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132-707: According to legend, the diamond was discovered by an enslaved man in the Kollur Mine near the Krishna River in India and was concealed by the slave in a leg wound, which he suffered while fleeing the 1687 siege of Golconda by the Moghul Emperor Aurangzeb . The slave then made it to the coast, where he met an English sea captain and offered him 50% of all profits made on the sale of the diamond in exchange for safe passage out of India. However,

264-647: A Jesuit who wrote about it in 1698, long after the 1636 edict by Tokguawa Japan had expelled Portuguese people. The Dutch , too, largely dealt in slaves. They were mainly Abyssinian, known in India as Habshis. The mixed race of Sheedes in Kanara on the West coast has traces of these slaves. The Dutch Indian Ocean slave trade was primarily mediated by the Dutch East India Company, drawing captive labour from three commercially closely linked regions:

396-658: A Naqshbandi Sufi leader, owning over 500 slaves, forty of whom were specialists in pottery production while the others were engaged in agricultural work. High demand for skilled slaves, and India's larger and more advanced textile industry, agricultural production and tradition of architecture demonstrated to its neighbours that skilled-labour was abundant in the subcontinent leading to enslavement and export of large numbers of skilled labour as slaves, following their successful invasions. After sacking Delhi , Timur enslaved several thousand skilled artisans, presenting many of these slaves to his subordinate elite, although reserving

528-589: A "passive acceptance" of cultural norms of the Brahmanical society midst them, or more "justifiably an active support" of these institutions. The Buddhist texts offer "no hint of protest or reform" to such institutions, according to Schopen. Kautilya 's Arthashastra dedicates the thirteenth chapter on dasas , in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from the Maurya Empire period (4th century BCE) has been translated by several authors, each in

660-403: A Bourbon Restoration. The opinions expressed in the declaration were largely those of Antoine de Bésiade, Count of Avaray , Louis's closest advisor in exile. Louis XVIII was forced once again to leave Jelgava when Tsar Alexander informed him that his safety could not be guaranteed in continental Europe. In July 1807, Louis boarded a Swedish frigate bound for Stockholm , bringing with him only

792-527: A Knight of the Order of the Holy Spirit . The name of Louis was bestowed because it was typical of a prince of France; Stanislas was chosen to honour his great-grandfather King Stanislaus I of Poland who was still alive at the time; and Xavier was chosen for Saint Francis Xavier , whom his mother's family held as one of their patron saints. At the time of his birth, Louis Stanislas was fourth in line to

924-492: A community of monks may accept dasa for repairs and other routine chores. Later, the same Buddhist text states that the Buddha approved the use of kalpikara and the kapyari for labor in the monasteries and approved building separate quarters for them. Schopen interprets the term dasa as servants, while he interprets the kalpikara and kapyari as bondmen and slave respectively because they can be owned and given by laity to

1056-559: A contemporary living there at the time, the Prussian local authorities, wishing to honour the arrivals, had music played, but trying to give this a national and patriotic character, unwittingly chose La Marseillaise , the hymn of the French Republic with unflattering allusions to both Louis XVI and Louis XVIII. They later apologised for their mistake. It was very soon after their arrival that Louis and Marie-Thérèse learned of

1188-492: A correspondence with Napoleon Bonaparte (by then First Consul of France ), urging him to restore the Bourbons to their throne, but the future emperor was impervious to this idea and continued to consolidate his own position as ruler of France. Louis XVIII encouraged his niece to write her memoirs, as he wished them to be used as Bourbon propaganda. In 1796 and 1803, Louis also used the diaries of Louis XVI's final attendants in

1320-520: A crime thereby differing with Kangle's interpretation. According to Kangle, the Arthasastra forbids enslavement of minors and Arya from all four varnas and this inclusion of shudras stands different from the Vedic literature. Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted to dasa by Kautilya implies that the word had a different meaning than the modern word slave, as well as the meaning of

1452-657: A decade. His Bourbon Restoration government was a constitutional monarchy , unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime in France before the Revolution. As a constitutional monarch, Louis XVIII's royal prerogative was reduced substantially by the Charter of 1814 , France's new constitution. His return in 1815 led to a second wave of White Terror headed by the Ultra-royalist faction. The following year, Louis dissolved

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1584-567: A different manner. Shamasastry's translation of 1915 maps dasa as slave, while Kangle leaves the words as dasa and karmakara . According to Kangle's interpretation, the verse 13.65.3–4 of Arthasastra forbids any slavery of "an Arya in any circumstances whatsoever", but allows the mlecchas to "sell an offspring or keep it as pledge". Patrick Olivelle agrees with this interpretation. He adds that an Arya or Arya family could pledge itself during times of distress into bondage, and these bonded individuals could be converted to slave if they committed

1716-516: A gem away; He pledged it to the Knight, the Knight had wit, So kept the diamond, and the rogue was bit." Pitt bought the diamond for £20,400 (equivalent to £4,182,000 in 2023), and had it cut into a 141 carats (28.2 g) cushion brilliant. After many attempts to sell it to various members of European royalty, including Louis XIV of France, it was purchased for the French Crown by

1848-400: A generous pension, though later discontinued payment. Marie-Thérèse finally joined Louis XVIII at Jelgava in 1799. In the winter of 1798–1799, Louis XVIII wrote a biography of Marie Antoinette titled Réflexions historiques sur Marie Antoinette . Moreover, being surrounded at Jelgava with many old courtiers, he attempted to recreate the court life of Versailles, re-establishing various of

1980-426: A harmonious relationship and often quarrelled, as did their wives. Louis Stanislas did impregnate his wife in 1774, having conquered his aversion. However, the pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. A second pregnancy in 1781 also miscarried, and the marriage remained childless. On 27 April 1774, Louis XV fell ill after contracting smallpox and died a few days later on 10 May, aged 64. Louis Stanislas' elder brother,

2112-510: A hostile stance against this rejection, and Louis XVI had to implement a "bed of justice" ( Lit de justice ), which automatically registered an edict in the Parlement of Paris, to ratify the desired reforms. On 8 May, two of the leading members of the Parlement of Paris were arrested. There was rioting in Brittany , Provence, Burgundy and Béarn in reaction to their arrest. This unrest

2244-520: A lay follower should not engage in." Late classical Hindu Dharmaśāstra , would specify who can be enslaved, the treatment of enslaved, and acceptable forms of Vishti ( corvee labour), by varna; a theme later medieval commentaries, of the like of Devaṇabhaṭṭa's Smṛticandrikā, would refine. Slavery was an important feature of the Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent . André Wink summarizes

