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126-492: Definitions of renewable resources may also include agricultural production, as in agricultural products and to an extent water resources . In 1962, Paul Alfred Weiss defined renewable resources as: " The total range of living organisms providing man with life, fibres, etc... ". Another type of renewable resources is renewable energy resources. Common sources of renewable energy include solar, geothermal and wind power, which are all categorized as renewable resources. Fresh water

252-446: A billion tonnes of southern Africa's soil are being lost to erosion annually, which if continued will result in halving of crop yields within thirty to fifty years. Improper soil management is threatening the ability to grow sufficient food. Intensive agriculture reduces the carbon level in soil, impairing soil structure, crop growth and ecosystem functioning, and accelerating climate change . Modification of agricultural practices

378-443: A challenge for farmers who care about competition and profitability. There must also be an incentive for farmers to change their methods of agriculture. The use of public policy, advertisements, and laws that make sustainable agriculture mandatory or desirable can be utilized to overcome these social barriers. Environmental barriers prevent the ability to protect and conserve the natural ecosystem. Examples of these barriers include

504-517: A commercial analysis—e.g. 21-0-0-24 which would contain 21% nitrogen and 24% sulfate. Inorganic fertilizers are generally less expensive and have higher concentrations of nutrients than organic fertilizers. Also, since nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium generally must be in the inorganic forms to be taken up by plants, inorganic fertilizers are generally immediately bioavailable to plants without modification. However, studies suggest that chemical fertilizers have adverse health impacts on humans including

630-459: A drastic increase in the efficiency of material and energy use. To make that transition, long- and short-term goals will need to be balanced enhancing equity and quality of life. The barriers to sustainable agriculture can be broken down and understood through three different dimensions. These three dimensions are seen as the core pillars to sustainability : social, environmental, and economic pillars. The social pillar addresses issues related to

756-584: A large role in whether sustainable practices will be adopted. The human and material capital required to shift to sustainable methods of agriculture requires training of the workforce and making investments in new technology and products, which comes at a high cost. In addition to this, farmers practicing conventional agriculture can mass produce their crops, and therefore maximize their profitability. This would be difficult to do in sustainable agriculture which encourages low production capacity. The author James Howard Kunstler claims almost all modern technology

882-463: A layer in the atmosphere that traps radiation from the sun. The radiation converts to heat which causes global warming , which is better known as the greenhouse effect . Deforestation also affects the water cycle . It reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion , flooding and landslides ensue. Sustainable agriculture Sustainable agriculture

1008-534: A limited supply. This allows the irrigation of crops without decreasing natural fresh water sources. While desalination can be a tool to provide water to areas that need it to sustain agriculture, it requires money and resources. Regions of China have been considering large scale desalination in order to increase access to water, but the current cost of the desalination process makes it impractical. Women working in sustainable agriculture come from numerous backgrounds, ranging from academia to labour. From 1978-2007, in

1134-452: A limiting factor on plant growth. Peer-reviewed and published scientific studies have shown that increasing CO 2 is highly effective at promoting plant growth up to levels over 300 ppm. Further increases in CO 2 can, to a very small degree, continue to increase net photosynthetic output. Soil depletion occurs when the components which contribute to fertility are removed and not replaced, and

1260-487: A number of decisions that depleted the soils, including: allowing herd animals to wander freely, not replenishing soils with manure, and a sequence of events that led to erosion. William Cronon wrote that "...the long-term effect was to put those soils in jeopardy. The removal of the forest, the increase in destructive floods, the soil compaction and close-cropping wrought by grazing animals, ploughing—all served to increase erosion." Cronon continues, explaining, “Where mowing

1386-458: A quarter of the Earth's ice-free land area is subject to human-induced degradation (medium confidence). Soil erosion from agricultural fields is estimated to be currently 10 to 20 times (no tillage) to more than 100 times (conventional tillage) higher than the soil formation rate (medium confidence)." Almost half of the land on earth is covered with dry land, which is susceptible to degradation. Over

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1512-513: A resource. In land-use planning and management, considering the impacts of land-use changes on factors such as soil erosion can support long-term agricultural sustainability, as shown by a study of Wadi Ziqlab, a dry area in the Middle East where farmers graze livestock and grow olives, vegetables, and grains. Looking back over the 20th century shows that for people in poverty, following environmentally sound land practices has not always been

1638-564: A result of fossil fuel resources being depleted. It may therefore decrease global food security unless action is taken to 'decouple' fossil fuel energy from food production, with a move towards 'energy-smart' agricultural systems including renewable energy . The use of solar powered irrigation in Pakistan is said to be a closed system for agricultural water irrigation. The environmental cost of transportation could be avoided if people use local products. In some areas sufficient rainfall

1764-624: A significant percentage of (middle European) farmers yields went into livestock , which provides as well organic fertiliser. Oxen and horses were important for transportation purposes, drove engines as e.g. in treadmills . Other regions solved the transportation problem with terracing , urban and garden agriculture. Further conflicts as between forestry and herding, or (sheep) herders and cattle farmers led to various solutions. Some confined wool production and sheep to large state and nobility domains or outsourced to professional shepherds with larger wandering herds. The British Agricultural Revolution

1890-635: A significant portion live off the food they grow themselves , and it will be profitable because the yield of their main produce will remain stable. Not all regions are suitable for agriculture. The technological advancement of the past few decades has allowed agriculture to develop in some of these regions. For example, Nepal has built greenhouses to deal with its high altitude and mountainous regions. Greenhouses allow for greater crop production and also use less water since they are closed systems. Desalination techniques can turn salt water into fresh water which allows greater access to water for areas with

