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45-556: Along with changes in family formation in the latter part of the 20th century, the issue of healthy, responsible fatherhood also began to gain attention. In 1974, Dr. James A. Levine published Who Will Raise the Children? New Options for Fathers (and Mothers). In this report, "Levine suggested that the long-term goal of equal opportunity for women in American society would never be achieved without serious and meaningful recognition of

90-414: A spermatangium . Because spermatia cannot swim, they depend on their environment to carry them to the egg cell. Some red algae , such as Polysiphonia , produce non-motile spermatia that are spread by water currents after their release. The spermatia of rust fungi are covered with a sticky substance. They are produced in flask-shaped structures containing nectar , which attract flies that transfer

135-429: A child not raised by him, such as an obligation of monetary support. An adoptive father is a man who has become the child's parent through the legal process of adoption . A putative father is a man whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A stepfather is a non-biological male parent married to a child's preexisting parent and may form a family unit but generally does not have

180-468: A father. Mothers raising children together with a father reported less severe disputes with their child. The father-figure is not always a child's biological father, and some children will have a biological father as well as a step- or nurturing father. When a child is conceived through sperm donation, the donor will be the "biological father" of the child. Fatherhood as legitimate identity can be dependent on domestic factors and behaviors. For example,

225-570: A fully formed but small human. Ejaculated fluids are detected by ultraviolet light , irrespective of the structure or colour of the surface. Sperm heads, e.g. from vaginal swabs, are still detected by microscopy using the "Christmas Tree Stain" method, i.e., Kernechtrot-Picroindigocarmine (KPIC) staining. Sperm cells in algal and many plant gametophytes are produced in male gametangia ( antheridia ) via mitotic division. In flowering plants , sperm nuclei are produced inside pollen . Motile sperm cells typically move via flagella and require

270-399: A neck: During fertilization , the sperm provides three essential parts to the oocyte : (1) a signalling or activating factor, which causes the metabolically dormant oocyte to activate; (2) the haploid paternal genome ; (3) the centriole, which is responsible for forming the centrosome and microtubule system. The spermatozoa of animals are produced through spermatogenesis inside

315-695: A range of groups with competing masculinities and contesting claims and grievances....[T]he Fatherhood Responsibility Movement seeks to overcome barriers of income, race and politics." As the responsible fatherhood movement has matured, educational and social service programs have grown to meet the needs of fathers across the country. For example, in 1981, the Ford Foundation infused the first large-scale U.S. funding for responsible fatherhood programming through The Fatherhood Project, initially at Bank Street College of Education in New York and expanding across

360-399: A result of less efficient cell selection (apoptosis) operating during or after spermatogenesis . DNA damages present in sperm cells in the period after meiosis but before fertilization may be repaired in the fertilized egg, but if not repaired, can have serious deleterious effects on fertility and the developing embryo. Human sperm cells are particularly vulnerable to free radical attack and

405-496: A role in reducing behavior and psychological problems in young adults. An increased amount of father–child involvement may help increase a child's social stability, educational achievement, and their potential to have a solid marriage as an adult. Their children may also be more curious about the world around them and develop greater problem-solving skills. Children who were raised with fathers perceive themselves to be more cognitively and physically competent than their peers without

450-477: A study of the relationship between fathers, their sons, and home computers found that the construction of fatherhood and masculinity required that fathers display computer expertise. Roman law defined fatherhood as "Mater semper certa; pater est quem nuptiae demonstrant" ("The [identity of the] mother is always certain; the father is whom the marriage vows indicate"). The recent emergence of accurate scientific testing, particularly DNA testing , has resulted in

495-418: A tail, or flagellum, which gives rise to the mature, motile sperm cell. This whole process occurs constantly and takes around 3 months from start to finish. Sperm cells cannot divide and have a limited lifespan, but after fusion with egg cells during fertilization , a new organism begins developing, starting as a totipotent zygote . The human sperm cell is haploid , so that its 23 chromosomes can join

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540-553: A water medium in order to swim toward the egg for fertilization. In animals most of the energy for sperm motility is derived from the metabolism of fructose carried in the seminal fluid. This takes place in the mitochondria located in the sperm's midpiece (at the base of the sperm head). These cells cannot swim backwards due to the nature of their propulsion. The uniflagellated sperm cells (with one flagellum) of animals are referred to as spermatozoa , and are known to vary in size. Motile sperm are also produced by many protists and

