all bearings regardless of the net the stations belonged in. As the unit had to take DF bearings at great distances, the errors in maps affected accuracy to some degree. In order to remove or reduce errors,
23750-427: The foreign service, by discrediting personnel actually loyal to their own service, and taking away resources that would be useful to the hostile service. All of these actions apply to non-national threats as well as to national organizations. If the hostile action is in one's own country or in a friendly one with co-operating police, the hostile agents may be arrested, or, if diplomats, declared persona non grata . From
23940-401: The former naturally tended to predominate in all operations against local agents. It was in directing the activities of the Funkabwehr machinery in conformity with the requirements of the local C.E. authorities that the principal function of the Aussenstellen was to be found. A further devolutionary step was taken during the winter of 1942-1943 when cryptanalysts from Referat 12 were attached to
24130-479: The full spectrum table of all known radio traffic. It was the duty of the Radio Defense Corps to build up this spectrum table of recognised traffic, by working it out by all the organisations concerned. When all unaccounted traffic had been DF'd, the underground station was exposed. The DF of underground and clandestine transmitters had to be accurate enough so that, on the basis of the bearings alone,
24320-428: The greatest insight into the adversary's thinking, they may also be most vulnerable to the adversary's attacks on one's own organization. Before trusting an enemy agent, remember that such people started out as being trusted by their own countries and may still be loyal to that country. Wisner emphasized his own, and Dulles', views that the best defense against foreign attacks on, or infiltration of, intelligence services
24510-725: The hated volunteer. Attacks against military, diplomatic, and related facilities are a very real threat, as demonstrated by the 1983 attacks against French and US peacekeepers in Beirut, the 1996 attack on the Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia, 1998 attacks on Colombian bases and on U.S. embassies (and local buildings) in Kenya and Tanzania the 2000 attack on the USS Cole , and many others. The U.S. military force protection measures are
24700-435: The information they need for force protection. There are other HUMINT sources, such as military reconnaissance patrols that avoid mixing with foreign personnel, that indeed may provide HUMINT, but not HUMINT especially relevant to counterintelligence. Active countermeasures, whether for force protection, protection of intelligence services, or protection of national security interests, are apt to involve HUMINT disciplines , for
24890-532: The intercept companies was exercised by the ( German : Außenstellen ), branch offices of WNV/FU. These Ausenstellen represented WNV/FU as a whole and therefore were responsible for the maintenance of the OKW Wireless telegraphy communication and other duties of the organisation as well as for intercept matters. However, they contained an FU III staff, known as the ( German : Überwachungsstab ) which dealt with Funkabwehr questions. The Aussenstellen acted as
25080-511: The intercept service carried out such duties in operational areas. While the intercept service had its own specific tasks of a different nature from those of WNV/FU III and cooperation and overlapping between them were purely incidental, the duties of the WNV/FU III and the Funkabwehrdienst of the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) were identical. Both were concerned with the location and apprehension of clandestine transmitters and, at least from
25270-468: The late 1830s and 1840s, then using simpler Morse key equipment and telegraph operators . The introduction of teleprinters automated much of this work and eventually largely replaced skilled operators versed in Morse code with typists and machines communicating faster via Baudot code . With the development of early computers in the 1950s, teleprinters were adapted to allow typed data to be sent to
25460-676: The leadership in domestic counterterrorism. For international threats, the National Intelligence Center (CNI) has responsibility. CNI, which reports directly to the Prime Minister, is staffed principally by which is subordinated directly to the Prime Minister's office. After the March 11, 2004 Madrid train bombings , the national investigation found problems between the Interior Ministry and CNI, and, as
25650-405: The line simply remains in the marking state (as if a continuing series of stop bits) until a later space denotes the start of the next character. The time between characters need not be an integral multiple of a bit time, but it must be at least the minimum number of stop bits required by the receiving machine. When the line is broken, the continuous spacing (open circuit, no current flowing) causes