2016-417: A significant role in causing climate change ( food systems are responsible for one third of the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions ), water scarcity , water pollution , land degradation , deforestation and other processes; it is simultaneously causing environmental changes and being impacted by these changes. Sustainable agriculture consists of environment friendly methods of farming that allow

2142-475: A third of the complete research grants in Nazi Germany on agricultural and genetic research and especially on resources needed in case of a further German war effort. A wide array of agrarian research institutes still existing today and having importance in the field was founded or enlarged in the time. There were some major failures as trying to e.g. grow frost resistant olive species, but some success in

2268-418: A valuable renewable source of pharmacological ingredients. Before GMO production set in, insulin and important hormones were based on animal sources. Feathers , an important byproduct of poultry farming for food, is still being used as filler and as base for keratin in general. Same applies for the chitin produced in farming Crustaceans which may be used as base of chitosan . The most important part of

2394-437: A viable option due to many complex and challenging life circumstances. Currently, increased land degradation in developing countries may be connected with rural poverty among smallholder farmers when forced into unsustainable agricultural practices out of necessity. Converting big parts of the land surface to agriculture has severe environmental and health consequences. For example, it leads to rise in zoonotic disease (like

2520-510: Is farming in sustainable ways meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on an understanding of ecosystem services . There are many methods to increase the sustainability of agriculture. When developing agriculture within sustainable food systems , it is important to develop flexible business processes and farming practices. Agriculture has an enormous environmental footprint , playing

2646-458: Is irrigated with low pH / acidic water , the useful salts (Ca, Mg, K, P, S, etc.) are removed by draining water from the acidic soil and in addition unwanted aluminium and manganese salts to the plants are dissolved from the soil impeding plant growth. When soil is irrigated with high salinity water or sufficient water is not draining out from the irrigated soil, the soil would convert into saline soil or lose its fertility. Saline water enhance

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2772-431: Is thermoplastic starch. Other forms include Cellulose bioplastics, bio polyester , Polylactic acid , and bio-derived polyethylene . The production and use of bioplastics is generally regarded as a more sustainable activity when compared to plastic production from petroleum (petroplastic); however, manufacturing of bioplastic materials is often still reliant upon petroleum as an energy and materials source. Because of

2898-405: Is a method of growing only one crop at a time in a given field, which can damage land and cause it to become either unusable or suffer from reduced yields . Monoculture can also cause the build-up of pathogens and pests that target one specific species. The Great Irish Famine (1845–1849) is a well-known example of the dangers of monoculture. Crop rotation and long-term crop rotations confer

3024-445: Is a non-renewable resource and it is being depleted by mining for agricultural use: peak phosphorus will occur within the next few hundred years, or perhaps earlier. Potassium is a macronutrient very important for plant development and is commonly sought in fertilizers. This nutrient is essential for agriculture because it improves water retention, nutrient value, yield, taste, color, texture and disease resistance of crops. It

3150-420: Is a recognized method of carbon sequestration as soil can act as an effective carbon sink . Soil management techniques include no-till farming , keyline design and windbreaks to reduce wind erosion, reincorporation of organic matter into the soil, reducing soil salinization , and preventing water run-off. As the global population increases and demand for food increases, there is pressure on land as

3276-443: Is a type of fuel whose energy is derived from biological carbon fixation . Biofuels include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as solid biomass , liquid fuels and various biogases . Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation , mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn , sugarcane or switchgrass . Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils and animal fats . Biodiesel

3402-598: Is also a rapidly growing barrier, one that farmers have little control over, which can be seen through place-based barriers. These place-based barriers include factors such as weather conditions, topography , and soil quality which can cause losses in production, resulting in the reluctance to switch from conventional practices. Many environmental benefits are also not visible or immediately evident. Significant changes such as lower rates of soil and nutrient loss, improved soil structure , and higher levels of beneficial microorganisms take time. In conventional agriculture ,

3528-452: Is also the sole source of feeding for wild carnivores. The phrase sustainable agriculture was coined by Australian agricultural scientist Gordon McClymont . It has been defined as "an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will last over the long term". Expansion of agricultural land reduces biodiversity and contributes to deforestation . The Food and Agriculture Organization of

3654-434: Is an example of a renewable resource. Water can be considered a renewable material when carefully controlled usage and temperature, treatment, and release are followed. If not, it would become a non-renewable resource at that location. For example, as groundwater is usually removed from an aquifer at a rate much greater than its very slow natural recharge, it is a considered non-renewable resource. Removal of water from

3780-414: Is available for crop growth, but many other areas require irrigation . For irrigation systems to be sustainable, they require proper management (to avoid salinization ) and must not use more water from their source than is naturally replenishable. Otherwise, the water source effectively becomes a non-renewable resource . Improvements in water well drilling technology and submersible pumps , combined with

3906-496: Is bad and that there cannot be sustainability unless agriculture is done in ancient traditional ways. Efforts toward more sustainable agriculture are supported in the sustainability community, however, these are often viewed only as incremental steps and not as an end. One promising method of encouraging sustainable agriculture is through local farming and community gardens . Incorporating local produce and agricultural education into schools, communities, and institutions can promote

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4032-542: Is becoming increasingly harder to find and its reserves are starting to be depleted due to the excessive use as a fertilizer. The widespread use of phosphorus in fertilizers has led to pollution and eutrophication . Recently the term peak phosphorus has been coined, due to the limited occurrence of rock phosphate in the world. A wide variety of materials have been described as soil conditioners due to their ability to improve soil quality , including biochar , offering multiple soil health benefits. Food waste compost

4158-431: Is caused in part by overfishing, caused by human competition over the same renewable resources Besides their role as a resource for fuel and building material, trees protect the environment by absorbing carbon dioxide and by creating oxygen. The destruction of rain forests is one of the critical causes of climate change . Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces

