150-749: The Rhodesian Security Forces were the military forces of the Rhodesian government. The Rhodesian Security Forces consisted of a ground force (the Rhodesian Army ), the Rhodesian Air Force , the British South Africa Police , and various personnel affiliated to the Rhodesian Ministry of Internal Affairs . Despite the impact of economic and diplomatic sanctions, Rhodesia was able to develop and maintain
300-683: A Bundeswehr veteran, Captain Rolf Kaufeld, who was well versed in tank warfare. Despite their deployment in anticipation of potential ceasefire violations during Rhodesia's general elections in 1980 , the tanks remained untested in combat. Patterned after its British and South African counterparts, the Rhodesian Armoured Corps was generally organised along NATO lines. There were five squadrons (companies); each squadron had four troops – including attached signals, training, maintenance, and headquarters personnel. In 1979,
450-491: A strategic hamlets policy of the kind used in Malaya and Vietnam to restrict the influence of insurgents over the population of rural areas. Local people were forced to relocate to protected villages (PVs) which were strictly controlled and guarded by the government against rebel atrocities. The protected villages were compared by the guerrillas to concentration camps . Some contemporary accounts claim that this interference in
600-568: A 12.75mm anti aircraft gun. They were fighting a counterinsurgency war for the most part but also continually trained for classical warfare in order to deal with enemies in neighbouring states who were equipped with T-34 , T-55 and T-62 tanks, supported by Soviet, Red Chinese and Eastern European advisers. Heavy weapons deployed against the RhACR during border battles included 122mm rocket launchers, 75mm recoilless rifles and 82mm mortars. The TM46 anti-tank mine, often boosted, accounted for most of
750-522: A Chinese military facility in Nanjing crossed into Rhodesia from Zambia, having been issued vague instructions to sabotage important installations and kill white farmers. Five were arrested by the Rhodesian security forces almost immediately. Another seven initially evaded capture and planned to destroy an electric pylon near Sinoia . Their explosive charges failed to detonate and were discovered by
900-449: A MAP or created an entirely new one, installing engines stripped from a menagerie of imported commercial vehicles. In 1976 rumours of T-34 and T-54 tanks in neighbouring Mozambique – where the Rhodesian security forces were increasingly being drawn into external operations against Robert Mugabe 's Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), caused a stir, prompting the formation of tank-killer teams. Infantrymen were trained in
1050-729: A clandestine trade network. From 1968 until 1970, there was virtually no further dialogue between Rhodesia and the UK. In a referendum in 1969, white voters approved a new constitution and the establishment of a republic, thereby severing Rhodesia's last links with the British Crown, duly declared in March 1970. This changed immediately after the election of Edward Heath , who reopened negotiations. Smith remained optimistic that Heath would do his utmost to remedy Anglo-Rhodesian relations, although disappointed that he continued to adhere publicly to
1200-519: A collection of vintage aircraft, including six Tiger Moths , six North American Harvard trainers, an Avro Anson freighter and a handful of De Havilland Rapide transport aircraft, before purchasing a squadron of 22 Mk. 22 war surplus Supermarine Spitfire from the Royal Air Force (RAF) which were then flown to Southern Rhodesia. In April 1951, the defence forces of Southern Rhodesia were completely reorganised. The Permanent Force included
1350-645: A common interest in maintaining security ties in southern Africa, Salazar expressed a great deal of anger at Britain's refusal to support Portugal during the Indian annexation of Goa in 1961, admonishing Smith not to trust the British government. A Rhodesian Trade Office was opened in Lisbon in order to co-ordinate breaking the anticipated sanctions in the event of a unilateral declaration of independence later that year, which encouraged Smith not to compromise. In its turn,
1500-599: A degree of economic expansion and industrialisation almost unrivaled in sub-Saharan Africa. Its natural abundance of mineral wealth—including large deposits of chromium and manganese—contributed to the high rate of conventional economic growth. However, most colonies in Africa, even those rich in natural resources, experienced difficulty in achieving similar rates of development due to a shortage of technical and managerial skills. Small, rotating cadres of colonial civil servants who possessed little incentive to invest their skills in
1650-512: A diversified economy with a strong manufacturing sector and iron and steel industries, and circumvent the normal British protectionist policy of supporting domestic industry in the metropole while discouraging industry in the colonies abroad. As the white population increased, so did capital imports, especially in the wake of the Second World War. This trend, too, stood in sharp contrast to most other colonial territories, which suffered
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#17327662162501800-753: A fifth troop – support infantry – was added. Due to the size of the Rhodesian Army and its reserve-dependent status, three of the squadrons were manned by reservists and only active for incremental periods. The fourth squadron was permanently staffed by a rotating cadre of regular officers and national servicemen. All squadrons could muster over 300 members for active duty. At one time, RhACR's ranks swelled to 500 troops in five squadrons, including 60 South African-built Eland armoured cars, 50 unlicensed copies of German UR-416 personnel carriers, 20 British-built Daimler Ferret scout cars, and an array of locally produced improvised fighting vehicles. After 1979
1950-442: A major capital deficit due to revenues simply being repatriated to the metropole, leaving little capital to be invested locally. The considerable investment made by white Rhodesians in the economy financed the development of Southern Rhodesia's export industries as well as the infrastructure necessary to integrate it further with international markets. In August 1953, Southern Rhodesia merged with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland ,
2100-465: A more integrated political structure in theory, although not without qualification and equivocation. A greater degree of social and political equality, they argued, was acceptable once more black citizens had obtained higher educational and vocational standards. The second faction in the white community was wholly unwilling to concede the principle, much less the practice, of equality to the black population. Both groups remained opposed to majority rule in
2250-630: A multiracial provisional government , with Smith succeeded by moderate Abel Muzorewa , failed to appease international critics or halt the war. By December 1979 Muzorewa had secured an agreement with ZAPU and ZANU, allowing Rhodesia to briefly revert to colonial status pending new elections under British supervision. ZANU secured an electoral victory in 1980, and the country achieved internationally recognised independence in April 1980 as Zimbabwe . Rhodesia's largest cities were Salisbury (its capital city, now known as Harare) and Bulawayo . Prior to 1970,
2400-573: A number of black Rhodesians who were accused of collaboration with the security forces. Nkomo's party, the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) announced that year that it had formed a military wing, the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and "the decision to start bringing in arms and ammunition and to send young men away for sabotage training" had already been implemented. As early as 1960, ZAPU's predecessor,
2550-567: A period of three days and nights near the Otto Beit Bridge . Elements of the Rhodesian Defence Regiment (RDR) were also involved at close quarters at the bridge, while Rhodesia Regiment (RR) provided 81mm mortar and 106mm recoilless rifle fire support. In July 1977 D Squadron engaged a large group of ZANLA guerrillas north of Vila Salazar , while they were attempting to cross the border into Rhodesia, and it
2700-560: A potent and professional military capability. The Rhodesian Security Forces of 1964–80 traced their history back to the British South Africa Company armed forces, originally created during company rule in the 1890s. These became the armed forces of the British self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia on its formation in 1923, then part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland military in 1953. After
