88-587: The Rhodesian Front ( RF ) was a conservative political party in Southern Rhodesia , subsequently known as Rhodesia . Formed in March 1962 by white Rhodesians opposed to decolonisation and majority rule, it won that December's general election and subsequently spearheaded the country's Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1965, remaining
176-467: A de facto republic... all that has happened now is that we have become a de jure republic". Dupont was sworn in as the first President under the new republican constitution, following its adoption in April 1970. When asked by an American journalist whether 2 March would be Rhodesia's " Fourth of July ", he replied: "No... today isn't such a tremendous day. We made our decision to become republic quite
264-452: A totalitarian ruler, but a monarch, or a traditionalist who acts like one. Many such movements in Spain, Austria, Hungary, Germany, and Italy have been explicitly monarchist […] The supporters of these movements differ from those of the centrists, tending to be wealthier, and more religious, which is more important in terms of a potential for mass support. Edmund Fawcett states that fascism
352-414: A "right-wing viewpoint occupying the political spectrum between [classical] liberalism and fascism ". Conservatism has been called a "philosophy of human imperfection" by Noël O'Sullivan , reflecting among its adherents a negative view of human nature and pessimism of the potential to improve it through 'utopian' schemes. Thomas Hobbes , the "intellectual godfather of the realist right", argued that
440-698: A Constitutional Commission was appointed, in which one witness argued that "the Queen in her capacity as Queen of Rhodesia is the political prisoner of the British Government". One of the most eager advocates of republic status was Minister of Internal Affairs Lance Smith , who, on 30 May 1969, denounced the Queen as a "figurehead and mouthpiece of whatever government is in power in England." Writing in his memoir, Smith described republic status as "one of
528-652: A badge of honor". Despite this, the descriptor has been adopted by intellectuals such as the Italian esoteric traditionalist Julius Evola , the Austrian monarchist Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn , the Colombian political theologian Nicolás Gómez Dávila , and the American historian John Lukacs . Religious conservatism principally applies the teachings of particular religions to politics—sometimes by merely proclaiming
616-663: A degree of religious toleration . Burke ultimately justified the social order on the basis of tradition: tradition represented the wisdom of the species, and he valued community and social harmony over social reforms. Another form of conservatism developed in France in parallel to conservatism in Britain. It was influenced by Counter-Enlightenment works by philosophers such as Joseph de Maistre and Louis de Bonald . Many continental conservatives do not support separation of church and state , with most supporting state cooperation with
704-464: A long time ago and we are merely going through a process of formalisation. Independence Day is our great day – the day of that unique breakaway from Britain." Instead, the third Monday in October was chosen as Republic Day, a public holiday. Although the Queen's Official Birthday had been retained as a public holiday following UDI, Commonwealth Day was dropped and replaced by Independence Day. In
792-442: A moderate alternative to the extremes of right-wing nationalism and left-wing communism. Christian-democratic parties were especially popular among European women, who often voted for these parties to a large extent due to their pro-family policies. Social conservatives believe that society is built upon a fragile network of relationships which need to be upheld through duty, traditional values, and established institutions; and that
880-483: A powerful reactionary movement was German Romanticism , which centred around concepts of organicism, medievalism , and traditionalism against the forces of rationalism, secularism, and individualism that were unleashed in the French Revolution . In political discourse, being a reactionary is generally regarded as negative; Peter King observed that it is "an unsought-for label, used as a torment rather than
968-526: A republic began as early as July 1966, when a joint committee of the Rhodesian Front caucus and local party chairmen put forward proposals to sever links with the British monarchy and adopt a republican constitution. Later that year, at a formal ball to celebrate the first anniversary of UDI, there were cries of "republic, republic" among those attending. As a result of the increasing ambiguity of