4284-473: Is considered a renewable source of water, although reducing its dependence on fossil fuel energy is needed for it to be fully renewable. Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. Most food has its origin in renewable resources. Food is obtained directly from plants and animals. Hunting may not be the first source of meat in the modernised world, but it is still an important and essential source for many rural and remote groups. It

4410-513: Is eroded or depleted of its original organic material. The Dust Bowl in the Great Plains of North America is a great example of this with about one-half of the original topsoil of the great plains having disappeared since the beginning of agricultural production there in the 1880s. Outside of the context of colonialism topsoil depletion can historically be attributed to many past civilizations' collapses. As historian David Silkenat explains,

4536-518: Is found in the soil in both inorganic and organic forms and makes up approximately 0.05% of soil biomass. Phosphorus fertilizers are the main input of inorganic phosphorus in agricultural soils and approximately 70%–80% of phosphorus in cultivated soils is inorganic. Long-term use of phosphate-containing chemical fertilizers causes eutrophication and deplete soil microbial life, so people have looked to other sources. Phosphorus fertilizers are manufactured from rock phosphate . However, rock phosphate

4662-431: Is not sustainable agriculture. An example of a case in which a global view may be warranted is the application of fertilizer or manure , which can improve the productivity of a farm but can pollute nearby rivers and coastal waters ( eutrophication ). The other extreme can also be undesirable, as the problem of low crop yields due to exhaustion of nutrients in the soil has been related to rainforest destruction. In Asia,

4788-526: Is often used in the cultivation of grains, fruits, vegetables, rice, wheat, millets, sugar, corn, soybeans, palm oil and coffee. Potassium chloride (KCl) represents the most widely source of K used in agriculture, accounting for 90% of all potassium produced for agricultural use.   The use of KCl leads to high concentrations of chloride (Clˉ) in soil harming its health due to the increase in soil salinity, imbalance in nutrient availability and this ion's biocidal effect for soil organisms. In consequences

4914-421: Is one of the main concerns regarding water resources. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry. Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants (which use water for cooling), ore and oil refineries (which use water in chemical processes) and manufacturing plants (which use water as a solvent), it is also used for dumping garbage. Desalination of seawater

5040-425: Is one of the primary contributing factors to erosion, due to mechanised agricultural equipment that allows for deep plowing, which severely increases the amount of soil that is available for transport by water erosion . The phenomenon called peak soil describes how large-scale factory farming techniques are affecting humanity's ability to grow food in the future. Without efforts to improve soil management practices,

5166-752: Is primarily methane ( CH 4 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulphide ( H 2 S ), moisture and siloxanes . Natural fibres are a class of hair-like materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to pieces of thread . They can be used as a component of composite materials. They can also be matted into sheets to make products such as paper or felt . Fibres are of two types: natural fibre which consists of animal and plant fibres, and man made fibre which consists of synthetic fibres and regenerated fibres. Renewable resources are endangered by non-regulated industrial developments and growth. They must be carefully managed to avoid exceeding

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5292-640: Is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe. Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes ., etc. is also a renewable source of energy. Biogas typically refers to a mixture of gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen . Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic bacteria or fermentation of biodegradable materials such as manure , sewage , municipal waste , green waste , plant material , and crops. It

5418-409: Is readily defined as forever, that is, agricultural environments that are designed to promote endless regeneration". It balances the need for resource conservation with the needs of farmers pursuing their livelihood . It is considered to be reconciliation ecology , accommodating biodiversity within human landscapes. Oftentimes, the execution of sustainable practices within farming comes through

5544-529: Is referring to biological material from living, or recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials. Sustainable harvesting and use of renewable resources (i.e., maintaining a positive renewal rate) can reduce air pollution , soil contamination , habitat destruction and land degradation . Biomass energy is derived from six distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, plants, waste, landfill gases , and alcohol fuels . Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since

5670-482: Is the polyketide biosynthetic pathway, which generates chemicals containing repeated alkyl chain units with potential for a wide variety of functional groups at the different carbon atoms. Polyurethane research is ongoing that specifically uses renewable resources. Bioplastics are a form of plastics derived from renewable biomass sources, such as vegetable fats and oils , lignin , corn starch , pea starch or microbiota . The most common form of bioplastic

5796-463: Is the ability to feed ever-growing populations across the world. The growing popularity of sustainable agriculture is connected to the wide-reaching fear that the planet's carrying capacity (or planetary boundaries ), in terms of the ability to feed humanity, has been reached or even exceeded. There are several key principles associated with sustainability in agriculture: It "considers long-term as well as short-term economics because sustainability

5922-421: Is the element in soil that is most often lacking. Nitrogen and potassium are also needed in substantial amounts. For this reason these three elements are always identified on a commercial fertilizer analysis. For example, a 10-10-15 fertilizer has 10 percent nitrogen, 10 percent available phosphorus (P 2 O 5 ) and 15 percent water-soluble potassium (K 2 O). Sulfur is the fourth element that may be identified in

6048-497: The Coronavirus disease 2019 ) due to the degradation of natural buffers between humans and animals, reducing biodiversity and creating larger groups of genetically similar animals. Land is a finite resource on Earth. Although expansion of agricultural land can decrease biodiversity and contribute to deforestation , the picture is complex; for instance, a study examining the introduction of sheep by Norse settlers (Vikings) to

6174-455: The Economics of Land Degradation Initiative which seek to establish an economic cost-benefit analysis on the practice of sustainable land management and sustainable agriculture. Triple bottom line frameworks include social and environmental alongside a financial bottom line. A sustainable future can be feasible if growth in material consumption and population is slowed down and if there is