2376-478: A legacy of the PIE root "*dens-", and the word "saka" may have evolved from "dasa", states Parpola. According to Micheline Ishay – a professor of human rights studies and sociology, the term "dasa" can be "translated as slave". The institution represented unfree labor with fewer rights, but "the supposed slavery in [ancient] India was of mild character and limited extent" like Babylonian and Hebrew slavery, in contrast to

2508-537: A manifesto in response to Louis XVII's death. The manifesto, known as the " Declaration of Verona ", was Louis XVIII's attempt to introduce the French people to his politics. The Declaration of Verona beckoned France back into the arms of the monarchy, "which for fourteen centuries was the glory of France". Louis XVIII negotiated the release of Marie-Thérèse from her Paris prison in 1795. He desperately wanted her to marry her first cousin, Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême ,

2640-708: A monk or nun, but accepted them as workers to serve the monastery. The Indian texts discuss dasa and bonded labor along with their rights, as well as a monastic community's obligations to feed, clothe and provide medical aid to them in exchange for their work. This description of rights and duties in Buddhist Vinaya texts, says Schopen, parallel those found in Hindu Dharmaśāstra and Dharmasutra texts. The Buddhist attitude to servitude or slavery as reflected in Buddhist texts, states Schopen, may reflect

2772-448: A new property tax, and new elected provincial assemblies which would have a say in local taxation. Calonne's proposition was rejected outright by the notables, and, as a result, Louis XVI dismissed him. The Archbishop of Toulouse, Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne , acquired Calonne's ministry. Brienne attempted to salvage Calonne's reforms, but ultimately failed to convince the notables to approve them. A frustrated Louis XVI dissolved

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2904-399: A pious devotee. The Buddhist Vanijja Sutta , AN 5:177 listing slave trading to be one of the five wrong livelihood a layperson should not engage in the "Monks, a lay follower should not engage in five types of business. Which five? Business in weapons, business in human beings , business in meat, business in intoxicants, and business in poison. These are the five types of business that

3036-468: A slave had rights to their property and could pass their property to their kin, states Ishay. The term dasa appears in early Buddhist texts, a term scholars variously interpret as servant or slave. Buddhist manuscripts also mention kapyari , which scholars have translated as a legally bonded servant (slave). According to Gregory Schopen , in the Mahaviharin Vinaya , the Buddha says that

3168-622: A strong cavalry arm and in particular to amass a corps of mounted archers. This was a proprietary way to build their military capacity, by taking advantage of a unique skillset. Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji and Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq were both frontier military commanders. When they tried to capitalize on their achievements, and take over the Delhi Sultanate they were not given support because of their un-noble origins. When looking at

3300-441: Is reported to have returned to with such a large number of slaves that their value was reduced to only two to ten dirhams each. This unusually low price made, according to Al-Utbi, "merchants came from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Central Asia , Iraq and Khurasan were swelled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery". Warfare and tax revenue policies

3432-668: Is similarly reported to have legalised the enslavement of those who defaulted on their revenue payments. This policy continued during the Mughal era. An even greater number of people were enslaved as a part of the efforts of the Delhi Sultans to finance their expansion into new territories. For example, while he himself was still a military slave of the Ghurid Sultan Muizz u-Din, Qutb-ud-din Aybak (r. 1206–10 as

3564-550: The Ancien Régime . Accordingly, in 1805 he reformulated his public policies with a view to reclaiming his throne, issuing a declaration that was far more liberal than his earlier pronouncements. This repudiated his Declaration of Verona, promised to abolish conscription, retain the Napoleonic administrative and judicial system, reduce taxes, eliminate political prisons, and guarantee amnesty to everyone who did not oppose

3696-522: The Rigveda , the dasa and dasyu are human and non-human beings who are enemies of Arya. These according to the Rigveda , state Jamison and Brereton, are destroyed by the Vedic deity Indra . The interpretation of " dasas as slaves" in the Vedic era is contradicted by hymns such as 2.12 and 8.46 that describe "wealthy dasas" who charitably give away their wealth. Similarly, state Jamison and Brereton,

3828-692: The Austrian Netherlands in conjunction with the royal family's failed Flight to Varennes in June 1791. When the Count of Provence arrived in the Low Countries , he proclaimed himself regent of France. He exploited a document that he and Louis XVI had written before the latter's failed escape to Varennes-en-Argonne . The document gave him the regency in the event of his brother's death or inability to perform his role as king. He would join

3960-645: The Buddha and perhaps even as far back as the Vedic period", however he elaborates that the association of the Vedic dasa with 'slaves' is "problematic and likely to have been a later development". Upinder Singh states that the Rig Veda is familiar with slavery, referring to enslavement in course of war or as a result of debt. She states that the use of dasa (Sanskrit: दास) and dasi in later times were used as terms for male and female slaves. In contrast, Suvira Jaiswal states that dasa tribes were integrated in

4092-494: The Comte de Blacas as his principal political advisor. Queen Marie Joséphine died on 13 November 1810. That same winter, Louis had a particularly severe attack of gout , which was a recurring problem for him at Hartwell, and he had to take to a wheelchair. In 1812, Napoleon I embarked on an invasion of Russia , initiating a war which would prove to be the turning point in his fortunes. The expedition failed miserably, and Napoleon

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4224-729: The Deccan where it persisted until the seventeenth century. It remained present to a minor extent in the Mughal provinces throughout the seventeenth century and had a notable revival under the Afghans in North India again in the eighteenth century. Unlike other parts of the medieval Muslim world, slavery was not widespread in Kashmir. Except for the Sultans, there is no evidence the elite kept slaves. The Kashmiris despised slavery. Concubinage

4356-595: The Duchy of Alençon in December 1774. The duchy was given to enhance Louis Stanislas's prestige. However, the appanage generated only 300,000 livres a year, an amount much lower than it had been at its peak in the fourteenth century. Louis Stanislas travelled about France more than other members of the Royal Family, who rarely left the Île-de-France . In 1774, he accompanied his sister Clotilde to Chambéry on

4488-526: The Duchy of Brunswick after his departure from Verona. He lived in a modest two-bedroom apartment over a shop. Louis XVIII was forced to leave Blankenburg when King Frederick William II of Prussia died. In light of this, Marie-Thérèse decided to wait a while longer before reuniting with her uncle. In 1798, Tsar Paul I of Russia offered Louis the use of Jelgava Palace in Courland (now Latvia). The Tsar also guaranteed Louis' safety and bestowed on him