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#17327661142891056-1402: A stream of anti-rationalist, romantic conservatism, but would still stay separate. Whereas Burke was more open to argumentation and disagreement, Maistre wanted faith and authority, leading to a more illiberal strain of thought. Authoritarian conservatism refers to autocratic regimes that portray authority as absolute and unquestionable. Authoritarian conservative movements show strong devotion towards religion, tradition, and culture while also expressing fervent nationalism akin to other far-right nationalist movements. Examples of authoritarian conservative dictators include Marshal Philippe Pétain in France, Regent Miklós Horthy in Hungary, General Ioannis Metaxas in Greece, King Alexander I in Yugoslavia, Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal, Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria, Generalissimo Francisco Franco in Spain, King Carol II in Romania, and Tsar Boris III in Bulgaria. Authoritarian conservative movements were prominent in
1144-485: Is "resting on an established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising authority under them". Alexandre Kojève distinguishes between two different forms of traditional authority: Robert Nisbet acknowledges that the decline of traditional authority in the modern world is partly linked with the retreat of old institutions such as guild , order , parish , and family —institutions that formerly acted as intermediaries between
1232-435: Is a strand in conservatism which reflects the belief that societies exist and develop organically and that members within them have obligations towards each other. There is particular emphasis on the paternalistic obligation ( noblesse oblige ) of those who are privileged and wealthy to the poorer parts of society, which is consistent with principles such as duty , organicism , and hierarchy . Its proponents often stress
1320-402: Is less an attempt to uphold old institutions and more "a meditation on—and theoretical rendition of—the felt experience of having power, seeing it threatened, and trying to win it back". On another occasion, Robin argues for a more complex relation: Conservatism is a defense of established hierarchies, but it is also fearful of those established hierarchies. It sees in their assuredness of power
1408-467: Is necessary to ensure law and order, and social institutions are needed to nurture a sense of duty and responsibility to the nation. Originally opposed to capitalism and the industrial revolution , the conservative ideology in many countries adopted economic liberalism , especially in the United States where this ideology is known as fiscal conservatism . National conservatism prioritises
1496-410: Is strongly influenced by liberal stances. It incorporates the classical liberal view of minimal economic interventionism , meaning that individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference. However, individuals cannot be thoroughly depended on to act responsibly in other spheres of life; therefore, liberal conservatives believe that a strong state
1584-584: Is totalitarian, populist, and anti- pluralist , whereas authoritarian conservatism is somewhat pluralist but most of all elitist and anti-populist. He concludes: "The fascist is a nonconservative who takes anti-liberalism to extremes. The right-wing authoritarian is a conservative who takes fear of democracy to extremes." During the Cold War , right-wing military dictatorships were prominent in Latin America, with most nations being under military rule by
1672-713: The British monarch , Queen Elizabeth II , as head of state , with oaths of allegiance to "Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth, Queen of Rhodesia , her heirs and successors". However, the Rhodesian Front government of Prime Minister Ian Smith ceased to recognise the authority of her de jure representative, the Governor Sir Humphrey Gibbs . Instead, on 17 November, it appointed former Deputy Prime Minister Clifford Dupont to
1760-545: The Catholic Church , such as had existed in France before the Revolution. Conservatives were also early to embrace nationalism , which was previously associated with liberalism and the Revolution in France. Another early French conservative, François-René de Chateaubriand , espoused a romantic opposition to modernity, contrasting its emptiness with the 'full heart' of traditional faith and loyalty. Elsewhere on
1848-686: The Dominion Party (DP), defectors from the anti- Whitehead faction of the United Federal Party (UFP), as well as former members of the Southern Rhodesia Liberal Party . It was shaky and ideologically split in its early days, with its heterogeneous membership (ranging from advocates of more gradual transition to explicit segregation) united only in their opposition to then-Prime Minister Edgar Whitehead 's plans for transition to majority rule, as well as
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#17327661142891936-737: The French Revolution but supported the American Revolution , is credited as one of the forefathers of conservative thought in the 1790s along with Savoyard statesman Joseph de Maistre . The first established use of the term in a political context originated in 1818 with François-René de Chateaubriand during the period of Bourbon Restoration that sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution and establish social order. Conservatism has varied considerably as it has adapted itself to existing traditions and national cultures. Thus, conservatives from different parts of