2850-595: A rebellion by English "kith and kin", or white Rhodesians of predominantly British descent and origin, many of whom still possessed sympathies and family ties to the United Kingdom. Wilson's refusal to consider a military option further encouraged Smith to proceed with his plans. Talks quickly broke down, and final efforts in October to achieve a settlement floundered; the Smith government remained unwilling to accept
3000-537: A regular staff supplemented by National Servicemen. An Armoured Depot was established at Blakiston-Houston Barracks which conducted all armour training and housed the Headquarters, Stores, Signals and Workshop detachments adjacent to King George VI Barracks (Army HQ) on the outskirts of Salisbury . Their vehicles consisted of the Rolls-Royce powered Ferret Scout Car , housing a 7.62mm Browning machine-gun in
3150-414: A republic on 2 March 1970. Under the new constitution, a president served as ceremonial head of state, with the prime minister nominally reporting to him. Some in Rhodesian government had hoped in vain that the declaration of a republic would finally prompt other nations to grant recognition. The years following Rhodesia's UDI saw an unfolding series of economic, military, and political pressures placed on
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#17327662162503300-437: A single vehicle from troop Tango 22, D Squadron engaged a group of ZIPRA guerrillas attempting a night-time crossing of the border into Rhodesia. Enemy forces covering the crossing, and others waiting to cross, returned fire with mortars, armour piercing 12.75’s and small arms. Despite the initial contact lasting less than two minutes, the crossing was foiled, and 28 enemy bodies were subsequently recovered in mop-up operations on
3450-635: A small hatch-topped turret and the GM-powered Eland Armoured Car , the South African-produced version on the French Panhard AML-90 , equipped with a 90mm cannon and a co-axial 7.62mm Browning machine-gun in a fully enclosed revolving turret. Later on the regiment received from South Africa eight captured T-55 main battle tanks, armed with a 100mm main cannon, a 7.62mm co-axial machine-gun and
3600-713: A timetable for independence could be set. In 1964, growing white dissatisfaction with the ongoing negotiations played a major role in the ousting of Winston Field as Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia . Field was succeeded by Ian Smith , chairman of the conservative Rhodesian Front Party and an outspoken critic of any immediate transition to majority rule. Smith, the colony's first Rhodesian-born leader, soon came to personify resistance to liberals in British government and those agitating for change at home. In September 1964, Smith visited Lisbon , where Portuguese prime minister António de Oliveira Salazar promised him "maximum support" if he should declare independence. Aside from
3750-583: A vast underground network of informants and supporters in northeastern Rhodesia. As a result of the erosion of Portuguese authority in Mozambique's border provinces due to the Mozambican War of Independence , ZANLA was also able to establish external sanctuaries there. It was also in the process of cultivating a military alliance with the leading black nationalist movement in Mozambique, the Front for
3900-543: The Aden Emergency . However, as the Rhodesian Bush War intensified, Salisbury adopted elements of Israeli mechanised doctrine – particularly those which emphasised light cavalry movements behind enemy lines. RhACR tactics came to revolve around mobility, speed, and swift aggression. Although maligned by age and further deteriorating as a result of hard use and the difficulty in obtaining spares from
4050-669: The Allied Spring 1945 offensive and the Battle of Monte Cassino as part of South Africa 's 6th Armoured Division . The unit was among the first to enter a liberated Florence in July 1944. Prior to 1963, its crews were trained in the United Kingdom or Aden Colony and were known as the " Selous Scouts " under the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland . After Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence , maintaining
4200-669: The Astor' s crew had already rounded the Cape of Good Hope but received belated news of Uganda's defeat in the Uganda–Tanzania War , and new orders to reroute their cargo to an unknown Angolan port. The freighter abruptly changed course; upon its unexpected return to South African waters which aroused suspicion, the Astor was impounded in Durban. South Africa confiscated all ten T-55s under
4350-564: The Bush War . The INTAF consisted by District Assistants and District Security Assistants, and led by District Commissioners. The Rhodesia Prison Service was the branch of the Rhodesian Security Forces responsible for the administration of Rhodesian prisons. This was the fourth arm of the Rhodesian Security Forces. It consisted of both black and white troops whose initial role was to provide protection for villagers in
4500-945: The Governor of Southern Rhodesia , to formally notify him of the UDI, Gibbs condemned it as an act of treason. After Smith formally announced the UDI on the radio, Governor Gibbs used his reserve power to dismiss Smith and his entire cabinet from office, on orders from the Colonial Office in Whitehall . However, Gibbs was unable to take any concrete actions to bring about a return to lawful colonial government. Rhodesian ministers simply ignored his notices, contending that UDI had made his office obsolete. Even so, Gibbs continued to occupy his official residence , Government House, in Salisbury until 1970, when he finally left Rhodesia, following
4650-770: The Long Range Desert Group , the Rhodesian Armoured Corps , No. 237 Squadron RAF and the Special Air Service (SAS). Pro rata to population, this was the largest contribution of manpower by any territory in the British Empire , even outstripping that of Britain itself. Southern Rhodesia was in fact the first Commonwealth country to officially declare war on the Axis powers. Southern Rhodesia's own units, most prominently
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4800-580: The Republic of Rhodesia , was an unrecognised state in Southern Africa from 1965 to 1979. During this fourteen-year period, Rhodesia served as the de facto successor state to the British colony of Southern Rhodesia , and in 1980 it became modern day Zimbabwe . Southern Rhodesia had been self-governing since achieving responsible government in 1923. A landlocked nation, Rhodesia
4950-647: The Rhodesian African Rifles (made up of black rank-and-filers and warrant officers , led by white officers; abbreviated RAR), fought in the war's East African Campaign and in Burma . During the war, Southern Rhodesian pilots proportionally earned the highest number of decorations and ace appellations in the Empire. This resulted in the Royal Family paying an unusual state visit to the colony at
5100-691: The Second World War pattern. It consisted of two battalions of the Royal Rhodesia Regiment , an Armoured Car Regiment, Artillery, Engineers, Signal Corps, Medical Corps, Auxiliary Air Force and Transport Corps. In wartime the country could also draw on the Territorial Force Reserve and General Reserve. Southern Rhodesia, in other words, reverted more or less to the organisation of the Second World War. Matters evolved greatly over twenty years. The regular army
5250-566: The United Kingdom , Ferrets continued to be employed for counter-insurgency operations and protective duties. Equipped with a single heavy machine gun, Browning medium machine guns, or a 20mm Hispano-Suiza HS.820 anti-aircraft gun, they were retrofitted with new motors and larger fuel tanks. RhACR units also used MAP-45 and MAP-75 armoured personnel carriers, which, although lightly armed and armoured, provided excellent protection for their embarked infantry sections against land mines . Local manufacturers either converted an older chassis into
5400-755: The Winter Line . On 3 June, the SRRU tank crews engaged the Wehrmacht for the first time near Paliano . Six days later, the South African and Rhodesian Shermans were involved in a particularly vicious battle against Tiger I tanks of the German 352nd Division . In recognition of their close association and service with the British 24th Guards Brigade during the Italian Campaign, the regiment
5550-467: The Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), launched an armed insurgency against the government upon UDI, sparking the Rhodesian Bush War . Growing war weariness, diplomatic pressure, and an extensive trade embargo imposed by the United Nations prompted Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith to concede to majority rule in 1978. However, elections and