6300-638: The Great Depression and World War II , so that in one point of time 40% of the vegetables of the USA was produced in this way. The practice became more popular again in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic . This method permits to grow food in a relatively sustainable way and at the same time can make it easier for poor people to obtain food. Costs, such as environmental problems, not covered in traditional accounting systems (which take into account only

6426-530: The United States , the number of women farm operators has tripled. In 2007, women operated 14 percent of farms, compared to five percent in 1978. Much of the growth is due to women farming outside of the "male dominated field of conventional agriculture". The practice of growing food in the backyard of houses, schools, etc., by families or by communities became widespread in the US at the time of World War I ,

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6552-603: The United States . Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the UK . The biomass power generating industry in the United States, which consists of approximately 11,000 MW of summer operating capacity actively supplying power to the grid, produces about 1.4 percent of the U.S. electricity supply. A biofuel

6678-451: The flooding of the Nile , the long-term use of biochar , and use of crop and livestock landraces that are adapted to less than ideal conditions such as pests, drought, or lack of nutrients. Crops that require high levels of soil nutrients can be cultivated in a more sustainable manner with appropriate fertilizer management practices. Phosphate is a primary component in fertilizer . It is

6804-415: The loss of biodiversity and increased soil erosion. In modern agriculture, energy is used in on-farm mechanisation, food processing, storage, and transportation processes. It has therefore been found that energy prices are closely linked to food prices . Oil is also used as an input in agricultural chemicals . The International Energy Agency projects higher prices of non-renewable energy resources as

6930-523: The turgor pressure or osmotic pressure requirement which impedes the off take of water and nutrients by the plant roots. Top soil loss takes place in alkali soils due to erosion by rain water surface flows or drainage as they form colloids (fine mud) in contact with water. Plants absorb water-soluble inorganic salts only from the soil for their growth. Soil as such does not lose fertility just by growing crops but it lose its fertility due to accumulation of unwanted and depletion of wanted inorganic salts from

7056-521: The Amazon was strongly influenced by the formation of Dark Earth. As a result, Amazonian societies benefitted from the dark earth in terms of agricultural success and enhanced food production. Soil analyses have been completed on the modern and ancient Kuikuro Indigenous Territory in the Upper Xingu River basin in southeastern Amazonia through archaeological and ethnographic research to determine

7182-728: The Amazonian regions of South America, particularly the size of the communities and the depth of interactions with the environment, are continually debated. Central to the debate is the influence of Dark Earth. Dark Earth is a type of soil found in the Amazon that has a darker color, higher organic carbon content, and higher fertility than soil in other regions of South America which makes it highly coveted even today. Dark Earth deposits have been found, through ethnographic and archaeological studies, to have been created through ancient Indigenous practices by intentional soil management. Ethnoarchaeologist Morgan Schmidt outlines how this carbon-rich soil

7308-591: The Common Code for the Coffee Community (4C). The term "sustainable agriculture" was defined in 1977 by the USDA as an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will, over the long term: Yet the idea of having a sustainable relationship with the land has been prevalent in indigenous communities for centuries before the term was formally added to

7434-625: The Faroe Islands of the North Atlantic concluded that, over time, the fine partitioning of land plots contributed more to soil erosion and degradation than grazing itself. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that in coming decades, cropland will continue to be lost to industrial and urban development , along with reclamation of wetlands, and conversion of forest to cultivation, resulting in

7560-466: The Middle East for example, many countries find it difficult to grow produce because of droughts, lack of soil, and lack of irrigation. The Middle East has three countries that indicate a decline in crop production, the highest rates of productivity decline are found in hilly and dryland areas. Many countries in Africa also undergo a depletion of fertile soil. In regions of dry climate like Sudan and

7686-491: The US, Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), use a similar approach. German Energiewende is using feed-in tariffs. An unexpected outcome of the subsidies was the quick increase of pellet byfiring in conventional fossil fuel plants (compare Tilbury power stations ) and cement works, making wood respectively biomass accounting for about half of Europe's renewable-energy consumption. Biorenewable chemicals are chemicals created by biological organisms that provide feedstocks for

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7812-427: The United Nations estimates that in coming decades, cropland will continue to be lost to industrial and urban development, along with reclamation of wetlands, and conversion of forest to cultivation, resulting in the loss of biodiversity and increased soil erosion . Although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth , crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability of water . Monoculture

7938-531: The ability of soil to sustain agricultural plant growth , i.e. to provide plant habitat and result in sustained and consistent yields of high quality. It also refers to the soil's ability to supply plant/crop nutrients in the right quantities and qualities over a sustained period of time. A fertile soil has the following properties: The following properties contribute to soil fertility in most situations: In lands used for agriculture and other human activities, maintenance of soil fertility typically requires

8064-422: The adoption of technology and environmentally-focused appropriate technology . Practices that can cause long-term damage to soil include excessive tilling of the soil (leading to erosion ) and irrigation without adequate drainage (leading to salinization ). The most important factors for a farming site are climate , soil, nutrients and water resources . Of the four, water and soil conservation are

8190-436: The advent of burning wood to make fire, and wood remains the largest biomass energy source today. However, low tech use of biomass, which still amounts for more than 10% of world energy needs may induce indoor air pollution in developing nations and results in between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths in 2000. The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by-products, such as wood residues, are common in

8316-414: The availability of arable soil may become increasingly problematic. Methods to combat erosion include no-till farming , using a keyline design , growing wind breaks to hold the soil, and widespread use of compost . Fertilizers and pesticides can also have an effect of soil erosion, which can contribute to soil salinity and prevent other species from growing. Phosphate is a primary component in