2024-641: The Rockingham branch of the Whig party . Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom. Burke's views were a mixture of conservatism and republicanism. He supported the American Revolution of 1775–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution of 1789–1799. He accepted the conservative ideals of private property and the economics of Adam Smith , but he thought that capitalism should remain subordinate to
2112-739: The St Edward's Crown was removed from the badge of the BSAP, although the force's name remained unchanged until July 1980, following the country's independence as Zimbabwe . The Rhodesian Army replaced it with a lion clasping an elephant's tusk, the crest of the British South Africa Company 's coat of arms, and the Air Force the Zimbabwe Bird , although the "Lion and Tusk" emblem was used for rank badges. However,
2200-515: The culture and civilisation in which it appears. In Western culture , depending on the particular nation, conservatives seek to promote and preserve a range of institutions, such as the nuclear family , organised religion , the military , the nation-state , property rights , rule of law , aristocracy , and monarchy . Conservatives tend to favour institutions and practices that enhance social order and historical continuity. Edmund Burke , an 18th-century Anglo-Irish statesman who opposed
2288-607: The social transformation of society. In popular usage, reactionism refers to a staunch traditionalist conservative political perspective of a person who supports the status quo and opposes social, political, and economic change. Some adherents of conservatism, rather than opposing change, seek to return to the status quo ante and tend to view the modern world in a negative light, especially concerning mass culture and secularism , although different groups of reactionaries may choose different traditional values to revive. Some political scientists, such as Corey Robin , treat
2376-432: The state of nature for humans was "poor, nasty, brutish, and short", requiring centralised authority with royal sovereignty to guarantee law and order . Edmund Burke , often called the father of modern conservatism, believed that human beings are steeped in original sin and that society therefore needs traditional institutions, such as an established church and a landed aristocracy , in order to function. Despite
2464-559: The 21st century, the authoritarian style of government experienced a worldwide renaissance with conservative statesmen such as President Vladimir Putin in Russia, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Turkey, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán in Hungary, Prime Minister Narendra Modi in India, and President Donald Trump in the United States. Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism that
2552-588: The Assembly. These reforms only served to reinforce black rejection of the system. The Rhodesian Land Tenure Act was introduced the same year, which ostensibly introduced parity by reducing the amount of land reserved for white ownership to the same 45 million acres as for blacks: in practice, the most fertile farmlands remained in white hands, and some farmers took advantage by shifting their boundaries into black-populated territories, often without notifying others, thereby necessating government evictions. In 1977,
2640-727: The House of Assembly continued to use the ceremonial mace surmounted with the Crown, previously used by the Legislative Assembly . Modelled on that of the British House of Commons , this initially remained in use by the post-independence House of Assembly of Zimbabwe in 1980. By contrast, the Senate Mace was a distinct design. Although God Save the Queen ceased to be played at official occasions, no replacement
2728-581: The Legislative Assembly Ahrn Palley , refused to recognise Dupont's office, and walked out of the opening of Parliament in protest. While Gibbs continued to occupy Government House, Dupont and his wife held official receptions at Governor's Lodge in the Salisbury suburb of Highlands. In 1967, on the second anniversary of UDI, Gibbs declared that his visitors' book would be open to all those who wished to show their loyalty to
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2816-565: The Queen did not appoint a Governor-General within fourteen days of advice being tendered by the Prime Minister, a Regent was to be appointed. In deference to the British royal family , however, on 16 December, Smith amended his original plan and Dupont was appointed as Officer Administering the Government. He would continue to use the title until the declaration of a republic in 1970. Consequently, legislation passed after UDI
2904-488: The Queen's constitutional position, the Rhodesian government believed that only by becoming a republic would Rhodesia be able to improve trade and gain international recognition. Following the unsuccessful talks with British Prime Minister Harold Wilson aboard HMS Fearless in 1968, Smith predicted that Rhodesia would become a republic "irrespective of the outcome of the dialogue with Britain". Later that year,