5700-468: The "five principles" – unimpeded progress to majority rule, assurance against any future legislation decidedly detrimental to black interests, "improvement in the political status" of local Africans, an end to official racial discrimination , and a political settlement that could be "acceptable to the whole population". Harold Wilson and his incoming Labour government took an even harder line on demanding that these points be legitimately addressed before
5850-503: The 1960s and 1970s. The Lancaster House Agreement and the return of Rhodesia to de facto British control on 12 December 1979 changed the security forces' role altogether; during the five-month interim period, they helped the British governor and Commonwealth Monitoring Force to keep order in Rhodesia while the 1980 general election was organised and held. After the internationally recognised independence of Zimbabwe in April 1980,
6000-659: The 2nd Battalion in Bulawayo with a detached "B" Company in Gwelo . Between the World Wars, the Permanent Staff Corps of the Rhodesian Army consisted of only 47 men. The British South Africa Police were trained as both policemen and soldiers until 1954. About 10,000 white Southern Rhodesians (15% of the white population) mustered into the British forces during the Second World War , serving in units such as
6150-784: The British South Africa Police as well as the Southern Rhodesia Staff Corps , charged with training and administering the Territorial Force. The SRAF consisted of a communication squadron and trained members of the Territorial Force as pilots, particularly for artillery observation. During the Malayan Emergency of the 1950s, Southern Rhodesia contributed two units to the Commonwealth 's counter-insurgency campaign:
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6300-673: The British government continued referring to the country as Southern Rhodesia. This situation continued throughout the UDI period. The shortened name was used by many people including the British government in the House of Commons. Until after the Second World War , the landlocked British possession of Southern Rhodesia was not developed as an indigenous African territory, but rather as a unique state that reflected its multiracial character. This situation certainly made it very different from other lands that existed under colonial rule, as many Europeans had arrived to make permanent homes, populating
6450-405: The British government, rather than seriously undermine the Rhodesian security forces. Because Rhodesian exports were generally competitive and had previously been entitled to preferential treatment on the British market, the former colony did not recognise the need for escalating the pace of diversification before independence. Following the UDI, however, Rhodesia began to demonstrate that it had
6600-546: The British principles as they stood, implying instead that Rhodesia was already legally entitled to independence—a claim that was overwhelmingly endorsed by the predominantly white electorate in a referendum . Emboldened by the results of this referendum and the subsequent general election, the Rhodesian government threatened to declare independence without British consent. Harold Wilson countered by warning that such an irregular procedure would be considered treasonous , although he specifically rejected using armed force to quell
6750-617: The Congo , the SRACR was briefly deployed to the Ndola for border security operations. During this period regimental colours in cerise and old gold were adopted, commemorating its longstanding affiliation with the 11th Hussars . At some point, the SRACR also received Ferret armoured cars to replace the ageing Marmon-Herrington. In December 1963, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
6900-480: The Eland and other assorted vehicles pressed into anti-tank duty by the regiment. RhACR recognised this threat by restructuring itself for conventional warfare accordingly and joining with the Rhodesian African Rifles in 1980 to create its first combined arms battalion. The regiment was allegedly given the nickname 'The Black Devils' by the insurgents, reflecting the black tank-suits and leather jackets worn by some of
7050-589: The French Panhard AML , the Eland was frequently utilised for fire support and anti-tank duties. It was armed with a 90mm cannon capable of destroying a T-34 at medium range, enabling the smaller armoured cars to punch well above their weight during conventional engagements. The Rhodesians favoured wheeled, lightly protected, vehicles like the Ferret, Eland, and MAP series of personnel carriers because of their operational range and simplicity. Nearly all
7200-503: The Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO). On December 21, a group of ZANLA insurgents under Rex Nhongo crossed into Rhodesia from Mozambique and raided an isolated commercial farm . In the successive months, this attack was followed by a succession of raids on white farmers throughout the northeastern districts of the country and resulted in several casualties among the security forces. The propaganda value of these raids, coupled with
7350-941: The National Democratic Party (NDP), had established informal contacts with the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia , and discussed the possibility of obtaining military training in Eastern Europe for its members. In July 1962, Nkomo visited Moscow and discussed plans for a ZAPU-led armed uprising in Rhodesia. He made formal requests for Soviet funding and arms for ZIPRA, explaining that "for these purposes ZAPU needs arms, explosives, revolvers...the party also needs money to bribe persons who guard important installations, to carry out sabotage". The Soviets agreed to supply ZAPU with limited funds beginning in 1963, and increased its level of financial support after UDI. In 1963, ZIPRA also made its first formal request to
7500-479: The Portuguese, Rhodesians, and South Africans as the spearhead of a communist thrust into southern Africa. ZAPU's attempts to implement its armed struggle were hamstrung by a factional split within the party between 1962 and 1963. A number of ZAPU dissidents rejected Nkomo's authority and formed their own organisation, the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), with Ndabangingi Sithole as its president and Robert Mugabe as its general secretary. By August 1964, ZANU
7650-481: The Protected Village system. During the latter stages of the Bush War they provided a role in the protection of white-owned farmland, tribal purchase lands and other strategic locations. They also raised three infantry Battalions and provided troops in every facet of the war in each of the Operational Areas. It was a large component of the Security Forces, with a strength of over 7,200 personnel. Its headquarters were in North Avenue, Salisbury . Its training establishment
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#17327662162507800-532: The RhACR's support vehicles deployed during the war shared these characteristics, including the ubiquitous Mine Protected Combat Vehicle . The limited exception were Rhodesia's T-55s, which were never deployed operationally. After 1976 insurgent and allied forces in Zambia and Mozambique fielded T-54/55 and T-34 MBTs, BRDM-1 and BRDM-2 reconnaissance vehicles, and BTR-152 and BTR-60 APCs. These often boasted heavier armour, more lethal main armament, better armour-piercing ammunition, and better fire control than
7950-443: The Rhodesian Trade Office in Lisbon functioned as a de facto embassy and caused tension with London, which objected to Rhodesia conducting its own foreign policy. As land-locked Rhodesia bordered the Portuguese colony of Mozambique , Salazar's promise of "maximum support" from Portugal in breaking the anticipated sanctions gave Smith more grounds for self-confidence in his talks with London. Smith ruled out acceptance for all five of
8100-526: The Rhodesian capital, Salisbury , preferring to conduct diplomatic activities through "accredited representatives". This allowed the South African and Portuguese governments to maintain they were continuing to respect British sovereignty while also accepting the practical authority of the Smith administration. Initially, the Rhodesian state retained its pledged loyalty to Queen Elizabeth II , recognising her as Queen of Rhodesia. When Smith and Deputy Prime Minister Clifford Dupont visited Sir Humphrey Gibbs ,
8250-406: The Rhodesian security forces, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army were integrated to form the new Zimbabwe Defence Forces . Around 5,000 Rhodesian military and intelligence personnel were recruited by South Africa in 1980 as part of Operation Winter . The majority of the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers were disbanded in 1920 for reasons of cost,