8442-666: The average annual flow of rivers from rainfall, flows from outside a country, the percentage of water coming from outside a country, and gross water withdrawal. It is estimated that agricultural practices consume 69% of the world's fresh water. Sustainable agriculture attempts to solve multiple problems with one broad solution. The goal of sustainable agricultural practices is to decrease environmental degradation due to farming while increasing crop–and thus food–output. There are many varying strategies attempting to use sustainable farming practices in order to increase rural economic development within small-scale farming communities. Two of

8568-486: The barriers preventing sustainable agricultural practices. Social barriers to sustainable agriculture include cultural shifts, the need for collaboration, incentives, and new legislation. The move from conventional to sustainable agriculture will require significant behavioural changes from both farmers and consumers. Cooperation and collaboration between farmers is necessary to successfully transition to sustainable practices with minimal complications. This can be seen as

8694-600: The benefits are easily visible with no weeds, pests, etc..., but the long term costs to the soil and surrounding ecosystems are hidden and "externalized". Conventional agricultural practices since the evolution of technology have caused significant damage to the environment through biodiversity loss , disrupted ecosystems, poor water quality, among other harms. The economic obstacles to implementing sustainable agricultural practices include low financial return/profitability, lack of financial incentives, and negligible capital investments. Financial incentives and circumstances play

8820-545: The black market in rhinoceros horn reduced the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years. The success of the German chemical industry till World War I was based on the replacement of colonial products. The predecessors of IG Farben dominated the world market for synthetic dyes at the beginning of the 20th century and had an important role in artificial pharmaceuticals , photographic film , agricultural chemicals and electrochemicals . However

8946-737: The bluefin tuna. The European Community and other organisations are trying to regulate fishery as to protect species and to prevent their extinctions. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea treaty deals with aspects of overfishing in articles 61, 62, and 65. Examples of overfishing exist in areas such as the North Sea of Europe , the Grand Banks of North America and the East China Sea of Asia. The decline of penguin population

9072-572: The case of hemp , flax , rapeseed , which are still of current importance. During World War 2, German scientists tried to use Russian Taraxacum (dandelion) species to manufacture natural rubber . Rubber dandelions are still of interest, as scientists in the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME) announced 2013 to have developed a cultivar that is suitable for commercial production of natural rubber. Several legal and economic means have been used to enhance

9198-404: The chemical fertiliser applied most commonly in modern agricultural production. However, scientists estimate that rock phosphate reserves will be depleted in 50–100 years and that Peak Phosphate will occur in about 2030. Industrial processing and logistics also have an effect on agriculture's sustainability. The way and locations crops are sold requires energy for transportation, as well as

9324-427: The chemical industry. Biorenewable chemicals can provide solar-energy-powered substitutes for the petroleum-based carbon feedstocks that currently supply the chemical industry. The tremendous diversity of enzymes in biological organisms, and the potential for synthetic biology to alter these enzymes to create yet new chemical functionalities, can drive the chemical industry. A major platform for creation of new chemicals

9450-622: The conditions in which societies are born into, growing in, and learning from. It deals with shifting away from traditional practices of agricultural and moving into new sustainable practices that will create better societies and conditions. The environmental pillar addresses climate change and focuses on agricultural practices that protect the environment for future generations. The economic pillar discovers ways in which sustainable agriculture can be practiced while fostering economic growth and stability, with minimal disruptions to livelihoods. All three pillars must be addressed to determine and overcome

9576-622: The conditions which support soil's fertility are not maintained. This leads to poor crop yields. In agriculture, depletion can be due to excessively intense cultivation and inadequate soil management . Depletion may occur through a variety of other effects, including overtillage (which damages soil structure), underuse of nutrient inputs which leads to mining of the soil nutrient bank, and salinization of soil. Soil fertility can be severely challenged when land-use changes rapidly. For example, in Colonial New England , colonists made

9702-442: The consumption of freshly grown produce which will drive consumer demand. Some foresee a true sustainable steady state economy that may be very different from today's: greatly reduced energy usage, minimal ecological footprint , fewer consumer packaged goods , local purchasing with short food supply chains , little processed foods , more home and community gardens , etc. Fertility (soil) Soil fertility refers to

9828-499: The countries that make up the Sahara Desert , droughts and soil degradation is common. Cash crops such as teas, maize, and beans require a variety of nutrients in order to grow healthy. Soil fertility has declined in the farming regions of Africa and the use of artificial and natural fertilizers has been used to regain the nutrients of ground soil. The details of Indigenous societies prior to European colonization in 1492 within

9954-854: The development of drip irrigation and low-pressure pivots, have made it possible to regularly achieve high crop yields in areas where reliance on rainfall alone had previously made successful agriculture unpredictable. However, this progress has come at a price. In many areas, such as the Ogallala Aquifer , the water is being used faster than it can be replenished. According to the UC Davis Agricultural Sustainability Institute, several steps must be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems even in "normal" years with average rainfall. These measures include both policy and management actions: Indicators for sustainable water resource development include

10080-495: The development of chronic disease from the toxins. As for the environment, over-reliance on inorganic fertilizers disrupts the natural nutrient balance in the soil, resulting in lower soil quality, loss of organic matter, and higher chances for erosion in the soil. Additionally, the water-soluble nitrogen in inorganic fertilizers does not provide for the long-term needs of the plant and creates water pollution. Slow-release fertilizers may reduce leaching loss of nutrients and may make

10206-494: The development of plants and soil organisms is affected, putting at risk soil biodiversity and agricultural productivity. A sustainable option for replacing KCl are chloride-free fertilizers, its use should take into account plants' nutrition needs, and the promotion of soil health. Land degradation is becoming a severe global problem. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change : "About