585-551: Is called a spermatozoan . Sperm cells are carried out of the male body in a fluid known as semen . Human sperm cells can survive within the female reproductive tract for more than 5 days post coitus. Semen is produced in the seminal vesicles , prostate gland and urethral glands . In 2016, scientists at Nanjing Medical University claimed they had produced cells resembling mouse spermatids from mouse embryonic stem cells artificially. They injected these spermatids into mouse eggs and produced pups. Sperm quantity and quality are

630-400: Is paid in more than half of European Union countries. In the case of male same-sex couples the law often makes no provision for either one or both fathers to take paternity leave. Fathers' rights movements such as Fathers 4 Justice argue that family courts are biased against fathers. Child support is an ongoing periodic payment made by one parent to the other; it is normally paid by

675-536: Is possible to extract sperm through testicular sperm extraction . On the global market, Denmark has a well-developed system of human sperm export. This success mainly comes from the reputation of Danish sperm donors for being of high quality and, in contrast with the law in the other Nordic countries, gives donors the choice of being either anonymous or non-anonymous to the receiving couple. Furthermore, Nordic sperm donors tend to be tall and highly educated and have altruistic motives for their donations, partly due to

720-600: Is sometimes referred to as a father-figure . The paternity rights of a father with regard to his children differ widely from country to country often reflecting the level of involvement and roles expected by that society. Unlike motherhood , fatherhood is not mentioned in Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Parental leave is when a father takes time off to support his newly born or adopted baby. Paid paternity leave first began in Sweden in 1976, and

765-595: Is sperm size, at least in some animals. For instance, the sperm of some species of fruit fly ( Drosophila ) are up to 5.8 cm long—about 20 times as long as the fly itself. Longer sperm cells are better than their shorter counterparts at displacing competitors from the female's seminal receptacle. The benefit to females is that only healthy males carry "good" genes that can produce long sperm in sufficient quantities to outcompete their competitors. Some sperm banks hold up to 170 litres (37 imp gal; 45 US gal) of sperm. In addition to ejaculation , it

810-410: Is the male parent of a child . Besides the paternal bonds of a father to his children, the father may have a parental, legal, and social relationship with the child that carries with it certain rights and obligations. A biological father is the male genetic contributor to the creation of the infant , through sexual intercourse or sperm donation . A biological father may have legal obligations to

855-546: Is the male reproductive cell , or gamete , in anisogamous forms of sexual reproduction (forms in which there is a larger, female reproductive cell and a smaller, male one). Animals produce motile sperm with a tail known as a flagellum , which are known as spermatozoa , while some red algae and fungi produce non-motile sperm cells, known as spermatia . Flowering plants contain non-motile sperm inside pollen , while some more basal plants like ferns and some gymnosperms have motile sperm. Sperm cells form during

900-420: Is the fathers who take care of the young. Many species, though, display little or no paternal role in caring for offspring. The male leaves the female soon after mating and long before any offspring are born. It is the females who must do all the work of caring for the young. Finally, in some species neither the father nor the mother provides any care. Sperm Sperm ( pl. : sperm or sperms )

945-542: Is very different from the route of transmission of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease . The prevalence of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease for donors is at most one in a million, and if the donor was a carrier, the infectious proteins would still have to cross the blood-testis barrier to make transmission possible. Sperm were first observed in 1677 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek using a microscope . He described them as being animalcules (little animals), probably due to his belief in preformationism , which thought that each sperm contained

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990-422: The family law relating to fatherhood experiencing rapid changes. Many male animals do not participate in the rearing of their young. The development of human men as creatures which are involved in their offspring's upbringing took place during the stone age. In medieval and most of modern European history, caring for children was predominantly the domain of mothers, whereas fathers in many societies provide for

1035-404: The ovule , the nucleus of the generative cell in the pollen grain divides and gives rise to two sperm nuclei, which are then discharged through the tube into the ovule for fertilization. In some protists , fertilization also involves sperm nuclei, rather than cells, migrating toward the egg cell through a fertilization tube. Oomycetes form sperm nuclei in a syncytical antheridium surrounding