8400-423: The Rhodesian side of the river in Hippo Creek. Between T22’s return fire and the artillery and mortar fire missions called in by the vehicle commander, 2nd Lieutenant Erasmus, a further 90 plus ZIPRA Guerrillas from Zebra Battalion were accounted for on the Zambian side of the river. This engagement was described by Colonel Ron Reid-Daly, in his book Top Secret War, as the most successful, wholly land based, contact of
8550-417: The SRRU received M4 Sherman tanks and the Rhodesian crews carried out exercises with the British III Corps from December 1943 to January 1944. In April 1944, the 6th Armoured was unexpectedly deployed to Italy to participate in the Italian Campaign . Elements of the SRRU were incorporated into the Pretoria Regiment and C Squadron, 1 Special Service Battalion in support of the I Canadian Corps along
8700-488: The South African 6th Armoured Division in November 1942. The 6th Armoured arrived in Egypt in mid-1943, too late to participate in the recent Tunisia Campaign . Major General Evered Poole , the division commander, was free to focus on routine exercises, desert training, and integration of his Southern Rhodesian personnel. Despite being entitled to wear the flashes and insignia of the South African Army , most Rhodesians also opted to retain their regimental lapels. In Egypt,
8850-473: The Soviet Union for military training. The Soviets began training ZIPRA militants in guerrilla warfare in early 1964. Nkomo's public endorsement of a violent strategy confirmed white politicians' opposition to ZAPU and fed their negative attitudes towards black nationalists at large. In response to the formation of ZIPRA, the Rhodesian government banned ZAPU, driving that party's supporters underground. It also passed draconian security legislation restricting
9000-640: The Staghounds had already been written off by the Southern Rhodesian government for scrap, but days prior to Ian Smith 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence the notion was revisited and reconnaissance men summoned for training on the Staghounds. The RLI encountered severe difficulty in locating trained drivers – to say nothing of servicing their condemned vehicles, which had already been stripped of all salvageable crew equipment. Two were restored and driven under their own power to Kariba on 10 November 1965 to help counter possible incursions by Zambian troops. A few hours before UDI, Rhodesian troops began fortifying
9150-419: The UK. A significant majority of white Rhodesian residents were either British immigrants or of British ancestry, and many held a special affection for the British Empire. However, the UK's refusal to grant them independence on their terms further confirmed their opposition to a political settlement on British terms, and fed their negative attitudes towards British interference in Rhodesian politics at large. In
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#17327662162509300-733: The UN further iterated that these sanctions were mandatory, and member states were explicitly barred from purchasing Rhodesian export goods, namely tobacco, chromium, copper, asbestos, sugar, and beef. The British government, having already adopted extensive sanctions of its own, dispatched a Royal Navy squadron to monitor oil deliveries in the port of Beira in Mozambique, from which a strategic pipeline ran to Umtali in Rhodesia. The warships were to deter "by force, if necessary, vessels reasonably believed to be carrying oil destined for (Southern) Rhodesia". Some Western nations, such as Switzerland, and West Germany , which were not UN member states, continued to conduct business openly with Rhodesia –
9450-530: The UN sanctions. In 1971, the Byrd Amendment was passed in the United States, permitting American firms to go on importing Rhodesian chromium and nickel products as normal. Despite the poor showing of sanctions, Rhodesia found it nearly impossible to obtain diplomatic recognition abroad. In 1970, the United States declared it would not recognise UDI "under [any] circumstances". South Africa and Portugal, Rhodesia's largest trading partners, also refused to extend diplomatic recognition, and did not open embassies in
9600-442: The United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The new nation, identified simply as Rhodesia, initially sought recognition as an autonomous realm within the Commonwealth of Nations , but reconstituted itself as a republic in 1970. Following the declaration of independence in 1965, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution that called upon all states not to grant recognition to Rhodesia. Two African nationalist parties,
9750-444: The United Kingdom's direct sphere of influence for some time, and the facade of continued British rule was rendered a constitutional fiction by UDI. In light of these circumstances, Wilson quickly realised his ability to assert direct leverage over the incumbent Rhodesian government was limited. On 12 October 1965, the United Nations General Assembly had noted the repeated threats of the Rhodesian authorities "to declare unilaterally
9900-416: The United Kingdom, with a President acting as ceremonial head of state, while a Prime Minister headed the Cabinet as head of government. The official name of the country, according to the constitution adopted concurrently with the UDI in November 1965, was Rhodesia. This was not the case under British law , however, which considered the territory's legal name to be Southern Rhodesia , the name given to
10050-546: The ZANLA leadership criticised ZIPRA's continued fixation with winning a major conventional engagement, arguing that the failed incursions demonstrated the futility of engaging the Rhodesian military in the type of pitched battles in which it held an indisputable advantage. ZIPRA's failure to obtain support from the locals was also noted, and ZANLA began implementing a long-term covert politicisation programme to cultivate civilian support throughout its future area of operations. By December 1972, ZANLA had cached arms and established
10200-409: The ZANLA to acquire more sophisticated weaponry, thereby increasing the military pressure that the guerrillas were able to place on Rhodesia. Until 1972, containing the guerrillas was little more than a police action. Even as late as August 1975 when Rhodesian government and black nationalist leaders met at Victoria Falls for negotiations brokered by South Africa and Zambia, the talks never got beyond
10350-401: The absence of a "Northern" Rhodesia, the continued use of "Southern" was superfluous. It passed legislation to become simply Rhodesia, but the British government refused to approve this on the grounds that the country's name was defined by British legislation, so could not be altered by the colonial government. Salisbury went on using the shortened name in an official manner nevertheless, while
10500-428: The armoured vehicle fleet became a responsibility of the Rhodesian Light Infantry (RLI) until Major Bruce Rooken-Smith reactivated the former Rhodesian Armoured Car Regiment in 1972. During the Rhodesian Bush War , the regiment fought in several major campaigns and battles, particularly Operation Miracle in September 1979. It was superseded by the new Zimbabwe Armoured Corps between 1980 and 1981. Shortly after
10650-427: The break-up of the Federation at the end of 1963, the security forces assumed the form they would keep until 1980. As the armed forces of Rhodesia (as Southern Rhodesia called itself from 1964), the Rhodesian Security Forces remained loyal to the Salisbury government after it unilaterally declared independence from Britain on 11 November 1965. Britain and the United Nations refused to recognise this, and regarded
10800-576: The breakaway state as a rebellious British colony throughout its existence. The security forces fought on behalf of the government against the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army —the military wings of the Marxist–Leninist black nationalist Zimbabwe African National Union and Zimbabwe African People's Union respectively—during the Rhodesian Bush War of
10950-622: The bush war. No Rhodesian casualties were sustained in this engagement. In October 1979, South African port authorities boarded and seized a French freighter, the Astor , believed to be carrying a shipment of weaponry bound for Angola. The Astor had initially been chartered by the Libyan government with the delivery of arms, primarily ten T-55LD tanks of Polish origin from Tripoli's surplus stocks, to Uganda. The tanks, including assorted ammunition and spare parts, were to be offloaded at Mombasa , Kenya, and from thence transported overland. By October
11100-553: The collapse of Portuguese rule in Mozambique in 1974–1975, it was no longer viable for the Smith regime to sustain white minority rule indefinitely. By this time, even South Africa's Vorster had come to this view. While Vorster was unwilling to make concessions to his own country's black people, he concluded that white minority rule was not sustainable in a country where black people outnumbered white people 22:1. In 1976, there were 270,000 Rhodesians of European descent and six million Africans. International business groups involved in