2992-500: The Queen, while Dupont, in response, announced that the visitors' book at his office, on the same street, would be open to all those who wished to show their support for UDI. Neither the Queen nor the British government recognised Dupont as her representative, and while she issued reprieves for two African men sentenced to be hanged in 1968, the Smith government did not accede to her clemency order. Calls for Rhodesia to declare itself
3080-800: The RF claimed that they based their policies, ideas, and democratic principles on meritocratic ideals and "not on colour or nationalism", stating that these policies and what he called "separate economic advancement" would ultimately result in an "equal partnership between black and white" as an alternative to majority rule. Unlike the South African National Party , the RF never de jure disenfranchised non-white voters in their entirety and did not introduce apartheid -style legislation governing interpersonal relationships: marriage and relationships between whites and non-whites were possible and legal, albeit uncommon. In all other aspects, however,
3168-561: The RF government perpetuated existing racial segregation and inequalities: the white minority's economic domination and ownership of land was maintained, as was the racial segregation of public services, education and electoral rolls through the party's policy of "separate economic advancement". In contrast to the National Party, whose rule expanded and escalated white domination, the RF sought mainly, with some notable exceptions, to maintain minority rule through inexplicit means. Before
3256-441: The RF's rise to power, separate 'A' and 'B' electoral rolls based on differing income and property qualifications had already de facto disenfranchised the black electorate for decades, with the larger 'A' roll mainly consisting of the wealthier white minority, and the smaller 'B' roll almost exclusively consisting of the small number of Africans eligible and willing to register. Combined with a largely successful boycott campaign from
3344-793: The Rhodesian government, moved to close them. Between 4 and 17 March 1970, Belgium , Denmark , the Federal Republic of Germany , France , Greece , Italy, the Netherlands , Norway and Switzerland all gave the United Nations notice of their intention to close their consular offices. The United States also closed its consulate, despite the White House favouring it remaining open. Although South Africa and Portugal did not close their missions in Rhodesia following
3432-574: The UK government's demands for majority rule was so great that the RF-led government eventually declared unilateral independence in 1965 . The RF had fifteen founding principles, which included the preservation of each racial group's right to maintain its own identity, the preservation of "proper standards" through meritocracy, the maintenance of the Land Apportionment Act , which formalised
3520-550: The UK's demands for majority rule before independence . The party harnessed white anxieties of a Congo and Kenya-style majority rule scenario in its successful campaign for the 1962 Southern Rhodesian general election , pledging to keep power "in responsible hands", ensure Southern Rhodesian independence from the Federation , and thwart "this mad idea of a hand-over, of a sell-out of the European and his civilisation, indeed of everything he had put into his country". Its opposition to
3608-485: The United Kingdom with exponents such as Prime Ministers Disraeli, Stanley Baldwin , Neville Chamberlain , Winston Churchill , and Harold Macmillan . In 19th-century Germany , Chancellor Otto von Bismarck adopted a set of social programs, known as state socialism , which included insurance for workers against sickness, accident, incapacity, and old age. The goal of this conservative state-building strategy
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3696-455: The adoption of a republican form of government, and b) the proposals for a new Constitution, as set out in a white paper and published in a Gazette Extraordinary on 21 May 1969. Both proposals were approved. The country was subsequently declared a republic on 2 March 1970. On 11 November 1965, the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) although it continued to recognise
3784-524: The black majority, this resulted in de facto white minority rule. In an exception to their usual policies, the 1969 constitutional reform explicitly delineated the two electoral rolls by race: With the European 'A' roll increased to 50 seats as opposed to the African 'B' roll only having 8 (with an additional 8 indirectly elected to represent chiefs and tribal interests), this resulted in 270,000 whites having 50 seats and 6 million Africans having 16 seats in
3872-540: The class basis of right-wing extremist politics in the 1920–1960 era. He reports: Conservative or rightist extremist movements have arisen at different periods in modern history, ranging from the Horthyites in Hungary, the Christian Social Party of Dollfuss in Austria, Der Stahlhelm and other nationalists in pre-Hitler Germany, and Salazar in Portugal, to the pre-1966 Gaullist movements and