1080-459: The 23 chromosomes of the female egg to form a diploid cell with 46 paired chromosomes. In mammals , sperm is stored in the epididymis and released through the penis in semen during ejaculation . The word sperm is derived from the Greek word σπέρμα , sperma , meaning "seed". It is generally accepted that isogamy is the ancestor to sperm and eggs. Because there are no fossil records of

1125-487: The United States is traditionally defined by financial provision, declaring legal paternity, and active participating in caregiving tasks Recent research suggests that low-income fathers may define responsible fatherhood with a different set of criteria that places more emphasis on time, play, and keeping an eye on the child's well-being, similar to a Big Brother or a social worker . Father A father

1170-515: The West, the image of the married father as the primary wage-earner is changing. The social context of fatherhood plays an important part in the well-being of men and their children. In the United States 16% of single parents were men as of 2013. Involved fathers offer developmentally specific provisions to their children and are impacted themselves by doing so. Active father figures may play

1215-539: The egg cells. The sperm nuclei reach the eggs through fertilization tubes, similar to the pollen tube mechanism in plants. Most sperm cells have centrioles in the sperm neck. Sperm of many animals has two typical centrioles, known as the proximal centriole and distal centriole. Some animals (including humans and bovines) have a single typical centriole, the proximal centriole, as well as a second centriole with atypical structure. Mice and rats have no recognizable sperm centrioles. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has

1260-412: The evolution of sperm and eggs from isogamy, there is a strong emphasis on mathematical models to understand the evolution of sperm. A widespread hypothesis states that sperm evolved rapidly, but there is no direct evidence that sperm evolved at a fast rate or before other male characteristics. The main sperm function is to reach the ovum and fuse with it to deliver two sub-cellular structures: (i)

1305-690: The family as a whole. Since the 1950s, social scientists and feminists have increasingly challenged gender roles in Western countries, including that of the male breadwinner. Policies are increasingly targeting fatherhood as a tool of changing gender relations. Research from various societies suggest that since the middle of the 20th century fathers have become increasingly involved in the care of their children. In early human history there have been notable instances of patricide . For example: In more contemporary history there have also been instances of father–offspring conflicts, such as: For some animals, it

1350-567: The fertilizing sperm cells, and disruption of maternal DNA double-strand break repair pathways increases sperm cell-derived chromosomal aberrations. Treatment of male mice with melphalan , a bifunctional alkylating agent frequently employed in chemotherapy, induces DNA lesions during meiosis that may persist in an unrepaired state as germ cells progress through DNA repair-competent phases of spermatogenic development. Such unrepaired DNA damages in sperm cells, after fertilization, can lead to offspring with various abnormalities. Related to sperm quality

1395-503: The gametophytes of bryophytes , ferns and some gymnosperms such as cycads and ginkgo . The sperm cells are the only flagellated cells in the life cycle of these plants. In many ferns and lycophytes , cycads and ginkgo they are multi-flagellated (carrying more than one flagellum). In nematodes , the sperm cells are amoeboid and crawl, rather than swim, towards the egg cell. Non-motile sperm cells called spermatia lack flagella and therefore cannot swim. Spermatia are produced in

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1440-399: The generation of oxidative DNA damage, such as that from 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine . The postmeiotic phase of mouse spermatogenesis is very sensitive to environmental genotoxic agents, because as male germ cells form mature sperm they progressively lose the ability to repair DNA damage. Irradiation of male mice during late spermatogenesis can induce damage that persists for at least 7 days in

1485-594: The legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child. The adjective "paternal" refers to a father and comparatively to "maternal" for a mother . The verb "to father" means to procreate or to sire a child from which also derives the noun "fathering". Biological fathers determine the sex of their child through a sperm cell which either contains an X chromosome (female), or Y chromosome (male). Related terms of endearment are dad ( dada , daddy ), baba, papa , pappa , papasita, ( pa , pap ) and pop . A male role model that children can look up to

1530-448: The main parameters in semen quality, which is a measure of the ability of semen to accomplish fertilization . Thus, in humans, it is a measure of fertility in a man . The genetic quality of sperm, as well as its volume and motility, all typically decrease with age . DNA double-strand breaks in sperm increase with age. Also apoptosis decreases with age suggesting that the increase in damaged DNA of sperm as men age occurs partly as