11250-487: The country (e.g. Lonrho ) transferred their support from the Rhodesian government to black nationalist parties. Business leaders and politicians feted Nkomo on his visits to Europe. ZANU also attracted business supporters who saw the course that future events were likely to take. Funding and arms support provided by supporters, particularly from the Soviet Union and its allies in the latter 1970s, allowed both ZIPRA and
11400-542: The country in 1898 during the British South Africa Company 's administration of the Rhodesias , and retained by the self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia after the end of company rule in 1923. This naming dispute dated back to October 1964, when Northern Rhodesia became independent from the UK and concurrently changed its name to Zambia . The Southern Rhodesian colonial government in Salisbury felt that in
11550-464: The country that eventually brought about majority rule, a totality of these factors rather than any one the reason for introducing change. In 2005, a conference at the London School of Economics that discussed Rhodesia's independence concluded that UDI was sparked by an existing racial conflict complicated by Cold War intrigues. Critics of UDI maintained that Ian Smith intended to safeguard
11700-546: The declaration of a republic. He had effectively been superseded before then; the Smith government stated that if the Queen did not appoint a Governor-General, it would name Dupont as " Officer Administering the Government ". Smith had intended to have Dupont named Governor-General, but Queen Elizabeth II would not even consider this advice. With few exceptions, the international community backed Whitehall's assertion that Gibbs
11850-867: The efforts of each service. The Rhodesian army took the senior role in Combined Operations and was responsible for the conduct of all operations both inside and outside Rhodesia. COMOPS had direct command over the Joint Operational Centres (JOCs) deployed throughout the country in each of the Operational Areas. There was a JOC per Operational Area. The operational areas were known as: Source: original regiments.org (T.F. Mills) via webarchive. Rhodesia Rhodesia ( / r oʊ ˈ d iː ʒ ə / roh- DEE -zhə , / r oʊ ˈ d iː ʃ ə / roh- DEE -shə ; Shona : Rodizha ), officially from 1970
12000-548: The end of the war in thanks to the efforts of the Rhodesian people. The Southern Rhodesia Air Force (SRAF) was re-established in 1947 and, two years later, Prime Minister Sir Godfrey Huggins appointed a 32-year-old South African-born Rhodesian Spitfire pilot, Ted Jacklin , as air officer commanding tasked to build an air force in the expectation that British African territories would begin moving towards independence, and air power would be vital for land-locked Southern Rhodesia . The threadbare SRAF bought, borrowed or salvaged
12150-444: The federation was dissolved at the end of December 1963. Although prepared to grant formal independence to Southern Rhodesia (now Rhodesia), the British government had adopted a policy of no independence before majority rule (NIBMR), dictating that colonies with a significant, politically active population of European settlers would not receive independence except under conditions of majority rule . White Rhodesians balked at
12300-467: The first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force. Under this constitution, Southern Rhodesia was given the right to elect its own thirty-member legislature , premier , and cabinet—although the British Crown retained a formal veto over measures affecting natives and dominated foreign policy. Over the course of the next three decades, Southern Rhodesia experienced
12450-562: The five principles of independence, and the British government argued it would settle for nothing less. On 11 November 1965 the Cabinet of Rhodesia issued a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI). The UDI was immediately denounced as an "act of rebellion against the Crown" in the United Kingdom, and Wilson promised that the illegal action would be short-lived. However, given its self-governing status Rhodesia had no longer been within
12600-728: The government and the increasingly militant black nationalists. After their public campaigns were initially suppressed, many black nationalists believed that negotiation was completely incapable of meeting their aspirations. Petrol bombings by politicised radicals became increasingly common, with the Zimbabwe Review observing in 1961, "for the first time home-made petrol bombs were used by freedom fighters in Salisbury against settler establishments." Between January and September 1962, nationalists detonated 33 bombs and were implicated in 28 acts of arson, and 27 acts of sabotage against communications infrastructure. The nationalists also murdered
12750-531: The impression that Rhodesia possessed a much larger number. Personnel assigned to "E" Squadron were trained by South African tank crews, who also modified each T-55 with an improved communications system adopted from the Eland Mk7 and refinished with anti-infrared paint. Radios were eventually removed from the loader's position and reinstalled near the vehicle commander. The first intake of T-55 crews were recruited only from Rhodesian Army regulars and assigned to
12900-565: The independence of Southern Rhodesia, in order to perpetuate minority rule", and called upon Wilson to use all means at his disposal (including military force) to prevent the Rhodesian Front from asserting independence. After UDI was proclaimed, UN officials branded the Rhodesian government as an "illegal racist minority regime" and called on member states to voluntarily sever economic ties with Rhodesia, recommending sanctions on petroleum products and military hardware. In December 1966,
13050-405: The insurgents as "gangsters" in his commentary. The use of weapons and explosives sourced from communist states by the black nationalists also disguised the racial dynamics of the conflict, allowing white Rhodesians to claim that they were targets of Soviet-directed communist agitators rather than a domestic political movement. Smith and his supporters perceived themselves as collective defenders of
13200-704: The inventory included the 8 Polish-built Soviet T-55LD tanks mentioned above. In the 1960s preeminent armoured vehicle of the period was the Ferret , a pre-independence contribution from the British Forces Aden . Although 30 Ferrets had once been maintained by the Southern Rhodesian Armoured Regiment some of these were passed on to other successor states after the breakup of the Federation. The Rhodesian Light Infantry received 10 examples in varying states of disrepair and
13350-712: The last companies being disbanded in 1926. The Defence Act of 1927 created a Permanent Force (the Rhodesian Staff Corps) and a Territorial Force as well as national compulsory military training. With the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers disbanded in 1927, the Rhodesia Regiment was reformed in the same year as part of the nation's Territorial Force. The 1st Battalion was formed in Salisbury with a detached "B" company in Umtali and
13500-499: The late 19th century, the territory north of the Transvaal was chartered to the British South Africa Company , led by Cecil Rhodes . Rhodes and his Pioneer Column marched north in 1890, acquiring a huge block of territory that the company ruled until the early 1920s. In 1923, the company's charter was revoked, and Southern Rhodesia attained self-government and established a legislature . Between 1953 and 1963, Southern Rhodesia
13650-423: The latter had adopted NIBMR as a formal policy - the very circumstance UDI was carried out to avoid, and which white Rhodesians had struggled to resist since the onset of decolonisation. Black nationalist parties reacted with outrage at UDI, with one ZANU official stating, "...for all those who cherish freedom and a meaningful life, UDI has set a collision course that cannot be altered. 11 November 1965 [has] marked
13800-619: The latter remained the Smith government's largest trading partner in Western Europe until 1973, when it was admitted to the UN. Japan remained the chief recipient of Rhodesian exports outside the African continent, and Iran also supplied oil to Rhodesia in violation of the embargo. Portugal served as a conduit for Rhodesian goods, which it exported through Mozambique with false certificates of origin . South Africa, too, refused to observe