10332-432: The direct costs of production incurred by the farmer) are known as externalities . Netting studied sustainability and intensive agriculture in smallholder systems through history. There are several studies incorporating externalities such as ecosystem services, biodiversity, land degradation, and sustainable land management in economic analysis. These include The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity study and

10458-652: The early 2000s stating that when people in their communities are not factored into the agricultural process that serious harm is done. The social scientist Charles Kellogg has stated that, "In a final effort, exploited people pass their suffering to the land." Sustainable agriculture mean the ability to permanently and continuously "feed its constituent populations". There are a lot of opportunities that can increase farmers' profits, improve communities, and continue sustainable practices. For example, in Uganda , Genetically Modified Organisms were originally illegal. However, with

10584-522: The energy cost for materials, labour , and transport . Food sold at a local location, such a farmers' market , have reduced energy overheads. Air is a renewable resource. All living organisms need oxygen , nitrogen (directly or indirectly), carbon (directly or indirectly) and many other gases in small quantities for their survival . An important renewable resource is wood provided by means of forestry , which has been used for construction, housing and firewood since ancient times. Plants provide

10710-463: The environment naturally intersect in complex and powerful ways, leaving lasting effects from the period of emancipation through modern-day reckonings with racial justice…the land too fell victim to the slave owner’s lash”. One of the most widespread occurrences of soil depletion as of 2008 is in tropical zones where nutrient content of soils is low. The depletion of soil has affected the state of plant life and crops in agriculture in many countries. In

10836-414: The environment. Soil fertility and depletion have different origins and consequences in various parts of the world. The intentional creation of dark earth in the Amazon promotes the important relationship between indigenous communities and their land. In African and Middle Eastern regions, humans and the environment are also altered due to soil depletion. Bioavailable phosphorus (available to soil life)

10962-457: The environment. Possible sources of nitrates that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include: The last option was proposed in the 1970s, but is only gradually becoming feasible. Sustainable options for replacing other nutrient inputs such as phosphorus and potassium are more limited. Other options include long-term crop rotations , returning to natural cycles that annually flood cultivated lands (returning lost nutrients) such as

11088-557: The former Plant breeding research institutes took a different approach. After the loss of the German colonial empire , important players in the field as Erwin Baur and Konrad Meyer switched to using local crops as base for economic autarky . Meyer as a key agricultural scientist and spatial planner of the Nazi era managed and lead Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft resources and focused about

11214-563: The fragmentation in the market and ambiguous definitions it is difficult to describe the total market size for bioplastics, but the global production capacity is estimated at 327,000 tonnes. In contrast, global consumption of all flexible packaging is estimated at 12.3 million tonnes. Bioasphalt is an asphalt alternative made from non-petroleum based renewable resources. Manufacturing sources of bioasphalt include sugar , molasses and rice , corn and potato starches , and vegetable oil based waste. Asphalt made with vegetable oil based binders

11340-562: The goals of Southern plantation and slave owners, instead of measuring productivity based on outputs per acre, were to maximize the amount of labor that could be extracted from the enslaved workforce. The landscape was seen as disposable, and the African slaves were seen as expendable. Once these Southern farmers forced slaves to leach soils and engage in mass deforestation, they would discard the land and move towards more fertile prospects. The forced slave practices created extensive destruction on

11466-569: The human body used for non-medical purposes is human hair as for artificial hair integrations , which is being traded worldwide. Historically, renewable resources like firewood, latex , guano , charcoal , wood ash , plant colors as indigo , and whale products have been crucial for human needs but failed to supply demand in the beginning of the industrial era. Early modern times faced large problems with overuse of renewable resources as in deforestation , overgrazing or overfishing . In addition to fresh meat and milk, which as food items are not

11592-503: The human relation to the soil. The “results demonstrate the intentional creation of dark earth, highlighting how Indigenous knowledge can provide strategies for sustainable rainforest management”. In Egypt, earthworms of the Nile River Valley contributed to the significant fertility of the soils. As a result, Cleopatra declared the earthworm and sacred animal to recognize the animal’s positive impact. No one, including farmers,

11718-438: The intensity, seasonality, and frequency of the burns, the conservation of biodiversity and the overall health of the soil can be negatively impacted by fire. In addition to soil erosion through using too much or too little fire, colonial agriculture also resulted in topsoil depletion. Topsoil depletion occurs when the nutrient-rich organic topsoil , which takes hundreds to thousands of years to build up under natural conditions,

11844-448: The land. The environmental impact included draining swamps, clearing forests for monocropping and fuel steamships, and introducing invasive species, all leading to fragile ecosystems. In the aftermath, these ecosystems left hillsides eroded, rivers clogged with sterile soil, and extinction of native species. Silkenat summarizes this phenomenon of the relationship between enslavement and soil, “Although typically treated separately, slavery and

11970-495: The lexicon. A common consensus is that sustainable farming is the most realistic way to feed growing populations. In order to successfully feed the population of the planet, farming practices must consider future costs–to both the environment and the communities they fuel.   The risk of not being able to provide enough resources for everyone led to the adoption of technology within the sustainability field to increase farm productivity. The ideal end result of this advancement

12096-854: The main sources for renewable resources, the main distinction is between energy crops and non-food crops . A large variety of lubricants , industrially used vegetable oils, textiles and fibre made e.g. of cotton , copra or hemp , paper derived from wood , rags or grasses , bioplastic are based on plant renewable resources. A large variety of chemical based products like latex , ethanol , resin , sugar and starch can be provided with plant renewables. Animal based renewables include fur , leather , technical fat and lubricants and further derived products, as e.g. animal glue , tendons , casings or in historical times ambra and baleen provided by whaling . With regard to pharmacy ingredients and legal and illegal drugs, plants are important sources, however e.g. venom of snakes, frogs and insects has been