25840-578: The link between the headquarters in Berlin and the Intercept Companies and directed the activities of the latter. They were also responsible for local discrimination and cryptography and for liaison with other organisations. Aussenstellen were located in Paris , Lyons , Brussels and Oslo in the West, and in Vienna , Warsaw , Rome , Prague , Athens , Belgrade , Bratislava , Klagenfurt and Varna in
26030-443: The military as their primary customer, used standard military designations for their machines. The teleprinter was identified with designations such as a TT-4/FG, while communication "sets" to which a teleprinter might be a part generally used the standard Army/Navy designation system such as AN/FGC-25. This includes Kleinschmidt teleprinter TT-117/FG and tape reperforator TT-179/FG. Morkrum made their first commercial installation of
26220-407: The most formal and essential collaboration. At the outbreak of the war, the technical resources of the Funkabwehr appeared to have consisted of no more than a few small fixed intercept stations and mobile short-range DF units. These were, for the most part, Orpo units, as were the available long-range DF stations, though military and naval DF stations also assisted in security tasks. This organisation
26410-509: The national to the field level. Counterintelligence is part of intelligence cycle security , which, in turn, is part of intelligence cycle management . A variety of security disciplines also fall under intelligence security management and complement counterintelligence, including: The disciplines involved in "positive security," measures by which one's own society collects information on its actual or potential security, complement security. For example, when communications intelligence identifies
26600-465: The nature of ionospheric propagation kept many users at 60 and 66 speed. Most audio recordings in existence today are of teleprinters operating at 60 words per minute, and mostly of the Teletype Model 15. Another measure of the speed of a teletypewriter was in total "operations per minute (OPM)". For example, 60 speed was usually 368 OPM, 66 speed was 404 OPM, 75 speed was 460 OPM, and 100 speed
26790-482: The officers of WNV/FU both to press the claims of their work with WNV/CHI with a view to the establishment of a special section in this department to handle agent ciphers and also to look around for cryptanalysis assistance from other quarters. Their requests were rejected by the OKW/Chi on the grounds of shortage of man-power but they succeeded in gaining the interest and cooperation of Inspectorate 7/VI (In 7/VI) of
26980-427: The organisation. It also assisted in solving the call sign systems and code procedures. Some contact appears still to have taken place with OKW/Chi but this was on a purely consultative nature and it was Referat 12 which undertook the day to day cryptanalysis work of WNV/FU III. This theoretically anomalous position was rectified at the end of 1943, when WNV/FU III moved to Jüterbog with Referat 12 being transferred to
27170-472: The original parent organisation. If the G-V Game was well carried out, it was possible to enter deeply into the parent organisation, such that the parent can be broken wide open. A good G-V game enabled future military organisations of the parent to be determined. G-V Games in general could only be carried out when: The Funkabwehr developed out of the ( German : Horchdienst ) or Listening Service , which
27360-630: The other Aussenstellen were similarly organised though only the unit in Oslo contained any special staff concerned with VHF. Aussenstelle Athens was merged with Aussenleitstelle Süd Ost (South East) in Vienna in mid 1943. Aussenstelle Süd in Lyons appeared to be slightly abnormal. The staff of the Aussenstelle proper totalled three, including the commanding officer, one cryptanalyst from Referat Vauck, with
27550-417: The outbreak of war, it was impossible to distinguish between clandestine activities directed against the government and the regime. The sphere of the police monitoring units, which separately administered were controlled operationally by the central discrimination department of the WNV/FU III. This unity at the centre, the result of a specific order of the Führer , was not, however, accompanied by cooperation at
27740-447: The outstations. There was for instance in Paris, from the time of its occupation, both a branch control centre ( German : Außenleitstelle ) of WNV/FU and a radio direction finder ( German : Funkmessstelle ) of the Orpo; yet there appears to have been practically no contact between the two units while the members of one had but the haziest knowledge of the activities of the other. Similarly while Aussenstellen of WNV/FU co-operated with
27930-406: The personnel for the intercept work at the Aussenstellen, but otherwise it had no responsibility for the administration of the latter which came for this purpose under WNV/FU/I. The Aussenstellen carried out locally for the intercept units in their areas the discrimination and allocation duties which were performed centrally by the Auswertung at headquarters. This policy of devolution of functions to