13950-414: The lives of local residents induced many of them who had previously been neutral to support the guerrillas. Rhodesian Armoured Corps Cold War Rhodesian Bush War Second Phase (1972–1979) Related incidents The Rhodesian Armoured Corps , nicknamed the " Black Devils " — was the only standing armoured cavalry battalion of the Rhodesian Army. During World War II , it took part in
14100-496: The local airstrip, intending to deny it by force to incoming Royal Air Force Javelins . It was decided to salute the occasion by firing a symbolic 37mm round towards Zambia. Twelve solid shot armour-piercing shells were drawn, six to each working Staghound. Only one car fired successfully, destroying its elderly breech protector in the process. Both were returned to the Rhodesian Army motor pool in early 1966 and did not see continued service. The unit's CO from inception to 1977
14250-472: The local economy were insufficient to compensate for this disadvantage. Southern Rhodesia had negated the issue by importing a skilled workforce directly from abroad in the form of its disproportionately large European immigrant and expatriate population. For example, in 1951 over 90% of white Southern Rhodesians were engaged in what the British government classified as "skilled occupations", or professional and technical trades. This made it possible to establish
14400-421: The local populace, which immediately informed on their presence to Rhodesian officials. Within the month, the Rhodesian police and army had launched a counteroffensive codenamed Operation Nickel , killing forty-seven insurgents, capturing another twenty, and driving the survivors across the border into Botswana. An even larger ZIPRA column of over a hundred insurgents was intercepted in early 1968 and annihilated by
14550-494: The means of conducting the insurgency. ZIPRA favoured Soviet thinking, placing an emphasis on acquiring sophisticated weaponry in the hopes of winning a conventional battle like the Viet Minh at Dien Bien Phu . ZANLA placed greater emphasis on the politicisation of the local populace in the areas it operated, and favoured a more irregular style of warfare. In early April 1966, two groups of ZANLA insurgents recently trained at
14700-482: The more highly spirited D Squadron members. These were introduced by Darryl Winkler in an effort to engender an esprit de corps within his squadron – and echoed the all-black look of the British Royal Tank Regiment . In the operational area the majority of the soldiers of the regiment wore one-piece tank uniforms and peaked field caps with neck flaps. On base, standard Rhodesian camouflage
14850-516: The near future. However, once Rhodesia had been introduced as a topic for discussion in international bodies, extension of the status quo became a matter of concern to the British government, which perceived the scrutiny as a serious embarrassment to the United Kingdom. After the federation was dissolved in December 1963, the then British Prime Minister, Sir Alec Douglas-Home , insisted that preconditions on independence talks hinge on what he termed
15000-476: The new settlement, if approved, would also implement an immediate improvement in black political status, offer a means to terminate racial discrimination, and provide a solid guarantee against retrogressive constitutional amendments. Implementation of the proposed settlement hinged on popular acceptance, but the Rhodesian government consistently refused to submit it to a universal referendum. A twenty four-member commission headed by an eminent jurist, Lord Pearce ,
15150-697: The newly formed Rhodesian SAS served a two-year tour of duty in Malaya starting in March 1951, then the Rhodesian African Rifles operated for two years from April 1956. The colony also maintained women's auxiliary services (later to provide the inspiration for the Rhodesia Women's Service), and maintained a battalion of the RAR, officered by members of the Staff Corps. The Territorial Force remained entirely white and largely reproduced
15300-480: The operational level in Mozambique, the Portuguese could offer Rhodesia little decisive assistance. Portuguese military resources in Mozambique were preoccupied with FRELIMO and somewhat depleted by a decade of war, and little could be spared to assist a foreign ally. Rhodesia expected far more from South Africa, which possessed far greater military resources and infinitely more diplomatic influence abroad. After
15450-441: The original "five principles" proposed by Alec Douglas-Home, now foreign secretary . In November 1971, Douglas-Home renewed contacts with Salisbury and announced a proposed agreement that would be satisfactory to both sides – it recognised Rhodesia's 1969 constitution as the legal frame of government, while agreeing that gradual legislative representation was an acceptable formula for unhindered advance to majority rule. Nevertheless,
15600-543: The other two nations of common security interests based on the similarity of their restive internal situations. They saw strong parallels between their nation's position of being threatened by black nationalist insurgencies and the Portuguese predicament with FRELIMO in Mozambique, as well as to a lesser extent the insurgencies in South Africa and South West Africa . Under the auspices of the Alcora Exercise ,
15750-553: The outbreak of World War II, colonial authorities in Southern Rhodesia began looking to raise an armoured unit for the British Empire 's ongoing war effort and established specialist training areas at Umtali accordingly. The resulting Southern Rhodesian Reconnaissance Unit was created in February 1941, and an intake of potential recruits from the Rhodesia Regiment accepted the following year. A stylised sable head
15900-563: The potential to develop a greater degree of economic self-sufficiency . After the Rhodesian Front began introducing incentives accorded to domestic production, industrial output expanded dramatically. A rigid system of countermeasures enacted to combat sanctions succeeded in blunting their impact for at least a decade. Over the next nine years Rhodesian companies, spiting the freezing of their assets and blocking of overseas accounts , also perfected cunning techniques of sanctions evasion through both local and foreign subsidiaries, which operated on
16050-528: The premise of NIBMR; many felt they had a right to absolute political control, at least for the time being, despite their relatively small numbers. They were also disturbed by the chaos of the post-colonial political transitions occurring in other African nations at the time, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo . A vocal segment of the white populace was open to the concept of gradually incorporating black Rhodesians into civil society and
16200-475: The pretext that she was effectively at war with Angola at the time, retaining two for evaluation purposes. The remaining eight were offered as aid to the Rhodesian Army, which assigned them to a newly raised "E" Squadron, Rhodesian Armoured Corps. It was intentionally leaked to the press that the tanks had been captured in Mozambique. For several months the T-55s were driven around the country on transporters, giving
16350-458: The privileges of an entrenched colonial ruling class at the expense of the impoverished black population. Smith defended his actions by claiming that the black Rhodesian majority was too inexperienced at the time to participate in the complex administrative process of what was, by contemporary African standards, a reasonably industrialised state. At large, UDI further hardened the white population's attitudes towards majority rule and relations with
16500-523: The procedural phase. Rhodesian representatives made it clear they were prepared to fight an all out war to prevent majority rule. However, the situation changed dramatically after the end of Portuguese colonial rule in Mozambique in 1975. Rhodesia now found itself almost entirely surrounded by hostile states and even South Africa, its only real ally, pressed for a settlement. Having let slip one chance after another of reaching an accommodation with more moderate black leaders, Rhodesia's whites seem to have made
16650-535: The regiment's casualties in the internal insurgency conflict. The regiment took part in a number of static but intense battles, notably at Mount Selinda against the Mozambican Army (where a Bronze Cross was awarded to 2nd Lieutenant Rae) in 1977 and at Chirundu in October 1978, where heavy-machine gun, artillery and mortar duels took place between D Squadron and elements of the Zambian Army over
16800-690: The right to assembly and granting the security forces broad powers to crack down on suspected political subversives. For the first time, the death sentence was also introduced for any act of politically inspired terrorism which involved arson or the use of explosives. The emergence of guerrilla warfare and acts of urban insurrection by the black nationalist parties in Rhodesia allowed racial politics to be elevated into an issue of law and order in white Rhodesian public discourse. To Smith and his government, black nationalists were stateless dissidents whose primary motives were not political, but crime and perpetuating lawlessness; for example, Smith preferred to describe