4620-621: The Fatawa-i-Hindiya and Fatawa-i Hindiyya ) was sponsored by Aurangzeb in the late 17th century. It compiled the law for the Mughal Empire, and involved years of effort by 500 Muslim scholars from South Asia, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. The thirty volumes on Hanafi -based sharia law for the Empire was influential during and after Auruangzeb's rule, and it included many chapters and laws on slavery and slaves in India. Some of

4752-683: The Horn of Africa were also imported into the Indian subcontinent to serve in the households of the powerful or the Muslim armies of the Deccan Sultanates and the Mughal Empire. The Portuguese imported African slaves into their Indian colonies on the Konkan coast between about 1530 and 1740. Under European colonialism, slavery in India continued through the 18th and 19th centuries. During

4884-431: The Indian subcontinent is contested because it depends on the translations of terms such as dasa and dasyu . Greek writer Megasthenes , in his 4th century BCE work Indika or Indica, states that slavery was banned within the Maurya Empire , while the multilingual, mid 3rd Century BCE, Edicts of Ashoka independently identify obligations to slaves (Greek: δούλοις ) and hired workers (Greek: μισθωτοῖς ), within

5016-652: The Louvre . It has been on display there since 1887. Experts in the early21st century have estimated the Regent Diamond value to be near £48,000,000. Due to numerous scandals, and the misfortune of those who have been in possession of the stone, the Regent Diamond is said to be cursed. 48°51′38″N 2°20′15″E  /  48.8605°N 2.3375°E  / 48.8605; 2.3375 Slavery in India The Early History of slavery in

5148-635: The Rigveda , has been also been translated as an enemy, but overall the identity of this term remains unclear and disputed among scholars. According to Scott Levi, it was likely an established institution in Ancient India by the start of the common era based on texts such as the Arthashastra , the Manusmriti and the Mahabharata . Slavery was "likely widespread by the lifetime of

5280-619: The Sixth Coalition first defeated Napoleon in 1814, Louis XVIII was placed in what he, and the French royalists, considered his rightful position. However, Napoleon escaped from his exile in Elba and restored his French Empire. Louis XVIII fled, and a Seventh Coalition declared war on the French Empire, defeated Napoleon again, and again restored Louis XVIII to the French throne. Louis XVIII ruled as king for slightly less than

5412-668: The Storming of the Bastille two days later. On 16 July, the King's brother, Charles, Comte d'Artois , left France with his wife and children, along with many other courtiers. Artois and his family took up residence in Turin , the capital city of his father-in-law's ( Carlo Emanuele Ferdinando Maria IV ) Kingdom of Sardinia , with the family of Louis Joseph, Prince de Condé . The Count of Provence decided to remain at Versailles. When

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5544-671: The Tuileries Palace . In March 1791, the National Assembly created a law outlining the regency of Louis Charles in case his father died while he was still too young to reign. This law awarded the regency to Louis Charles' nearest male relative in France (at that time the Count of Provence), and after him, the Duke of Orleans , thus bypassing the Count of Artois. If Orleans were unavailable, the regency would be submitted to election. The Count of Provence and his wife fled to

5676-535: The Umayyad conquest of Sindh was that of Surya Devi and her sister. In the early 11th century Tarikh al-Yamini, the Arab historian Al-Utbi recorded that in 1001 the armies of Mahmud of Ghazni conquered Peshawar and Waihand (capital of Gandhara) after Battle of Peshawar (1001), "in the midst of the land of Hindustan ", and enslaved thousands. Later, following his twelfth expedition into India in 1018–19, Mahmud

5808-665: The colonial era , Indians were taken into different parts of the world as slaves by various European merchant companies as part of the Indian Ocean slave trade . Slavery was prohibited in the possessions of the East India Company by the Indian Slavery Act, 1843 , in French India in 1848, British India in 1861, and Portuguese India in 1876. The abolition of European chattel slavery in

5940-513: The "dual representation" proposal. Louis Stanislas was the only notable to vote to increase the size of the Third Estate. Necker disregarded the notables' judgment, and convinced Louis XVI to grant the extra representation. The king duly obliged on 27 December. The Estates-General were convened in May 1789 to ratify financial reforms. The Count of Provence favoured a stalwart position against

6072-784: The "racial distinctions" are not justified by the evidence. According to the Indologist Thomas Trautmann , the relationship between the Arya and Dasa appears only in two verses of the Rigveda , is vague and unexpected since the dasa were "in some ways more economically advanced" than the Arya according to the textual evidence. According to Asko Parpola , the term dasa in ancient Indian texts has proto- Saka roots, where dasa or daha simply means "man". Both "dasa" and "dasyu" are uncommon in Indo-Iranian languages (including Sanskrit and Pali), and these words may be

6204-460: The 16th century. "Most of the Portuguese," says Albert. D. Mandelslo, a German itinerant writer, "have many slaves of both sexes, whom they employ not only on and about their persons, but also upon the business they are capable of, for what they get comes with the master." Japanese slave girls were still owned by India based Portuguese (Lusitanian) families according to Francisco De Sousa ,

6336-574: The 1830s led to the emergence of a system of indentured Indian labor. Over a century, more than a million Indians, known as girmitiyas, were recruited to serve fixed-term labor contracts (often five years) in European colonies across Africa, the Indian Ocean, Asia, and the Americas, primarily on the previously slave labour dependent plantations and mines . While distinct from chattel slavery,

6468-426: The Bengal estuaries were conducted by joint forces of Magh pirates, and Portuguese traders (chatins) operating from Chittagong outside the jurisdiction and patronage of the Estado da India, using armed vessels (galias). These raids occurred with the active connivance of the Taung-ngu (Toungoo) rulers of Arakan. The eastward expansion of the Mughal Empire, however, completed with the conquest of Chittagong in 1666, cut off

6600-436: The Bourbons were forced to assume pseudonyms. With Louis XVIII using the title Comte d'Isle , named after his estate in Languedoc and at times spelt as Comte de Lille. After an arduous journey from Jelgava, he and his family took up residence in the years 1801–1804 at the Łazienki Palace in Warsaw , which after the partitions of Poland became part of the province of South Prussia . According to Wirydianna Fiszerowa ,

6732-525: The Buddhist monastic community. According to Schopen, since these passages are not found in Indian versions of the manuscripts, but found in a Sri Lankan version, these sections may have been later interpolations that reflect a Sri Lankan tradition, rather than early Indian. The discussion of servants and bonded labor is also found in manuscripts found in Tibet, though the details vary. The discussion of servant, bonded labor and slaves, states Scopen, differs significantly in different manuscripts discovered for