12222-839: The market share of renewables. The UK uses Non-Fossil Fuel Obligations (NFFO), a collection of orders requiring the electricity distribution network operators in England and Wales to purchase electricity from the nuclear power and renewable energy sectors. Similar mechanisms operate in Scotland (the Scottish Renewable Orders under the Scottish Renewables Obligation) and Northern Ireland (the Northern Ireland Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation). In

12348-505: The most amenable to human intervention. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, the land suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes either unusable or suffers from reduced yields . Sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as natural gas or mineral ores. A farm that can "produce perpetually", yet has negative effects on environmental quality elsewhere

12474-412: The most popular and opposing strategies within the modern discourse are allowing unrestricted markets to determine food production and deeming food a human right . Neither of these approaches have been proven to work without fail. A promising proposal to rural poverty reduction within agricultural communities is sustainable economic growth; the most important aspect of this policy is to regularly include

12600-427: The natural world's capacity to replenish them. A life cycle assessment provides a systematic means of evaluating renewability. This is a matter of sustainability in the natural environment. National Geographic has described ocean over fishing as "simply the taking of wildlife from the sea at rates too high for fished species to replace themselves." Tuna meat is driving overfishing as to endanger some species like

12726-417: The nutrients in microbial biomass , a process often called immobilization . The balance between immobilization and mineralization processes depends on the balance and availability of major nutrients and organic carbon to soil microorganisms. Natural processes such as lightning strikes may fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to (NO 2 ). Denitrification may occur under anaerobic conditions (flooding) in

12852-651: The nutrients that they provide available over a longer period of time. Soil fertility is a complex process that involves the constant cycling of nutrients between organic and inorganic forms. As plant material and animal wastes are decomposed by micro-organisms, they release inorganic nutrients to the soil solution, a process referred to as mineralization . Those nutrients may then undergo further transformations which may be aided or enabled by soil micro-organisms. Like plants, many micro-organisms require or preferentially use inorganic forms of nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium and will compete with plants for these nutrients, tying up

12978-499: The poorest farmers in the economy-wide development through the stabilization of small-scale agricultural economies. In 2007, the United Nations reported on " Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa", stating that using sustainable agriculture could be a tool in reaching global food security without expanding land usage and reducing environmental impacts . There has been evidence provided by developing nations from

13104-407: The pore spaces in aquifers may cause permanent compaction ( subsidence ) that cannot be renewed. 97.5% of the water on the Earth is salt water, and 3% is fresh water ; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps . The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction (0.008%) present above ground or in the air. Water pollution

13230-450: The presence of denitrifying bacteria. Nutrient cations, including potassium and many micronutrients, are held in relatively strong bonds with the negatively charged portions of the soil in a process known as cation exchange . Phosphorus is a primary factor of soil fertility as it is an element of plant nutrients in the soil. It is essential for cell division and plant development, especially in seedlings and young plants. However, phosphorus

13356-467: The production of crops or livestock without causing damage to human or natural systems. It involves preventing adverse effects on soil, water, biodiversity, and surrounding or downstream resources, as well as to those working or living on the farm or in neighboring areas. Elements of sustainable agriculture can include permaculture , agroforestry , mixed farming , multiple cropping , and crop rotation . Developing sustainable food systems contributes to

13482-655: The replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals and other crops, and can improve soil structure and fertility by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants. Other methods to combat lost soil nutrients are returning to natural cycles that annually flood cultivated lands (returning lost nutrients indefinitely) such as the Flooding of the Nile , the long-term use of biochar , and use of crop and livestock landraces that are adapted to less than ideal conditions such as pests, drought, or lack of nutrients. Agricultural practices are one of

13608-475: The second most important nutrient for plants after nitrogen, and is often a limiting factor. It is important for sustainable agriculture as it can improve soil fertility and crop yields. Phosphorus is involved in all major metabolic processes including photosynthesis, energy transfer, signal transduction, macromolecular biosynthesis, and respiration. It is needed for root ramification and strength and seed formation, and can increase disease resistance. Phosphorus

13734-574: The single greatest contributor to the global increase in soil erosion rates. It is estimated that "more than a thousand million tonnes of southern Africa's soil are eroded every year. Experts predict that crop yields will be halved within thirty to fifty years if erosion continues at present rates." The Dust Bowl phenomenon in the 1930s was caused by severe drought combined with farming methods that did not include crop rotation, fallow fields, cover crops , soil terracing and wind-breaking trees to prevent wind erosion . The tillage of agricultural lands

13860-422: The soil and allowed to increase yields by large. Farmers opened up a fodder crop and grazing crop. Thus livestock could to be bred year-round and winter culling was avoided. The amount of manure rose and allowed more crops but to refrain from wood pasture . Early modern times and the 19th century saw the previous resource base partially replaced respectively supplemented by large scale chemical synthesis and by

13986-509: The soil for the benefit of the human and non-human world. He continues that industrial agriculture disrupts the delicate balance of nature and irrevocably robs the soil of its fertility. Irrigation is a process by which crops are watered by man-made means, such as bringing in water from pipes, canals, or sprinklers. Irrigation is used when the natural rainfall patterns of a region are not sustainable enough to maintain crops. Ancient civilizations heavily relied on irrigation and today about 18% of

14112-418: The soil. This must be gotten into good condition first of all and then the reaction of the soil, the plant, animal, and man observed. Many diseases will then automatically disappear...Soil fertility is the basis of the public health system of the future...”. Howard connects the health crises of crops to the impacts of livestock and human health, ultimately spreading the message that humans must respect and restore