28120-447: The perspective of one's own intelligence service, exploiting the situation to the advantage of one's side is usually preferable to arrest or actions that might result in the death of the threat. The intelligence priority sometimes comes into conflict with the instincts of one's own law enforcement organizations, especially when the foreign threat combines foreign personnel with citizens of one's country. In some circumstances, arrest may be
28310-515: The popular misconception that counterintelligence is essentially a negative and responsive activity, that it moves only or chiefly in reaction to situations thrust upon it and in counter to initiatives mounted by the opposition." Rather, he sees that can be most effective, both in information gathering and protecting friendly intelligence services, when it creatively but vigorously attacks the "structure and personnel of hostile intelligence services." Today's counterintelligence missions have broadened from
28500-424: The practical teleprinter. In 1908, a working teleprinter was produced by the Morkrum Company (formed between Joy Morton and Charles Krum), called the Morkrum Printing Telegraph, which was field tested with the Alton Railroad. In 1910, the Morkrum Company designed and installed the first commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Company lines between Boston and New York City using the "Blue Code Version" of
28690-514: The public telephone network ( telex ), and radio and microwave links (telex-on-radio, or TOR). There were at least five major types of teleprinter networks: Before the computer revolution (and information processing performance improvements thanks to Moore's law ) made it possible to securely encrypt voice and video calls , teleprinters were long used in combination with electromechanical or electronic cryptographic devices to provide secure communication channels . Being limited to text only
28880-401: The purpose of detecting FIS agents, involving screening and debriefing of non-tasked human sources, also called casual or incidental sources. such as: Physical security is important, but it does not override the role of force protection intelligence... Although all intelligence disciplines can be used to gather force protection intelligence, HUMINT collected by intelligence and CI agencies plays
29070-540: The region and the potential threat it posed to the British position in India , the Indian Civil Service built up a system of surveillance, intelligence and counterintelligence. The existence of this shadowy conflict was popularized in Rudyard Kipling 's famous spy book , Kim (1901), where he portrayed the Great Game (a phrase Kipling popularized) as an espionage and intelligence conflict that "never ceases, day or night". The establishment of dedicated intelligence and counterintelligence organizations had much to do with
29260-449: The regular staff of the Aussenstellen was not always considered a happy work environment. In Paris, the senior officer of the Aussenstellen attempted to train some members of his own staff in cryptology to take over these duties. However, the system remained in place until the end of the war. Aussenleitstelle Paris contained a local staff of about fifteen including a technical officer and a discriminator with two assistant clerks. In addition
29450-446: The responsibility for protecting these things is split. Historically, CIA assigned responsibility for protecting its personnel and operations to its Office of Security, while it assigned the security of operations to multiple groups within the Directorate of Operations: the counterintelligence staff and the area (or functional) unit, such as Soviet Russia Division. At one point, the counterintelligence unit operated quite autonomously, under
29640-424: The same character moved into the printing position, in a way similar to the (much later) daisy wheel printer . It was thus an example of a synchronous data transmission system. House's equipment could transmit around 40 instantly readable words per minute, but was difficult to manufacture in bulk. The printer could copy and print out up to 2,000 words per hour. This invention was first put in operation and exhibited at
29830-426: The same location. At the same time, Referat 12 was detached from In 7/VI and incorporated in WNV/CHI as Referat X. This change was little more than nominal and no way affected the work of Referat 12 or its contact with WNV/FU III. The normal channels of contact for intelligence and executive operations were, in the case of WNV/FU III, Abwehr III and the GFP and in the case of Orpo units, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) and