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6864-435: The Central Asian slave markets was largely a product of the state building efforts of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire in South Asia". The revenue system of the Delhi Sultanate produced a considerable proportion of the Indian slave population as these rulers, and their subordinate shiqadars, ordered their armies to abduct large numbers of locals as a means of extracting revenue. While those communities that were loyal to

6996-430: The Children of France , as he was her favourite among his siblings. Louis Stanislas was taken away from his governess when he turned seven, the age at which the education of boys of royal blood and of the nobility was turned over to men. Antoine de Quélen de Stuer de Caussade, Duke of La Vauguyon  [ fr ] , a friend of his father, was named as his governor. Louis Stanislas was an intelligent boy, excelling in

7128-535: The Dauphin Louis Joseph . Louis Stanislas and his brother, the Count of Artois , served as godfathers by proxy for Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor , the Queen's brother. When Marie Antoinette gave birth to her second son, Louis Charles , in March 1785, Louis Stanislas slid further down the line of succession. In 1780, Anne Nompar de Caumont , Countess of Balbi, entered the service of Marie Joséphine. Louis Stanislas soon fell in love with his wife's new lady-in-waiting and installed her as his mistress, which resulted in

7260-427: The Dauphin Louis Auguste, succeeded their grandfather as King Louis XVI. As eldest brother of the King, Louis Stanislas received the title Monsieur . Louis Stanislas longed for political influence. He attempted to gain admittance to the King's council in 1774, but failed. Louis Stanislas was left in a political limbo that he called "a gap of 12 years in my political life". Louis XVI granted Louis Stanislas revenues from

7392-404: The Desired (French: le Désiré ), was King of France from 1814 to 1824, except for a brief interruption during the Hundred Days in 1815. Before his reign, he spent 23 years in exile from France beginning in 1791, during the French Revolution and the First French Empire . Until his accession to the throne of France, he held the title of Count of Provence as brother of King Louis XVI ,

7524-527: The Duke of Angoulême. This stay in Sweden was short-lived since in November 1807 he disembarked at Great Yarmouth , on the Eastern coast of England. He then took up residence in Gosfield Hall in Essex, leased to him by the Marquess of Buckingham . In 1808, Louis brought his wife and queen, Marie Joséphine, to join him in England. His stay at Gosfield Hall did not last long; he soon moved to Hartwell House in Buckinghamshire, where over one hundred courtiers were housed. The King paid £500 in rent each year to

7656-448: The French Regent , Philippe II, Duke of Orléans , in 1717 for £135,000 (equivalent to £25,940,000 in 2023), at the urging of his close friend and famed memoirist Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon . The stone was set into the crown of Louis XV for his coronation in 1722 and then into a new crown for the Coronation of Louis XVI in 1775. It was also used to adorn a hat belonging to Marie Antoinette . In 1791, its appraised value

7788-653: The French . In July, Louis XVIII and his nephew departed for Sweden for a Bourbon family conference, where Louis XVIII, the Count of Artois, and the Duke of Angoulême issued a statement condemning Napoleon's move. When the King of Prussia decreed that Louis XVIII would have to leave Prussian territory, and hence Warsaw, Tsar Alexander I invited Louis XVIII to resume residence in Jelgava, which he did. However, having to live under less generous conditions than those enjoyed under Paul I, Louis XVIII decided to embark for England as soon as possible. As time went on, Louis XVIII realised that France would never accept an attempt to return to

7920-412: The Hellenic world. The "unfree labor" could be of two types in ancient India: the underadsatva and the ahitaka , states Ishay. A person in distress could pledge themselves for work leading to underadsatava , while under ahitaka a person's "unfree labor" was pledged or mortgaged against a debt or ransom when captured during a war. These forms of slavery limited the duration of "unfree labor" and such

8052-542: The Indian subcontinent, Arakan/Bengal, Malabar, and Coromandel remained the most important source of forced labour until the 1660s. Between 1626 and 1662, the Dutch exported on an average 150–400 slaves annually from the Arakan-Bengal coast. During the first thirty years of Batavia's existence, Indian and Arakanese slaves provided the main labour force of the company's Asian headquarters. Of the 211 manumitted slaves in Batavia between 1646 and 1649, 126 (59.71%) came from South Asia, including 86 (40.76%) from Bengal. Slave raids into

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8184-414: The Indian subcontinent, Coromandel remained the centre of a sporadic slave trade throughout the seventeenth century. In various short-lived expansions accompanying natural and human-induced calamities, the Dutch exported thousands of slaves from the east coast of India. A prolonged period of drought followed by famine conditions in 1618–20 saw the first large-scale export of slaves from the Coromandel coast in

8316-476: The Legislative Assembly declared that all of the émigrés were traitors to France. Their property and titles were confiscated. The monarchy of France was abolished by the National Convention on 21 September 1792. Louis XVI was executed in January 1793 . This left his young son, Louis Charles, as the titular King. The princes-in-exile proclaimed Louis Charles "King Louis XVII ". The Count of Provence now unilaterally declared himself regent for his nephew, who

8448-441: The Queen gave birth to a daughter, who was named Marie-Thérèse Charlotte de France and given the honorific title Madame Royale . That the baby was a girl came as a relief to the Count of Provence, who kept his position as heir to Louis XVI, since Salic Law excluded women from acceding to the throne of France. However, Louis Stanislas did not remain heir to the throne much longer. On 22 October 1781, Marie Antoinette gave birth to

8580-481: The Revolution) would be compensated for their losses. Allied troops entered Paris on 31 March 1814. Louis, unable to walk, had sent the Count of Artois to France in January 1814 and issued letters patent appointing Artois Lieutenant-General of the Kingdom in the event of his being restored as king. On 11 April, five days after the French Senate had invited Louis to resume the throne of France, Napoleon I abdicated. The Count of Artois ruled as Lieutenant-General of

8712-410: The Royal Family plotted to abscond from Versailles to Metz , Provence advised the King not to leave, a suggestion he accepted. The Royal Family was forced to leave the palace at Versailles on the day after the Women's March on Versailles , 5 October 1789. They were taken to Paris. There, the Count of Provence and his wife lodged in the Luxembourg Palace , while the rest of the Royal Family stayed in

8844-424: The Sultan and regularly paid their taxes were often excused from this practice, taxes were commonly extracted from other, less loyal groups in the form of slaves. Thus, according to Barani, the Shamsi "slave-king" Balban (r. 1266–87) ordered his shiqadars in Awadh to enslave those peoples resistant to his authority, implying those who refused to supply him with tax revenue. Sultan Alauddin Khalji (r. 1296–1316)