3960-450: The conservative social ethic and that the business class should be subordinate to aristocracy. He insisted on standards of honour derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition and saw the aristocracy as the nation's natural leaders. That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive. He favoured an established church, but allowed for
4048-611: The continent, German thinkers Justus Möser and Friedrich von Gentz criticised the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen that came of the Revolution. Opposition was also expressed by German idealists such as Adam Müller and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , the latter inspiring both leftist and rightist followers. Both Burke and Maistre were critical of democracy in general, though their reasons differed. Maistre
4136-458: The defence of national and cultural identity , often based on a theory of the family as a model for the state . National conservatism is orientated towards upholding national sovereignty , which includes limited immigration and a strong national defence. In Europe, national conservatives are usually eurosceptics . Yoram Hazony has argued for national conservatism in his work The Virtue of Nationalism (2018). Paternalistic conservatism
4224-400: The emergence of a communist regime in Rhodesia. The party also encouraged immigration of whites from other African former colonies to Rhodesia. The RF maintained an all-white membership and wanted to continue the provision of separate amenities for different races in education and public services; thusly, the party was often characterised as racist both within Rhodesia and abroad. Ian Smith and
4312-544: The established institutions of their time. According to Quintin Hogg , the chairman of the British Conservative Party in 1959: "Conservatism is not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human nature itself." Conservatism is often used as a generic term to describe
4400-564: The execution of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and other top-ranking Romanian fascists. The exiled German Emperor Wilhelm II was an enemy of Adolf Hitler and stated that Nazism made him ashamed to be a German for the first time in his life. The Catholic seminarian António de Oliveira Salazar , who was Portugal's dictator for 40 years, denounced fascism and Nazism as a "pagan Caesarism " that did not recognise legal, religious, or moral limits. Political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset has examined
4488-550: The government has a role in encouraging or enforcing traditional values or practices. A social conservative wants to preserve traditional morality and social mores , often by opposing what they consider radical policies or social engineering . Some social-conservative stances are the following: Traditionalist conservatism, also known as classical conservatism, emphasises the need for the principles of natural law , transcendent moral order, tradition , hierarchy , organicism , agrarianism , classicism , and high culture as well as
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#17327661142894576-547: The importance of a social safety net to deal with poverty, supporting limited redistribution of wealth along with government regulation of markets in the interests of both consumers and producers. Paternalistic conservatism first arose as a distinct ideology in the United Kingdom under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli 's " One Nation " Toryism . There have been a variety of one-nation conservative governments in
4664-787: The indirectly elected new upper house , was to be composed of 23 Senators, of whom 10 were to be elected by white Members of the House of Assembly, 10 were African chiefs, half from Mashonaland and half from Matabeleland , chosen by an electoral college composed of members of the Council of Chiefs, and three appointed by the President. Those eligible to vote were allowed to do so not only in their constituencies but in five regional constituencies (known as multiple polling stations) in which they could vote away from their homes, based around Bulawayo , Fort Victoria , Gwelo and Salisbury , with 5220 votes being cast in this way. A Bill to implement
4752-461: The intersecting spheres of loyalty . Some traditionalists have embraced the labels reactionary and counter-revolutionary , defying the stigma that has attached to these terms since the Enlightenment . Having a hierarchical view of society, many traditionalist conservatives, including a few notable Americans such as Ralph Adams Cram , William S. Lind , and Charles A. Coulombe , defend
4840-399: The lack of a universal definition, certain themes can be recognised as common across conservative thought. According to Michael Oakeshott : To be conservative […] is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried, fact to mystery, the actual to the possible, the limited to the unbounded, the near to the distant, the sufficient to the superabundant, the convenient to