16950-707: The security forces, who tracked the insurgents to a nearby ranch on April 28. All seven were cornered and killed after a brief firefight; this event is considered to be the first engagement of the Rhodesian Bush War . The action at Sinoia has been commemorated by supporters of the guerrillas since as " Chimurenga Day ", and occupies a place of pride in ZANU hagiography. In August 1967, a large and better-equipped column of almost seventy ZIPRA insurgents infiltrated Rhodesia from Zambia, bolstered by recruits from an allied South African militant organisation, uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK). The insurgents failed to cultivate prior contacts with
17100-405: The security forces. A third ZIPRA incursion attempt in July 1969 met with similarly catastrophic results. Thereafter, ZIPRA abandoned the notion of attempting to infiltrate the country with large groups of insurgents equipped only with small arms; it limited itself to more irregular forms of warfare until it could stockpile enough heavy weaponry to mount a major conventional invasion. For its part,
17250-547: The success of ZANLA's politicisation campaign, denied intelligence to the security forces and furnished more recruits for the insurgents. In response, the Rhodesian security forces began coordinating operations in Mozambique with the Portuguese army to intercept ZANLA insurgents before they could cross the border. The practical alliances between ZIPRA and MK, and later ZANLA and FRELIMO, prompted Rhodesia to look increasingly towards South Africa and Portugal for active assistance. Rhodesian politicians frequently reminded officials in
17400-671: The three countries' bureaucracies began routinely sharing information and seeking common diplomatic positions. Lieutenant General Alan Fraser, a senior strategist in the South African Defence Force wrote in 1970, "there can be no doubt in any of our minds that we have a common enemy: we, i.e. Portugal, the RSA and Rhodesia. Unless we are to lay ourselves open to the possibility of defeat in detail, we must fight this enemy jointly—if not simultaneously." Nevertheless, aside from intelligence-sharing and some limited coordination on
17550-480: The towns as traders or settling to farm the most productive soils. In 1922, faced with the decision to join the Union of South Africa as a fifth province or accept nearly full internal autonomy, the electorate cast its vote against South African integration. In view of the outcome of the referendum, the territory was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923. Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923,
17700-578: The traditional values of the British Empire against the twin threats of international communism, manifested through the Soviet Union's support for black nationalist militants, and the social and political decadence of the West. Often repeated appeals to the Christian heritage of their pioneer ancestors in "defending the free world " and sustaining "Western civilisation" reflected these beliefs. This
17850-696: The tragic choice of facing black nationalism over the barrel of a gun rather than the conference table. The downhill road toward a race war in Rhodesia is becoming increasingly slippery with blood. At this point, ZANU's alliance with FRELIMO and the porous border between Mozambique and eastern Rhodesia enabled large-scale training and infiltration of ZANU/ZANLA fighters. The governments of Zambia and Botswana were also emboldened sufficiently to allow resistance movement bases to be set up in their territories. Guerrillas began to launch operations deep inside Rhodesia, attacking roads, railways, economic targets and isolated security force positions, in 1976. The government adopted
18000-412: The turning point of the struggle for freedom in that land from a constitutional and political one to primarily a military struggle." It would, however, be several years before the nationalists adopted armed struggle as their primary strategy for obtaining political power. Violent tactics at this time were intended to create opportunities for external intervention , either by the international community or
18150-399: The two other British Central African territories, to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland – a loose association that placed defence and economic direction under a central government but left many domestic affairs under the control of its constituent territories. As it began to appear that decolonisation was inevitable and indigenous black populations were pressing heavily for change,
18300-471: The unicameral Legislative Assembly was predominantly white, with a small number of seats reserved for black representatives. Following the declaration of a republic in 1970, this was replaced by a bicameral Parliament , with a House of Assembly and a Senate . The bicameral system was retained in Zimbabwe after 1980. Aside from its racial franchise , Rhodesia observed a Westminster system inherited from
18450-473: The use of ageing M20 bazookas while the artillery corps rigged M40 recoilless rifles to Unimog trucks for engaging heavy armour. The Unimog crews worked in pairs to counter the likelihood of retaliatory fire, due in part to the M40's backblast which served to highlight the gunner's position. As the Ferret's firepower was limited, Eland Mk4 armoured cars were also imported in quantity. A South African variant of
18600-435: The years prior to UDI, white Rhodesians increasingly saw themselves as beleaguered and threatened, perpetually insecure and undermined by the metropole, unable to rely on anybody but themselves. The policy of "No independence before majority rule" transformed the white community's relationship with the UK and increased its suspicions of the British government's untrustworthiness and duplicity in colonial affairs, especially since
18750-403: Was Major Rooken Smith, and from 1978 was American Major Darrell Winkler . He was a field grade officer in the U.S. Army , who, after resignation went to South Africa first, and then towards Rhodesia . He was commissioned in the Rhodesian Army on 12 August 1977. The Rhodesian Armoured Corps then consisted of four squadrons, three of them were manned by territorials and only one squadron with
18900-613: Was always a relatively small force, but by 1978–79 it consisted of 10,800 regulars nominally supported by about 40,000 reservists. While the regular army consisted of a professional core drawn from the white population (and some units, such as the Rhodesian SAS and the Rhodesian Light Infantry , were all-white), by 1978–79 the majority of its complement was actually composed of black soldiers. The army reserves, in contrast, were largely white. The Rhodesian Army HQ
19050-480: Was appointed to study constitutional options open to the Rhodesian authorities as of April 1968, including on the topic of majority rule, but reopening negotiations with the British on a settlement was ruled out early on. The Waley Commission found that in practical as well as legal terms, "Europeans must surrender any belief in permanent European domination", pointing out that minority rule was not permanently sustainable. However, Waley also testified that majority rule
19200-473: Was banned by the Rhodesian government as well, which cited widespread acts of violent intimidation attributed to its members. ZANU's agenda was left-wing and pan-Africanist ; it demanded a one-party state with majority rule and the abolition of private property. Ethnic tensions also exacerbated the split: ZANU recruited almost solely from the Shona-speaking peoples of Rhodesia. Its chief support base
19350-408: Was based at Chikurubi in Salisbury. The guard force cap badge was a castle on top of a dagger, below the castle was a scroll reading 'Guard Force' The Rhodesian Bush War required that each of the security forces work in a combined effort to combat the enemy. Therefore, it became essential to establish an organisation known as Combined Operations Headquarters (COMOPS) in Salisbury to co-ordinate
19500-403: Was bordered by Botswana ( Bechuanaland : British protectorate until 1966) to the southwest, Mozambique ( Portuguese province until 1975) to the east, South Africa to the south, and Zambia to the northwest. From 1965 to 1979, Rhodesia was one of two independent states on the African continent governed by a white minority of European descent and culture , the other being South Africa . In