8976-431: The Sultanate regime from Mongol marauders led to the delineation of a frontier that needed to be defended. To guard the Punjab marches, there was increasingly more and more slaves that were being bought. Their allegiance was not along ethnic lines, and their dedicated patronage allowed them to incorporate themselves into the military hierarchy as trusted officers and commanders. The Sultanate bought Turks in order to develop

9108-413: The Swiss magnate Jacques Necker . In November 1788, a second Assembly of Notables was convened by Jacques Necker, to consider the makeup of the next Estates-General. The Parlement of Paris recommended that the Estates should be the same as they were at the last assembly, in 1614 (this would mean that the clergy and nobility would have more representation than the Third Estate ). The notables rejected

9240-408: The Third Estate and its demands for tax reform. On 17 June, the Third Estate declared itself a National Assembly , an Assembly not of the Estates, but of the people. The Count of Provence urged the King to act strongly against the declaration, while the King's popular minister Jacques Necker aimed at reaching a compromise with the new assembly. Louis XVI was characteristically indecisive. On 9 July,

9372-544: The abundant availability of low-priced Indian slaves abound. Many of these Indian slaves were used by Muslim nobility in the subcontinent, but others were exported to satisfy the demand in international markets. Many slaves were forcibly converted to Islam. Children fathered by Muslim masters on non-Muslim slaves would be raised Muslim. Non-Muslim women, who Muslim soldiers and elites had slept with, would convert to Islam to avoid rejection by their own communities. Scott Levi states that "Movement of considerable numbers of Hindus to

9504-538: The assembly declared itself a National Constituent Assembly that would give France a Constitution. On 11 July, Louis XVI dismissed Necker, which led to widespread rioting across Paris. On 12 July, the sabre charge of the Régiment Royal–Allemand Cavalerie (Royal German Cavalry Regiment) of Charles-Eugène de Lorraine, Prince de Lambesc , against a crowd gathered at the Tuileries gardens , sparked

9636-558: The assembly. Brienne's reforms were then submitted to the Parlement of Paris in the hopes that they would be approved. (A parlement was responsible for ratifying the King's edicts; each province had its own parlement , but the Parlement of Paris was the most significant of all.) The Parlement of Paris refused to accept Brienne's proposals and declared that any new taxation would have to be approved by an Estates-General (the nominal parliament of France). Louis XVI and Brienne took

9768-670: The capital appeared like an Indian city, no soldier of the camp being without wealth, or without many slaves", and during the expedition of the Ghaznavid ruler Sultan Ibrahim to the Multan area of northwestern India 100,000 captives were brought back to Central Asia, and the Ghaznavids were said to have captured "five hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men and women". During the Delhi Sultanate period (1206–1555), references to

9900-654: The classics. His education was of the same quality and consistency as that of his older brother, Louis Auguste, despite the fact that Louis Auguste was heir and Louis Stanislas was not. Louis Stanislas's education was quite religious in nature; several of his teachers were priests, such as Jean-Gilles du Coëtlosquet , Bishop of Limoges; the Abbé Jean-Antoine Nollet ; and the Jesuit Guillaume-François Berthier . La Vauguyon drilled into young Louis Stanislas and his brothers

10032-552: The couple's already limited affection for each other cooling entirely. Louis Stanislas commissioned a pavilion for his mistress on a parcel of land at Versailles which became known as the Parc Balbi . Louis Stanislas lived a quiet and sedentary lifestyle at this point, not having a great deal to do since his self-proclaimed political exclusion in 1774. He kept himself occupied with his vast library of over 11,000 books at Balbi's pavilion, reading for several hours each morning. In

10164-418: The court of Versailles. The marriage remained unconsummated for years. Biographers disagree about the reason. The most common theories propose Louis Stanislas' alleged impotence (according to biographer Antonia Fraser ) or his unwillingness to sleep with his wife due to her poor personal hygiene. She never brushed her teeth, plucked her eyebrows, or used any perfumes. At the time of his marriage, Louis Stanislas

10296-603: The death of Tsar Paul I. Louis hoped that Paul's successor, Alexander I , would repudiate his father's banishment of the Bourbons, which he later did. Louis then intended to set off to the Kingdom of Naples . The Count of Artois asked Louis to send his son, Louis-Antoine, and daughter-in-law, Marie-Thérèse, to him in Edinburgh , but the King did not do so at that time. Artois had an allowance from King George III of Great Britain and he sent some money to Louis, whose court-in-exile

10428-647: The early 1780s, he also incurred huge debts totalling 10 million livres, which his brother Louis XVI paid. An Assembly of Notables (the members consisted of magistrates, mayors, nobles and clergy) was convened in February 1787 to ratify the financial reforms sought by the Controller-General of Finance Charles Alexandre de Calonne . This provided the Count of Provence, who abhorred the radical reforms proposed by Calonne, his long-awaiting opportunity to establish himself in politics. The reforms proposed

10560-479: The enslavement of non-Muslims who defaulted on their revenue payments. The slave trade continued to exist in the Mughal Empire . One Dutch merchant in the 17th century writes about Abd Allah Khan Firuz Jang, an Uzbek noble at the Mughal court during the 1620s and 1630s, who was appointed to the position of governor of the regions of Kalpi and Kher and, in the process of subjugating the local rebels, beheaded

10692-543: The first of the Shamsi slave-kings ) invaded Gujarat in 1197 and placed some 20,000 people in bondage. Roughly six years later, he enslaved an additional 50,000 people during his conquest of Kalinjar . Later in the 13th century, Balban's campaign in Ranthambore , reportedly defeated the Indian army and yielded "captives beyond computation". Levi states that the forcible enslavement of non-Muslims during Delhi Sultanate

10824-523: The flat part there is one or two little flaws which will come out in cutting, they lying on the surface of the Stone, the price they ask for it is prodigious being two hundred thousand pag. tho I believe less than one (hundred thousand) would buy it" Pitt claimed he acquired the diamond from Jamchand for 48,000 pagodas in the same year, so it is sometimes also known as the Pitt Diamond . He dispatched

10956-609: The former court ceremonies, including the lever and coucher (ceremonies that accompanied waking and bedding, respectively). On 9 June 1799, Marie-Thérèse married her cousin Louis-Antoine at the Jelgava Palace. Desperate to display to the world a united family, Louis XVIII ordered his wife Queen Marie Joséphine , who at the time was living apart from her husband in Schleswig-Holstein , to attend

11088-463: The grueling conditions and restricted freedoms experienced by many girmitiyas have led some historians to classify their system of labor as akin to slavery. The earliest surviving South Asian epigraphy, the mid 3rd Century BCE, Edicts of Ashoka , in Greek and Aramaic, independently identify obligations to slaves (Greek: δούλοις , Aramaic: עבד) and hired workers (Greek: μισθωτοῖς ), later prohibiting