14238-399: The specific amount of land needed for sustainable farming is about 12.5 acres which include land for animal fodder, cereal production as a cash crop, and other food crops. In some cases, a small unit of aquaculture is included (AARI-1996). Nitrates are used widely in farming as fertilizer. Unfortunately, a major environmental problem associated with agriculture is the leaching of nitrates into

14364-658: The stress of banana crisis in Uganda, where Banana Bacterial Wilt had the potential to wipe out 90% of yield, they decided to explore GMOs as a possible solution. The government issued the National Biotechnology and Biosafety bill, which will allow scientists that are part of the National Banana Research Program to start experimenting with genetically modified organisms. This effort has the potential to help local communities because

14490-678: The sustainability of the human population. For example, one of the best ways to mitigate climate change is to create sustainable food systems based on sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture provides a potential solution to enable agricultural systems to feed a growing population within the changing environmental conditions. Besides sustainable farming practices, dietary shifts to sustainable diets are an intertwined way to substantially reduce environmental impacts. Numerous sustainability standards and certification systems exist, including organic certification , Rainforest Alliance , Fair Trade , UTZ Certified , GlobalGAP , Bird Friendly, and

14616-489: The topic of this section, livestock farmers and artisans used further animal ingredients as tendons , horn, bones, bladders. Complex technical constructions as the composite bow were based on combination of animal and plant based materials. The current distribution conflict between biofuel and food production is being described as Food vs. fuel . Conflicts between food needs and usage, as supposed by fief obligations were in so far common in historical times as well. However,

14742-420: The use of pesticides and the effects of climate change. Pesticides are widely used to combat pests that can devastate production and plays a significant role in keeping food prices and production costs low. To move toward sustainable agriculture, farmers are encouraged to utilize green pesticides, which cause less harm to both human health and habitats, but would entail a higher production cost. Climate change

14868-501: The use of soil conservation practices. This is because soil erosion and other forms of soil degradation generally result in a decline in quality with respect to one or more of the aspects indicated above. Soil fertility and quality of land have been impacted by the effects of colonialism and slavery both in the U.S. and globally. The introduction of harmful land practices such as intensive and non-prescribed burnings and deforestation by colonists created long-lasting negative results to

14994-636: The use of fossil and mineral resources respectively. Besides the still central role of wood, there is a sort of renaissance of renewable products based on modern agriculture, genetic research and extraction technology. Besides fears about an upcoming global shortage of fossil fuels , local shortages due to boycotts, war and blockades or just transportation problems in remote regions have contributed to different methods of replacing or substituting fossil resources based on renewables. The use of certain basically renewable products as in TCM endangers various species . Just

15120-466: The world's cropland is irrigated. The quality of irrigation water is very important to maintain soil fertility and tilth , and for using more soil depth by the plants. When soil is irrigated with high alkaline water, unwanted sodium salts build up in the soil which would make soil draining capacity very poor. So plant roots can not penetrate deep into the soil for optimum growth in Alkali soils . When soil

15246-417: Was found to have better soil improvement than manure based compost. Photosynthesis is the process whereby plants use light energy to drive chemical reactions which convert CO 2 into sugars. As such, all plants require access to both light and carbon dioxide to produce energy, grow and reproduce. While typically limited by nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, low levels of carbon dioxide can also act as

15372-468: Was intentionally created by communities in the Amazon. While Dark Earth, and other anthropic soils, can be found all throughout the world, Amazonian Dark Earth is particularly significant because “it contrasts too sharply with the especially poor fertility of typical highly weathered tropical upland soils in the Amazon”. There is much evidence to suggest that the development of ancient agricultural societies in

15498-513: Was mainly based on a new system of crop rotation , the four-field rotation. British agriculturist Charles Townshend recognised the invention in Dutch Waasland and popularised it in the 18th century UK, George Washington Carver in the USA. The system used wheat , turnips and barley and introduced as well clover . Clover is able to fix nitrogen from air, a practically non exhaustive renewable resource, into fertilizing compounds to

15624-647: Was patented by Colas SA in France in 2004. Renewable energy refers to the provision of energy via renewable resources which are naturally replenished as fast as they are being used. Examples are sunlight , wind , biomass , rain , tides , waves and geothermal heat . Renewable energy may replace conventional fuels in four distinct markets, namely electricity generation , hot water / space heating , motor fuels , and rural (off-grid) energy services. Manufacturing of renewable energy devices uses non-renewable resources such as mined metals and land surface . Biomass

15750-1148: Was unnecessary and grazing among living trees was possible, settlers saved labor by simply burning the forest undergrowth...and turning loose their cattle...In at least one ill-favored area, the inhabitants of neighboring towns burned so frequently and graze so intensively that…the timber was greatly injured, and the land became hard to subdue...In the long run, cattle tended to encourage the growth of woody, thorn-bearing plants which they could not eat and which, once established, were very difficult to remove”. These practices were methods of simplifying labor for colonial settlers in new lands when they were not familiar with traditional Indigenous agricultural methods. Those Indigenous communities were not consulted but rather forced out of their homelands so European settlers could commodify their resources. The practice of intensive land burning and turning loose cattle ruined soil fertility and prohibited sustainable crop growth. While colonists utilized fire to clear land, certain prescribed burning practices are common and valuable to increase biodiversity and in turn, benefit soil fertility. Without consideration of

15876-536: Was “allowed to harm or remove an earthworm for fear of offending the deity of fertility”. In Ghana and Liberia, it is a long-withstanding practice to combine different types of waste to create fertile soil that is referred to as African Dark Earths. This soil, contains high concentrations of calcium, phosphorus, and carbon. Albert Howard is credited as the first Westerner to publish Native techniques of sustainable agriculture. As noted by Howard in 1944, “In all future studies of disease we must, therefore, always begin with

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