30020-493: The same time the HQ of the companies in France, Norway and the Soviet Union were organised respectively into Funkmessleitstelle West, Funkmessleitstelle Nord, and Funkmessleitstelle Ost. The HQ of the intercept units in the Netherlands were sometimes referred to as German : Funkmessstelle West , though in practice it exercised considerable independence. The Funkmessstelle controlled the intercept companies and acted as forward discrimination and liaison staff. They thus performed for
30210-404: The services need to mitigate risk with appropriate countermeasures. FIS are especially able to explore open societies and, in that environment, have been able to subvert insiders in the intelligence community. Offensive counterespionage is the most powerful tool for finding penetrators and neutralizing them, but it is not the only tool. Understanding what leads individuals to turn on their own side
30400-513: The set of actions taken against military personnel and family members, resources, facilities and critical information, and most countries have a similar doctrine for protecting those facilities and conserving the potential of the forces. Force protection is defined to be a defense against deliberate attack, not accidents or natural disasters. Counterintelligence Force Protection Source Operations (CFSO) are human source operations, normally clandestine in nature, conducted abroad that are intended to fill
30590-543: The special staff of Auswertung Ursula dealing with VHF material (Techniques) was attached from the end of 1943. A liaison officer was subordinated to Leitstelle III West, and Non-commissioned officers partly drawn from the intercept companies were attached to some of the subordinate units. The Aussenleitstelle, now Radio Surveillance Department I ( German : Funküberwachungsabteilung I ), left Paris in early August, 1944 for Idar-Oberstein and moved shortly thereafter to Gobelnroth in Giessen where it remained. The majority of
30780-426: The spot, and the same policy was shortly afterwards adopted in the case of other Aussenstellen. One or two cryptanalysts were usually sent to each Aussenstellen and remained there for a period of eight weeks, when they were subsequently replaced. They worked only with the traffic that had already been solved and in all other cases the raw material continued to be sent direct to Berlin. Relations between cryptanalysts and
30970-401: The station was located and destroyed. By DF and Radio Intelligence, it could be determined what espionage cover-organisation each transmitter belonged to. By deciphering intercepted traffic of a given station before its extirpation, the following actions are undertaken by units of the Funkabwehr. By exercising rough DF-ing of the underground transmitter, the following could be accomplished: In
31160-418: The subordinate intercept units and discrimination of their results and of those of the Orpo Funkabwehrdienst. A third function was the central representation of the security intercept service vis-a-vis other departments, of which the cryptographic sections were by far the most important. The execution of these duties gave to the central headquarters of the WNV/FU III theoretically complete operational control over
31350-403: The teleprinter network, handling weather traffic, extended over 20,000 miles, covering all 48 states except Maine, New Hampshire, and South Dakota. Teleprinters could use a variety of different communication channels. These included a simple pair of wires, public switched telephone networks , dedicated non-switched telephone circuits (leased lines), switched networks that operated similarly to
31540-531: The time when the threat was restricted to the foreign intelligence services (FIS) under the control of nation-states. Threats have broadened to include threats from non-national or trans-national groups, including internal insurgents, organized crime, and transnational based groups (often called "terrorists", but that is limiting). Still, the FIS term remains the usual way of referring to the threat against which counterintelligence protects. In modern practice, several missions are associated with counterintelligence from
31730-424: The west and other fronts, made all static intelligence units in operational areas unsuitable for the conditions they were likely to encounter. To meet these condition, all units of the Abwehr were rendered mobile and subordinated to the operational HQ of the Wehrmacht fighting forces, while retaining their own channels of communication between mobile units and central HQ. An exactly parallel development took place with
31920-433: The whole of the service, but in practice this was to a considerable extent modified on the one hand by the jealously guarded independence of the Orpo service and on the other by the deliberate devolution of the functions of the central headquarters on to the Aussenstellen. As in most departments of the German operational war effort, a fairly rigorous division was made between the eastern and western theatres of war. Thus under