11220-491: The high level of military success, advancement and capacity that the Turkic slaves added, it is disproportionate to popular sentiment regarding their Turkic origins. Alauddin also fixed the prices for slaves and animals. Barani gives the following prices for slaves: Barani states that very few slaves were sold for 100-200 tankas : if an expensive slave, whose normal price would be 1,000-2,000 after Alauddin's death, appeared in

11352-463: The journey to meet her bridegroom Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont , heir to the throne of Sardinia . In 1775, he visited Lyon and also his spinster aunts Adélaïde and Victoire while they were taking the waters at Vichy . The four provincial tours that Louis Stanislas took before the year 1791 amounted to a total of three months. On 5 May 1778, Dr. Lassonne, Marie Antoinette's private physician, confirmed her pregnancy. On 19 December 1778,

11484-752: The last king of the Ancien Régime . On 21 September 1792, the National Convention abolished the monarchy and deposed Louis XVI, who was later executed by guillotine . When his young nephew Louis XVII died in prison in June 1795, the Count of Provence claimed the throne as Louis XVIII. Following the French Revolution and during the Napoleonic era , Louis XVIII lived in exile in Prussia , Great Britain , and Russia . When

11616-462: The leaders and enslaved their women, daughters and children, who were more than 200,000 in number . When Shah Shuja was appointed as governor of Kabul, he carried out a war in Indian territory beyond the Indus . Most of the women burnt themselves to death to save their honour. Those captured were "distributed" among Muslim mansabdars . The Augustinian missionary Fray Sebastian Manrique, who

11748-433: The lineage system of Vedic traditions, wherein dasi putras could rise to the status of priests, warriors and chiefs as shown by the examples of Kaksivant Ausija, Balbutha, Taruksa, Divodasa and others. Some scholars contest the earlier interpretations of the term dasa as "slave", with or without "racial distinctions". According to Indologists Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton, known for their recent translation of

11880-521: The manumission or sale of slaves in the Majmua-i-wathaiq reveals that slaves of Indian origin ( Hindi al-asal ) accounted for over fifty-eight percent of those slaves whose region of origin is mentioned. The Khutut-i-mamhura bemahr-i qadat-i Bukhara , a smaller collection of judicial documents from early-eighteenth-century Bukhara , includes several letters of manumission, with over half of these letters referring to slaves "of Indian origin". In

12012-538: The market, nobody would buy it because of the fear of Alauddin's spies. During the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), Hindus were enslaved in such large quantities for export to the Central Asian slave market that Indian slaves became low price slaves, available and affordable, and increased their demand in international markets. Aside for war captives enslaved during The Delhi Sultanate were provided with large numbers of Hindu slaves via their revenue system, in which

12144-676: The masons for use in the construction of the Bibi-Khanym Mosque in Samarkand . Young female slaves fetched higher market price than skilled construction slaves, sometimes by 150%, as they could be kept as sex slaves. During the Chola Rule of Sri Lanka, Chola Empire destroyed Anuradhapura kingdom of Sri Lanka. Many Sinhalese were enslaved and transported to South India. Slavery existed in Portuguese India after

12276-691: The military expenses: 1797-1798 it was pledged to the Berlin Entrepreneur Sigmund Otto Joseph von Treskow and 1798–1801 to the Dutch Banker Vandenberg in Amsterdam. In 1801 the gem was permanently redeemed by Napoleon Bonaparte . Napoleon used it for the guard of his sword, designed by the goldsmiths Odiot, Boutet and Marie-Etienne Nitot . In 1812 it appeared on the Emperor's two-edged sword, which

12408-591: The model of a legal letter of manumission written by the chief qazi for his assistant to follow, the example used is of a slave "of Indian origin". Indian slaves continued to be sold in the Central Asian slave markets, such as the Bukhara slave market , well into the nineteenth century. The export of slaves from India was limited to debt defaulters and rebels against the Mughal Empire. The Ghakkars of Punjab acted as intermediaries for such slave for trade to Central Asian buyers. The Fatawa-e-Alamgiri (also known as

12540-602: The other princes-in-exile at Coblenz soon after his escape. It was there that he, the Count of Artois, and the Condé princes proclaimed that their objective was to invade France. Louis XVI was greatly annoyed by his brothers' behaviour. Provence sent emissaries to various European courts asking for financial aid, soldiers, and munition. Artois secured a castle for the court in exile in the Electorate of Trier (or "Treves"), where their maternal uncle, Clemens Wenceslaus of Saxony ,

12672-665: The owner of the estate, Sir George Lee. The Prince of Wales (the future George IV of the United Kingdom) was very charitable to the exiled Bourbons. As Prince Regent, he granted them permanent right of asylum and extremely generous allowances. The Count of Artois did not join the court-in-exile in Hartwell, preferring to continue his frivolous life in London. Louis's friend the Count of Avaray left Hartwell for Madeira in 1809, and died there in 1811. Louis replaced Avaray with

12804-417: The period as follows, Slavery and empire-formation tied in particularly well with iqta and it is within this context of Islamic expansion that elite slavery was later commonly found. It became the predominant system in North India in the thirteenth century and retained considerable importance in the fourteenth century. Slavery was still vigorous in fifteenth-century Bengal, while after that date it shifted to

12936-886: The same Buddhist text in India, Nepal and Tibet, whether they are in Sanskrit or Pali language. These Buddhist manuscripts present a set of questions to ask a person who wants to become a monk or nun . These questions inquire if the person is a dasa and dasi , but also ask additional questions such as "are you ahrtaka " and "are you vikritaka ". The later questions have been interpreted in two ways. As "are you one who has been seized" ( ahrtaka ) and "are you one who has been sold" ( vikritaka ) respectively, these terms are interpreted as slaves. Alternatively, they have also been interpreted as "are you doubtless" and "are you blameworthy" respectively, which does not mean slave. Further, according to these texts, Buddhist monasteries refused all servants, bonded labor and slaves an opportunity to become

13068-498: The same Empire. Slavery in India escalated during the Muslim domination of northern India after the 11th century. It became a social institution with the enslavement of Hindus, along with the use of slaves in armies, a practice within Muslim kingdoms of the time. According to Muslim historians of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era, after the invasions of Hindu kingdoms, other Indians were taken as slaves, with many exported to Central Asia and West Asia. Slaves from