4928-457: The legal system, references to " the Crown " were replaced by those to "the State", and senior advocates would no longer be appointed as Queen's Counsel but would be designated as Senior Counsel . Despite this, existing Queen's Counsel were not affected. Despite not wishing to give legitimacy to the declaration of republican status, the Queen, on the advice of the British government, approved
5016-492: The middle of the 1970s. One example of this was General Augusto Pinochet , who ruled over Chile from 1973 to 1990. According to Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn , military dictatorships arise in democratic systems in order to stop leftist parties from becoming totalitarian. The most recent instance occurred in Bolivia in 2024, when General Juan José Zúñiga staged a coup in order to overthrow the far-left president Luis Arce . In
5104-414: The monarchical political structure as the most natural and beneficial social arrangement. Conservative parties vary widely from country to country in the goals they wish to achieve. Both conservative and classical liberal parties tend to favour private ownership of property, in opposition to communist , socialist , and green parties, which favour communal ownership or laws regulating responsibility on
5192-402: The monarchists in contemporary France and Italy. The right extremists are conservative, not revolutionary. They seek to change political institutions in order to preserve or restore cultural and economic ones, while extremists of the centre [fascists/Nazis] and left [communists/anarchists] seek to use political means for cultural and social revolution. The ideal of the right extremist is not
5280-483: The more controversial proposals", and "no easy decision for many of us who from birth had been ingrained with the British Empire ", but it had "become increasingly difficult for us to separate monarch and Empire from the deviousness of the [British] politicians." In addition, the Smith government sought to strengthen the position of white minority through the adoption of a new constitution, which would replace
5368-528: The move, declaring that "the purported assumption of a republican status by the regime in Southern Rhodesia is, like the 1965 declaration of independence itself, illegal". It closed its residual mission in Salisbury and closed its Rhodesian counterpart in London . Other countries which had maintained consulates in Rhodesia after UDI, on the grounds that they were accredited to the Queen and not to
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#17327661142895456-518: The new constitutional proposals was passed by the Legislative Assembly on 17 November, and was signed into law by Dupont on 27 November. Dupont's last duty as Officer Administrating the Government was to sign the proclamation of a republic on 2 March 1970. Following the declaration of the republic, Smith commented that "when we asked the Queen to accept us as an independent state, British politicians told her to answer "no" and we became
5544-399: The part of property owners. Where conservatives and liberals differ is primarily on social issues, where conservatives tend to reject behaviour that does not conform to some social norm . Modern conservative parties often define themselves by their opposition to liberal or socialist parties. The United States usage of the term conservative is unique to that country, where its first modern usage
5632-540: The party changed its name to the Republican Front , and on 23 July 1984, it became the Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe (CAZ) and opened its membership to Zimbabweans of all colours and all ethnic groups. Eleven of its 20 parliamentarians defected over the following four years, but the party again won 15 of the 20 parliamentary seats reserved for whites in the 1985 election . In October 1987,
5720-552: The party had a schism in which the more hardline wing broke off to form the Rhodesian Action Party (RAP), which opposed Smith's proposals to negotiate a settlement with black nationalist leaders. In the elections leading to the country's independence in 1980, as the Republic of Zimbabwe , the RF won all 20 parliamentary seats reserved for whites in the power-sharing agreement that it had forged. On 6 June 1981,
5808-487: The perfect, present laughter to utopian bliss. Such traditionalism may be a reflection of trust in time-tested methods of social organisation, giving 'votes to the dead'. Traditions may also be steeped in a sense of identity . In contrast to the tradition-based definition of conservatism, some left-wing political theorists like Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defence of social and economic inequality . From this perspective, conservatism
5896-403: The post of " Acting Officer Administering the Government ". On 2 December, Smith wrote a personal letter to the Queen, asking her to accept Dupont as the new Governor-General . In response, he was told that "Her Majesty is not able to entertain purported advice of this kind, and has therefore been pleased to direct that no action shall be taken upon it". Under the 1965 draft Constitution, if