32110-432: The widespread availability of equipment at that speed and the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restrictions to only 60 speed from 1953 to 1972. Telex, news agency wires and similar services commonly used 66 speed services. There was some migration to 75 and 100 speed as more reliable devices were introduced. However, the limitations of HF transmission such as excessive error rates due to multipath distortion and
32300-408: The work of Indian revolutionaries collaborating with the Germans during the war. Instead of a system whereby rival departments and military services would work on their own priorities with little to no consultation or cooperation with each other, the newly established Secret Intelligence Service was interdepartmental, and submitted its intelligence reports to all relevant government departments. For
32490-461: Was Captain Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming alias "C". The Secret Service Bureau was split into a foreign and counter-intelligence domestic service in 1910. The latter, headed by Sir Vernon Kell , originally aimed at calming public fears of large-scale German espionage. As the Service was not authorized with police powers, Kell liaised extensively with the Special Branch of Scotland Yard (headed by Basil Thomson ), and succeeded in disrupting
32680-461: Was 600 OPM. Western Union Telexes were usually set at 390 OPM, with 7.0 total bits instead of the customary 7.42 bits. Both wire-service and private teleprinters had bells to signal important incoming messages and could ring 24/7 while the power was turned on. For example, ringing 4 bells on UPI wire-service machines meant an "Urgent" message; 5 bells was a "Bulletin"; and 10 bells was a FLASH, used only for very important news. The teleprinter circuit
32870-525: Was adopted by the Daily Mail for daily transmission of the newspaper's contents. The Creed Model 7 page printing teleprinter was introduced in 1931 and was used for the inland Telex service. It worked at a speed of 50 baud, about 66 words a minute, using a code based on the Murray code. A teleprinter system was installed in the Bureau of Lighthouses , Airways Division, Flight Service Station Airway Radio Stations system in 1928, carrying administrative messages, flight information and weather reports. By 1938,
33060-545: Was an acceptable trade-off for security. Most teleprinters used the 5- bit International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2). This was limited to 32 codes (2 = 32). One had to use "FIGS" (for "figures") and "LTRS" (for "letters") keys to shift state , for a combined character set sufficient to type both letters and numbers, as well as some special characters. (The letters were uppercase only.) Special versions of teleprinters had FIGS characters for specific applications, such as weather symbols for weather reports. Print quality
33250-413: Was changed in December 1928 to Teletype Corporation. In 1930, Teletype Corporation was purchased by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and became a subsidiary of Western Electric . In 1984, the divestiture of the Bell System resulted in the Teletype name and logo being replaced by the AT&T name and logo, eventually resulting in the brand being extinguished. The last vestiges of what had been
33440-466: Was disguised as an office in the Police Technical School, appears to have acted as a post between the WNV/FU III and the Orpo units. Doubtless by this means, the principle was maintained that Orpo units received orders only through their own hierarchy. The part played by the Aussenstellen of WNV/FU III in the work of the Orpo companies varied considerably from place to place. In Norway, the Oslo Aussenstellen played an active role, as it received all reports of
33630-529: Was due to the heavy calls made on the depot, but due to chronic manpower shortages, suffered across all of Germany, the Funkabwehr was always in difficulties through shortage of manpower. The only intercept companies of which reasonably accurate details as to composition and strength exist are two air force companies formed in 1942 to cover the Balkans. Each of these consisted initially of a small discrimination sections, an Auswertung, an intercept station of ten double bank positions ( German : Überwachungsstelle ),
33820-411: Was held by Generaloberst Erich Fellgiebel , who was Director of the Code and Cipher section of the Defense Ministry from 1931 to 1932 and held of the office of dual combined office of Chef HNW and Chief Signal Officer Armed Forces (Chef WNF) from 1939 until 20 July 1944, with headquarters located in Dorf Zinna near Jüterbog . Thus it was possible for reasonably close liaison to be maintained between
34010-426: Was maintained between the two HQs; it was at least as sufficiently close for a common block of numbers to be retained in referring to commitments, for although such numbers were nominally issued by the Joint Signals Board, in practice they must have emanated from WNV/FU III. The cryptographic organisation which might logically have been expected to have handled the material provided by WNV/FU was its sister organisation