13200-562: The same way. In January 1801, Tsar Paul told Louis XVIII that he could no longer live in Russia. The court at Jelgava was so low on funds that it had to auction some of its possessions to afford the journey out of Russia. Marie-Thérèse even sold a diamond necklace that the Emperor Paul had given her as a wedding gift. Marie-Thérèse persuaded Queen Louise of Prussia to give her family refuge on Prussian territory. Though Louise consented,

13332-470: The sea captain killed the slave and sold the diamond to the eminent Indian diamond merchant Jamchand. In a letter to his London agent dated 6   November 1701, Thomas Pitt , the Governor of Fort St. George , writes: "... This accompanies the model of a Stone I have lately seene; it weighs Mang. 303 and carr 426. It is of an excellent christaline water without any fowles, only att{sic} one end in

13464-526: The seventeenth century. Between 1622 and 1623, 1,900 slaves were shipped from central Coromandel ports, like Pulicat and Devanampattinam. Company officials on the coast declared that 2,000 more could have been bought if only they had the funds. The second expansion in the export of Coromandel slaves occurred during a famine following the revolt of the Nayaka Indian rulers of South India (Tanjavur, Senji, and Madurai) against Bijapur overlordship (1645) and

13596-534: The slavery-related law included in Fatawa-i Alamgiri were, Alongside Buddhist Oirats , Christian Russians, Afghans, and the predominantly Shia Iranians, Indian slaves were an important component of the highly active slave markets of medieval and early modern Central Asia. The all pervasive nature of slavery in this period in Central Asia is shown by the 17th century records of one Juybari Sheikh,

13728-823: The son of the Count of Artois. Louis XVIII deceived his niece by telling her that her parents' last wishes were for her to marry Louis-Antoine, and she duly agreed to Louis XVIII's wishes. Louis XVIII was forced to abandon Verona when Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the Republic of Venice in 1796. Louis XVIII had been vying for the custody of his niece Marie-Thérèse since her release from the Temple Tower in December 1795. He succeeded when Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor , agreed to relinquish his custody of her in 1796. She had been staying in Vienna with her Habsburg relatives since January 1796. Louis XVIII moved to Blankenburg in

13860-443: The sphere of Islamic influence, to the company's Asian headquarters, the "Chinese colonial city" of Batavia ( Jakarta ), and its regional centre in coastal Sri Lanka. Other destinations included the important markets of Malacca ( Melaka ) and Makassar (Ujungpandang), along with the plantation economies of eastern Indonesia (Maluku, Ambon, and Banda Islands), and the agricultural estates of the southwestern Cape Colony (South Africa). On

13992-580: The stone to London hidden in the heel of his son Robert 's shoe aboard the East Indiaman Loyal Cooke , which left Madras on 9   October 1702. It was later cut in London by the diamond cutter Harris, between 1704 and 1706. The cutting took two years and cost about £5,000 Rumours circulated that Pitt had fraudulently acquired the diamond, leading satirist Alexander Pope to pen the following lines in his Moral Essays "Asleep and naked as an INDIAN lay An honest factor stole

14124-511: The subordinate iqta'dars ordered their armies to abduct Hindus in large numbers as a means of extracting revenue. Taxes were often extracted from communities less loyal to the Sultan in the form of slaves, and non-Muslims who were not able to pay taxes could be defined as resisting the authority of the Sultan and thus abducted as slaves in warfare; Sultan ' Ala al-Din Khalji (r. 1296–1316) legalized

14256-601: The subsequent devastation of the Tanjavur countryside by the Bijapur army. Reportedly, more than 150,000 people were taken by the invading Deccani Muslim armies to Bijapur and Golconda. In 1646, 2,118 slaves were exported to Batavia, the overwhelming majority from southern Coromandel. Some slaves were also acquired further south at Tondi, Adirampatnam, and Kayalpatnam. Louis XVIII Louis XVIII (Louis Stanislas Xavier; 17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824), known as

14388-544: The throne of France, behind his father and his two elder brothers: Louis Joseph Xavier, Duke of Burgundy , and Louis Auguste, Duke of Berry . The former died in 1761, leaving Louis Auguste as heir to their father until the Dauphin's own premature death in 1765. The two deaths elevated Louis Stanislas to second in the line of succession, while his brother Louis Auguste acquired the title of Dauphin. Louis Stanislas found comfort in his governess, Madame de Marsan , Governess of

14520-533: The trading of slaves within the Empire. Dāsa are offered in examples of Pāṇini's , probably mid 4th century BCE, Sanskrit grammar, the Aṣṭādhyāyī , e.g. 2.3.69 " lusting for the slave ", 2.4.24 " the concourse of ladies and slaves ". The term dāsa and dāsyu in Vedic and other ancient Indian literature has been interpreted by as "servant" or "slave", but others have contested such meaning. The term dāsa in

14652-549: The traditional supplies from Arakan and Bengal. Until the Dutch seizure of the Portuguese settlements on the Malabar coast (1658–63), large numbers of slaves were also captured and sent from India's west coast to Batavia, Ceylon, and elsewhere. After 1663, however, the stream of forced labour from Cochin dried up to a trickle of about 50–100 and 80–120 slaves per year to Batavia and Ceylon, respectively. In contrast with other areas of

14784-795: The unpopular parliament (the Chambre introuvable ), giving rise to the liberal Doctrinaires . His reign was further marked by the formation of the Quintuple Alliance and a military intervention in Spain . Louis had no children, and upon his death the crown passed to his brother, Charles X . Louis XVIII was the last king or emperor of France to die a reigning monarch: his successor, Charles X ( r.   1824–1830) abdicated; and both Louis Philippe I ( r.   1830–1848) and Napoleon III ( r.   1852–1870) were deposed. Louis Stanislas Xavier , styled Count of Provence from birth,

14916-415: The way he thought princes should "know how to withdraw themselves, to like to work," and "to know how to reason correctly". In April 1771, when he was 15, Louis Stanislas's education was formally concluded, and his own independent household was established, which astounded contemporaries with its extravagance: in 1773, the number of his servants reached 390 In the same month his household was founded, Louis

15048-480: The wedding. Furthermore, she was to come without her long-time friend (and rumoured lover) Marguerite de Gourbillon . The Queen refused to leave her friend behind, creating an unpleasant situation that rivalled the wedding in notoriety. Louis XVIII knew that his nephew Louis-Antoine was not compatible with Marie-Thérèse. Despite this, he still pressed for the marriage, which proved to be quite unhappy and produced no children. In 1800, Louis XVIII attempted to strike up