1575-442: The male gonads ( testicles ) via meiotic division. The initial spermatozoon process takes around 70 days to complete. The process starts with the production of spermatogonia from germ cell precursors. These divide and differentiate into spermatocytes , which undergo meiosis to form spermatids . In the spermatid stage, the sperm develops the familiar tail. The next stage where it becomes fully mature takes around 60 days when it

1620-547: The male pronucleus that contains the genetic material and (ii) the centrioles that are structures that help organize the microtubule cytoskeleton . The nuclear DNA in sperm cells is haploid , that is, they contribute only one copy of each paternal chromosome pair. Mitochondria in human sperm contain no or very little DNA because mtDNA is degraded while sperm cells are maturing, hence they typically do not contribute any genetic material to their offspring. The mammalian sperm cell can be divided in 2 parts connected by

1665-415: The male gametophytes ( pollen grains) are the primary mode of dispersal , for example via wind or insect pollination , eliminating the need for water to bridge the gap between male and female. Each pollen grain contains a spermatogenous (generative) cell. Once the pollen lands on the stigma of a receptive flower, it germinates and starts growing a pollen tube through the carpel . Before the tube reaches

1710-506: The nation at various other sites. In 1985, the National Urban League began its Male Responsibility Project, focusing on fatherhood among teen parents. By 1988 the U.S. federal Family Support Act included a provision that allowed states to use Welfare-to-Work funds, intended to help single mothers on welfare, to increase contact between noncustodial fathers and their children. In 1991, the nation's first fathers' resource center

1755-479: The parent who does not have custody. An estimated 2% of British fathers experiences paternity fraud during a non-paternity event , bringing up a child they wrongly believe to be their biological offspring . In almost all cultures fathers are regarded as secondary caregivers. This perception is slowly changing with more and more fathers becoming primary caregivers, while mothers go to work, or in single parenting situations and male same-sex parenting couples. In

1800-475: The process known as spermatogenesis , which in amniotes ( reptiles and mammals ) takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testicles . This process involves the production of several successive sperm cell precursors, starting with spermatogonia , which differentiate into spermatocytes . The spermatocytes then undergo meiosis , reducing their chromosome number by half, which produces spermatids . The spermatids then mature and, in animals, construct

1845-564: The relatively low monetary compensation in Nordic countries. More than 50 countries worldwide are importers of Danish sperm, including Paraguay , Canada , Kenya , and Hong Kong . However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the US has banned import of any sperm, motivated by a risk of transmission of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease , although such a risk is insignificant, since artificial insemination

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1890-415: The responsible fatherhood movement has defined itself by focusing on the development of healthy father-child relationships. A separate branch of the men's movement has been that related to Fathers' rights movement . In contrast, the responsible fatherhood movement embraces healthy motherhood and seeks to encourage stronger supports for mothers and fathers to grow as healthy parents. Responsible fatherhood in

1935-419: The significance, interest, and responsibility of fathers in children's lives. Levine called for changes in major social institutions, changes in how families raise boys and girls, and changes in the mutual expectations of men and women as they form families." Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, a national responsible fatherhood movement began to take form in the United States. "Within this 'movement,' one may discern

1980-709: The spermatia to nearby hyphae for fertilization in a mechanism similar to insect pollination in flowering plants . Fungal spermatia (also called pycniospores, especially in the Uredinales) may be confused with conidia . Conidia are spores that germinate independently of fertilization, whereas spermatia are gametes that are required for fertilization. In some fungi, such as Neurospora crassa , spermatia are identical to microconidia as they can perform both functions of fertilization as well as giving rise to new organisms without fertilization. In almost all embryophytes , including most gymnosperms and all angiosperms ,

2025-620: Was launched in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The number of services and supports for fathers continues to expand. In the first years of the 21st century, there was a growing awareness about the importance of healthy father-child relationships. "Among these benefits are higher levels of school performance and increases in healthy behaviors... For example, children raised with significant positive father involvement display greater empathy, higher self-esteem, increased curiosity, higher verbal skills, and higher scores of cognitive competence." Increasingly,

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