34200-416: Was modified by Donald Murray (1865–1945, originally from New Zealand), prompted by his development of a typewriter-like keyboard. The Murray system employed an intermediate step, a keyboard perforator, which allowed an operator to punch a paper tape , and a tape transmitter for sending the message from the punched tape. At the receiving end of the line, a printing mechanism would print on a paper tape, and/or
34390-413: Was often linked to a 5-bit paper tape punch (or "reperforator") and reader, allowing messages received to be resent on another circuit. Complex military and commercial communications networks were built using this technology. Message centers had rows of teleprinters and large racks for paper tapes awaiting transmission. Skilled operators could read the priority code from the hole pattern and might even feed
34580-437: Was often referred to as the Arbeitstab Bary after the Gruppenleiter. Cover-names were often employed in communications referring the headquarters, or its subordinate units. Cover-names were also used by personnel in neutral countries and by the more important members of the headquarters staff, such as Major von Bary. The latter correct title was Commander of Radio Intelligence ( German : Kommandeur der Funküberwachung ) OKW. In
34770-521: Was poor by modern standards. The ITA2 code was used asynchronously with start and stop bits : the asynchronous code design was intimately linked with the start-stop electro-mechanical design of teleprinters. (Early systems had used synchronous codes, but were hard to synchronize mechanically). Other codes, such as FIELDATA and Flexowriter , were introduced but never became as popular as ITA2. Mark and space are terms describing logic levels in teleprinter circuits. The native mode of communication for
34960-419: Was prepared to continue Pearne’s work, and in August, 1903 a patent was filed for a ' typebar page printer'. In 1904, Krum filed a patent for a 'type wheel printing telegraph machine' which was issued in August, 1907. In 1906 Charles Krum's son, Howard Krum, joined his father in this work. It was Howard who developed and patented the start-stop synchronizing method for code telegraph systems, which made possible
35150-414: Was primarily concerned with advising the C.E. authorities in running playbacks. Personnel of both the HQs and the Aussenstellen of WNV/FU were for the most part drawn from a special training depot for linguists signallers which supplied any special needs for this type of personnel of the OKW and the Army Signals services. The staff of Referat Vauck was mainly drawn from the same source. This depot started as
35340-495: Was quite insufficient and unprepared to deal with the increased responsibilities resulting from the early German victories and the increase in the size of occupied territory. At the same time, the number of Allied W/T agents in occupied areas was constantly growing. To meet this situation after the Western Campaign in 1940, companies were taken from the Army intercept service ( General der Nachrichtenaufklärung ), reorganised and re-equipped for security intercept work and placed under
35530-481: Was the German interwar radio intelligence and interception service, that was later expanded by the Funkabwehr, the Luftwaffe and the General der Nachrichtenaufklärung , early in the war, until by 1942, each service had an independent interception organisation. The Funkabwehr was an independent organisation whose head office was the department of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, specifically the OKW/WNV/FU. The Funkabwehr consisted of three groups. Group III consisted of
35720-443: Was the secret radio station established in enemy-occupied territory. Such a station was charged with passing back to its control station, information of a military, political, or war-industrial nature obtained through espionage . This facilitates the carrying out of pick-up missions . Underground stations also pass traffic relative to the administration and supply of secret organisations and resistance groups. An underground transmitter
35910-486: Was to have the sending and receiving elements working synchronously. Bain attempted to achieve this using centrifugal governors to closely regulate the speed of the clockwork. It was patented, along with other devices, on April 21, 1841. By 1846, the Morse telegraph service was operational between Washington, D.C., and New York. Royal Earl House patented his printing telegraph that same year. He linked two 28-key piano-style keyboards by wire. Each piano key represented
36100-418: Was very large. A card index alone was not sufficient to document all the frequencies. A Hollerith (IBM section) was successfully used in this instance. The Office of Unknown Traffic worked with a large number of other organizations, who were specifically involved in radio intelligence. Deciphering and contents evaluation had conspicuous success, but the solving of traffic was almost always possible only when
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