5984-418: The racial imbalance in the ownership and distribution of land, opposition to compulsory racial integration , job protection for white workers, and the practice of Christianity . Historians have generally defined the party as conservative and wanting to maintain white Rhodesian interests by staunchly opposing majority rule, which the RF argued would lead to a collapse in economic development, law and order, and
6072-571: The role of religion in public life. Christian democracy is a moderately conservative centre-right ideology inspired by Christian social teaching . It originated as a reaction against the industrialisation and urbanisation associated with laissez-faire -capitalism . In post-war Europe, Christian-democratic parties dominated politics in several nations—the Christian People's Party in Belgium, CDU and CSU in Germany, Fine Gael and Fianna Fáil in Ireland, and Christian Democracy in Italy. Many post-war Europeans saw Christian democracy as
6160-451: The ruling government of Robert Mugabe officially abolished all reserved seats for whites. When these were abolished, many white MPs became independents or joined the ruling ZANU–PF party. Conservatism Conservatism is a cultural , social , and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions , customs , and values . The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to
6248-399: The ruling party and upholding white minority rule through the majority of the Bush War until 1979. Initially led by Winston Field , the party was led through most of its lifetime by co-founder Ian Smith . Following the end of the Bush War and the country's reconstitution as Zimbabwe , it changed its name to the Republican Front in 1981. The RF was founded on 13 March 1962 in a merger of
6336-460: The same era as fascism , with which it sometimes clashed. Although both ideologies shared core values such as nationalism and had common enemies such as communism , there was nonetheless a contrast between the traditionalist and elitist nature of authoritarian conservatism and the revolutionary and populist nature of fascism—thus it was common for authoritarian conservative regimes to suppress rising fascist and Nazi movements. The hostility between
6424-516: The social hierarchy, which includes factors such as age, experience, and wisdom. Conservatives often glorify hierarchies, as demonstrated in an aphorism by conservative philosopher Nicolás Gómez Dávila : "Hierarchies are celestial. In hell all are equal." The word hierarchy has religious roots and translates to 'rule of a high priest.' Authority is a core tenet of conservatism. More specifically, conservatives tend to believe in traditional authority . According to Max Weber , this form of authority
6512-434: The source of corruption, decadence and decline. Ruling regimes require some kind of irritant, a grain of sand in the oyster, to reactivate their latent powers, to exercise their atrophied muscles, to make their pearls. In Conservatism: A Rediscovery (2022), political philosopher Yoram Hazony argues that, in a traditional conservative community, members have importance and influence to the degree they are honoured within
6600-484: The state and the individual. Hannah Arendt argues that the modern world suffers an existential crisis with a "dramatic breakdown of all traditional authorities," which are needed for the continuity of an established civilisation. Edmund Burke has been widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. He served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to
6688-773: The suspension of the grant of the title "Royal" to the Royal Rhodesia Regiment and the Royal Rhodesian Air Force , and the suspension of her own appointment as Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Rhodesia Regiment, as well as that of The Queen Mother , as Honorary Commissioner of the British South Africa Police (BSAP); in addition, The Queen Mother was persuaded to relinquish her position as Chancellor of University College, Salisbury . Similarly,
6776-764: The term has been used to describe a wide range of views . Conservatism may be either libertarian or authoritarian , populist or elitist , progressive or reactionary , moderate or extreme . Scholars have tried to define conservatism as a set of beliefs or principles. Andrew Heywood argues that the five central beliefs of conservatism are tradition, human imperfection, organic society, authority/hierarchy, and property. Russell Kirk developed five canons of conservatism in The Conservative Mind (1953): Some political scientists, such as Samuel P. Huntington , have seen conservatism as situational. Under this definition, conservatives are seen as defending
6864-463: The two existing non-racial electoral rolls, determined by property qualifications, with separate rolls for white and African voters. Under the new constitution, white voters would elect 50 members to the House of Assembly , the lower house of Parliament , while African voters would only elect 8, with an additional 8 seats being indirectly elected to represent chiefs and tribal interests. The Senate ,