15180-580: The western, or Southeast Africa , Madagascar , and the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius and Reunion); the middle, or Indian subcontinent (Malabar, Coromandel, and the Bengal/Arakan coast); and the eastern, or Malaysia , Indonesia , New Guinea (Irian Jaya), and the southern Philippines . The Dutch traded slaves from fragmented or weak small states and stateless societies in the East beyond

15312-488: The word slave in Greek or other ancient and medieval civilizations. According to Arthashastra, anyone who had been found guilty of nishpatitah (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime) may mortgage oneself to become dasa for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ the dasa for money and privileges. The term dasa in Indic literature when used as a suffix to a bhagavan (deity) name, refers to

15444-678: Was a work of Nitot. Napoleon's second wife, Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria , carried the Régent back to the Austrian Empire upon his exile. Later her father returned it to the French Crown Jewels . The diamond was mounted successively on the crowns of Louis XVIII , Charles X and Napoleon III . Today, mounted in a Greek diadem designed for Empress Eugenie , it remains in the French Royal Treasury at

15576-400: Was also not practised. Andre Wink summarizes the slavery in 8th and 9th century India as follows, (During the invasion of Muhammad al-Qasim), invariably numerous women and children were enslaved. The sources insist that now, in dutiful conformity to religious law, 'the one-fifth of the slaves and spoils' were set apart for the caliph's treasury and despatched to Iraq and Syria. The remainder

15708-482: Was born on 17 November 1755 in the Palace of Versailles , a younger son of Louis, Dauphin of France , and his wife Maria Josepha of Saxony . He was the grandson of the reigning King Louis XV . As a son of the Dauphin, he was a Fils de France . He was christened Louis Stanislas Xavier six months after his birth, in accordance with Bourbon family tradition, being nameless before his baptism . By this act, he also became

15840-459: Was conducted on 14 May at the Palace of Versailles . Marie Joséphine (as she was known in France) was a daughter of Victor Amadeus , Duke of Savoy (later King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia), and his wife Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain . A luxurious ball followed the wedding on 20 May. Louis Stanislas found his wife repulsive; she was considered ugly, tedious, and ignorant of the customs of

15972-625: Was engineered by local magistrates and nobles, who enticed the people to revolt against the Lit de Justice , which was quite unfavourable to the nobles and magistrates. The clergy also joined the provincial cause, and condemned Brienne's tax reforms. Brienne conceded defeat in July and agreed to a convocation of the Estates-General to meet in 1789. He resigned from his post in August and was replaced by

16104-469: Was forced to retreat with an army in tatters. In 1813, Louis XVIII issued another declaration from Hartwell. The Declaration of Hartwell was even more liberal than his Declaration of 1805, asserting that those who had served Napoleon or the Republic would not suffer repercussions for their acts, and that the original owners of the biens nationaux (lands confiscated from the nobility and clergy during

16236-427: Was granted several titles by his grandfather, Louis XV: Duke of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Perche, and Count of Senoches. During this period of his life he was often known by the title Count of Provence. On 17 December 1773, he was inaugurated as a Grand Master of the Order of St. Lazarus . On 16 April 1771, Louis Stanislas was married by proxy to Princess Maria Giuseppina of Savoy . The in-person ceremony

16368-476: Was in Bengal in 1629–30 and again in 1640, remarked on the ability of the shiqdār —a Mughal officer responsible for executive matters in the pargana , the smallest territorial unit of imperial administration to collect the revenue demand, by force if necessary, and even to enslave peasants should they default in their payments. A survey of a relatively small, restricted sample of seventy-seven letters regarding

16500-538: Was motivated by the desire for war booty and military expansion. This gained momentum under the Khalji and Tughluq dynasties, as being supported by available figures. Zia uddin Barani suggested that Sultan Alauddin Khalji owned 50,000 slave-boys, in addition to 70,000 construction slaves. Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq is said to have owned 180,000 slaves, roughly 12,000 of whom were skilled artisans. The need to secure

16632-498: Was not only being spied on by Napoleonic agents but was also being forced to make significant economies, financed as it was mainly from interest owed by the Emperor Francis II on valuables his aunt, Marie Antoinette, had removed from France. In 1803, Napoleon tried to force Louis XVIII to renounce his right to the throne of France, but Louis refused. In May the following year, 1804, Napoleon declared himself Emperor of

16764-519: Was obese and waddled instead of walked. He never exercised and continued to eat enormous amounts of food. Despite the fact that Louis Stanislas was not infatuated with his wife, he boasted that the two enjoyed vigorous conjugal relations – but such declarations were held in low esteem by courtiers at Versailles. He also proclaimed his wife to be pregnant merely to spite Louis Auguste and his wife Marie Antoinette , who had not yet consummated their marriage. The Dauphin and Louis Stanislas did not enjoy

16896-483: Was scattered among the army of Islam. At Rūr, a random 60,000 captives reduced to slavery. At Brahamanabad 30,000 slaves were allegedly taken. At Multan 6,000. Slave raids continued to be made throughout the late Umayyad period in Sindh, but also much further into Hind, as far as Ujjain and Malwa . The Abbasid governors raided Punjab, where many prisoners and slaves were taken. One of the more known cases of slavery during

17028-644: Was the Archbishop-Elector . The activities of the émigrés bore fruit when the rulers of Prussia and the Holy Roman Empire gathered at Dresden . They released the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791, which urged Europe to intervene in France if Louis XVI or his family were threatened. Provence's endorsement of the declaration was not well received in France, either by the ordinary citizens or by Louis XVI himself. In January 1792,

17160-712: Was the cause of enslavement of Indians for the Central Asian slave market already during the Umayyad conquest of Sindh of the 8th-century, when the armies of the Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim enslaved tens of thousands of Indian civilians and well as soldiers. During the Ghaznavid campaigns in India of the 11th-century, hundreds of thousands of Indians were captured and sold on the Central Asian slave markets; in 1014 "the army of Islam brought to Ghazna about 200,000 captives (qarib do sit hazar banda), and much wealth, so that

17292-496: Was too young to be head of the House of Bourbon. Louis XVII, still a minor, died in prison in June 1795. His only surviving sibling was his sister Marie-Thérèse , who was not considered a candidate for the throne because of France's traditional adherence to Salic law . Thus on 16 June, the princes-in-exile declared the Count of Provence "King Louis XVIII". The new king accepted their declaration soon after and busied himself drafting

17424-619: Was £480,000 (equivalent to £72,920,000 in 2023). In 1792, during the revolutionary furore in Paris , "Le Régent", or the regent diamond, was stolen along with other crown jewels of France , but was later recovered. It was found in some roof timbers in an attic in Paris. The diamond was used as security or collateral on several occasions by the Directoire and later the Consulat to finance

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