19650-470: Was chosen as the unit symbol, along with the motto Ase Sabi Luto – "We fear nothing" – later adopted as Asesabi Lutho in the Sindebele language. In November 1942, the SRRU was formally renamed the "Southern Rhodesian Reconnaissance Regiment ". For practical purposes, many Southern Rhodesian units were incorporated into the military formations of neighbouring South Africa, and the SRRU was attached to
19800-491: Was dissolved. The federal armoured squadron's assets were divided between Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia. Twenty-eight Ferrets were handed to Northern Rhodesia and later inherited by the new state of Zambia at independence. Ten Ferrets and twenty Staghounds were handed to Southern Rhodesia, which relegated them to storage. The armoured cars spent two years in deep storage before 1 Reconnaissance Troop (1 RT), RLI, requested some Staghounds for "interest training". All
19950-507: Was forced to restore them. Even American-made T17E1 Staghounds of World War II vintage were saved from pending scrapping, and employed as fixed installations when no longer reliably mobile. RhACR's stratagems reflected the regiment's experience on Humber and Marmon-Herrington armoured cars during the North Africa Campaign , as well as the training many Rhodesian crews had received from their British instructors during
20100-661: Was hardly an unusual opinion among white minorities in Southern Africa at the time; a dossier compiled by United States intelligence officials on the topic found that: many [southern African] whites....believe that the current social and political ferment throughout the continent is communist inspired and managed; that it would be no problem without communist instigation. They point to materiel and training provided by communist countries to insurgency groups operating against white minority governments in southern Africa. They see foreign-based black liberation groups operating against
20250-417: Was in Salisbury and commanded over four infantry brigades and later an HQ Special Forces , with various training schools and supporting units. Numbers 1,2, and 3 Brigade were established in 1964 and 4 Brigade in 1978. During the Bush War , the army included: The Royal Rhodesian Air Force (RRAF), as it was named in 1954, was never a large air force. In 1965, it consisted of only 1,200 regular personnel. It
20400-429: Was joined with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland . The rapid decolonisation of Africa in the late 1950s and early 1960s alarmed a significant proportion of Southern Rhodesia's white population. In an effort to delay the transition to black majority rule , the predominantly white Southern Rhodesian government issued its own Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from
20550-508: Was largely inactive by the end of the 1950s. In 1961, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland initiated a thorough reorganisation of the armed forces, and the SRACR was incorporated into a single federal armoured car squadron. The SRACR shared a base with the RLI and was commanded by a Major P.F. Miller during this time. Due to the Congo Crisis in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of
20700-447: Was no oppression of the majority by the minority or of [any] minority by the majority." Rhodesian resolve stiffened following a failure to reach a new settlement, with more radical elements of the Rhodesian Front calling for a republican constitution. During a two-proposition referendum held in 1969, the proposal for severing all remaining ties to the British Crown passed by a majority of 61,130 votes to 14,327. Rhodesia declared itself
20850-492: Was no way that a nation could rightly claim to be governing a particular territory – if it was waging a war against that territory. Beadle argued that due to Britain's economic war against Rhodesia, she could not (at the same point) be described as governing Rhodesia. The ruling set the precedent that despite the UDI, the incumbent Smith government "could lawfully do anything its predecessors could lawfully have done". A Salisbury commission chaired by prominent lawyer W.R. Waley
21000-402: Was not desirable immediately. Talks aimed at easing the differences between Rhodesia and the United Kingdom were carried out aboard Royal Navy vessels once in December 1966 and again in October 1968. Both efforts failed to achieve agreement, although Harold Wilson added a sixth principle to the five he had previously enunciated: "it would be necessary to ensure that, regardless of race, there
21150-692: Was permitted to wear the colours of the Brigade of Guards at a farewell parade in March 1945. After World War II, the SRRR was reorganised as an armoured car regiment equipped with T17E1 Staghound and Marmon Herrington armoured cars. It was renamed the Southern Rhodesian Armoured Car Regiment (SRACR) in December 1948. The regiment was led by Lieutenant Colonel C.V. King for much of the following decade, and although it continued to undergo periodic retraining sessions, it
21300-444: Was renamed as the Rhodesian Air Force (RhAF) in 1970. At the peak of its strength during the Bush War , it had a maximum of 2,300 personnel of all races, but of these, only 150 were pilots actively involved in combat operations. These pilots, however, were rotated through the various squadrons partly to maintain their skills on all aircraft and partly to relieve fellow pilots flying more dangerous sorties. The police force of Rhodesia
21450-448: Was reported that 37 enemy were killed in that engagement with some accounted for at point-blank range. In these battles the Eland and its devastating 90mm round were decisive in the outcome. Nobody was hurt on the Rhodesian side in any of these engagements. Casualties in the regiment were among the lowest in the army because the guerrilla enemy avoided contact as far as possible. In August 1979, at Hippo Creek north west of Victoria Falls ,
21600-574: Was resoundingly negative. As many as thirty black Rhodesian chiefs and politicians voiced their opposition, prompting Britain to withdraw from the proposals on the grounds of the commission's report. As early as 1960, minority rule in Southern Rhodesia was already being challenged by a rising tide of political violence led by black African nationalists such as Joshua Nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole . A sustained period of civil unrest between 1960 and 1965 further polarised relations between
21750-416: Was somewhat more influenced by the principles of Maoism than ZAPU, and a sympathetic Chinese government soon agreed to furnish weapons and training for ZANU's own war effort. After UDI, ZANU formed its own military wing, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA). While ZANLA and ZIPRA both planned for an armed struggle against the Rhodesian government, their respective leadership disagreed on
21900-482: Was the British South Africa Police . They were the main first line of defense in both Southern Rhodesia and, later, Rhodesia , with the specific responsibility of maintaining law and order in the country. BSAP units: While not a part of the Security Forces, Rhodesian Ministry of Internal Affairs officers were heavily involved in implementing such civic measures as the protected villages programme during
22050-553: Was the Queen's only legitimate representative, and hence the only lawful authority in Rhodesia. In September 1968, the Appellate Division of the High Court of Rhodesia ruled that Ian Smith's administration had become the de jure government of the country, not merely the de facto one. To support his decision, Chief Justice Sir Hugh Beadle used several statements made by Hugo Grotius , who maintained that there
22200-686: Was the rural peasantry in the Mashonaland countryside. ZAPU did retain Shona members, even among its senior leadership following the split. However, thereafter it recruited predominantly from the Ndebele ethnic group. Due to ZAPU's close relationship with the Soviet Union, ZANU found itself ostracised by the Soviet bloc but soon found a new ally in the People's Republic of China . Its political ideology
22350-416: Was therefore tasked with ascertaining public opinion on the subject. In 1972, the commission began interviewing interest groups and sampling opinions – although concern was expressed over the widespread apathy encountered. According to the commission, whites were in favour of the settlement, and Rhodesians of Coloured or Asian ancestry generally pleased, while the black response to the settlement's terms
22500-576: Was worn with a black beret, fitted with the sable badge illustrated on this page. 'T' Troop wore the Corps of Signals badge. The fitter section wore the Army Service Corps badge. All badges were underpinned by the Cerise and Old Gold regimental colours on an enameled plaque. The stable belt 's colours were, according to former commanding officer Lt Col Rooken-Smith: "Cerise and Old Gold, to mark
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