6952-424: The two ideologies is highlighted by the struggle for power in Austria, which was marked by the assassination of the ultra-Catholic dictator Engelbert Dollfuss by Austrian Nazis . Likewise, Croatian fascists assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia . In Romania, as the fascist Iron Guard was gaining popularity and Nazi Germany was making advances on the European political stage, King Carol II ordered
7040-455: The value of those teachings, at other times by having those teachings influence laws. In most democracies, political conservatism seeks to uphold traditional family structures and social values. Religious conservatives typically oppose abortion, LGBT behaviour (or, in certain cases, identity), drug use, and sexual activity outside of marriage. In some cases, conservative values are grounded in religious beliefs, and conservatives seek to increase
7128-550: The words reactionary and conservative as synonyms. Others, such as Mark Lilla , argue that reactionism and conservatism are distinct worldviews. Francis Wilson defines conservatism as "a philosophy of social evolution, in which certain lasting values are defended within the framework of the tension of political conflict". Some reactionaries favour a return to the status quo ante , the previous political state of society, which that person believes possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary society. An early example of
7216-414: The world, each upholding their respective traditions, may disagree on a wide range of issues. One of the three major ideologies along with liberalism and socialism , conservatism is the dominant ideology in many nations across the world, including Hungary , India , Iran , Israel , Italy , Japan , Poland , Russia , Singapore , and South Korea . Historically associated with right-wing politics ,
7304-604: Was "enacted by His Excellency the Officer Administering the Government, as the representative of the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Parliament of Rhodesia". Similarly, Dupont would deliver the speech from the throne before the Legislative Assembly , and sign bills into law. Opponents of UDI who considered it an illegal move, such as the Independent member of
7392-819: Was adopted or used as a national anthem immediately after the declaration of a republic. It was only in 1974 that Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia , sung to the tune of Ode to Joy , was adopted as the national anthem, after unsuccessful attempts to find an original melody. Like the UDI before it, the change to republican status was not recognised by the United Nations , and was condemned in United Nations Security Council Resolution 277 (1970), which decided that "Member States shall refrain from recognizing this illegal régime or from rendering any assistance to it". Britain denounced
7480-594: Was for pro-free enterprise opponents of the New Deal . Imperial China Republic of China (before 1949) People's Republic of China (Mainland) Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) Macau (pro-Beijing) Republic of China (Taiwan, pan-Blue) Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) Hong Kong (centrist) 1969 Rhodesian constitutional referendum A double referendum was held in Rhodesia on 20 June 1969, in which voters were asked whether they were in favour of or against a)
7568-464: Was pessimistic about humans being able to follow rules, while Burke was sceptical about humans' innate ability to make rules. For Maistre, rules had a divine origin, while Burke believed they arose from custom. The lack of custom for Burke, and the lack of divine guidance for Maistre, meant that people would act in terrible ways. Both also believed that liberty of the wrong kind led to bewilderment and political breakdown. Their ideas would together flow into
7656-788: Was progressive conservative, and he described himself as a believer in progressive conservatism. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also declared himself an advocate of progressive conservatism. In Canada , a variety of conservative governments have been part of the Red Tory tradition, with Canada's former major conservative party being named the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1942 to 2003. Prime Ministers Arthur Meighen , R. B. Bennett , John Diefenbaker , Joe Clark , Brian Mulroney , and Kim Campbell led Red Tory federal governments. Reactionary conservatism, also known as reactionism, opposes policies for
7744-540: Was to make ordinary Germans, not just the Junker aristocracy, more loyal to state and Emperor . Chancellor Leo von Caprivi promoted a conservative agenda called the "New Course". In the United States, President Theodore Roosevelt has been identified as the main exponent of progressive conservatism. Roosevelt stated that he had "always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand". The Republican administration of President William Howard Taft
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