110-630: The Walbrook is a subterranean river in London . It gives its name to the Walbrook City ward and to a nearby street. It played an important role in the Roman settlement of Londinium . The usual interpretation is that the brook's name comes from weala broc meaning "brook of the foreigners" (usually taken to mean the native Britons, who were also referred to as the Welsh). This suggests that there
220-579: A Roman Empire successor state that emerged in sub-Roman Britain in the 5th century during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain . Based in northwest Wales , the rulers of Gwynedd repeatedly rose to dominance and were acclaimed as " King of the Britons " before losing their power in civil wars or invasions. The kingdom of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn —the King of Wales from 1055 to 1063—was shattered by
330-748: A Saxon invasion in 1063 just prior to the Norman invasion of Wales , but the House of Aberffraw restored by Gruffudd ap Cynan slowly recovered and Llywelyn the Great of Gwynedd was able to proclaim the Principality of Wales at the Aberdyfi gathering of Welsh princes in 1216. In 1277, the Treaty of Aberconwy between Edward I of England and Llywelyn's grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffudd granted peace between
440-661: A long house excavated from 6000 years ago. Further examples of human activity in Gwynedd and Anglesey are involved in places such as Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey, which was built in phases starting 5000 years ago. Archeological findings from the Bronze Age , millennia ago, include findings such as the Arthog cauldron , a bronze cauldron from 1100 BC found near the Merioneth border, also named 'The Nannau Bucket' (similar to
550-635: A Norse fleet from a settlement in Ireland to patrol the Menai and prevent the Norman army from crossing; however, the Normans were able to pay off the fleet to instead ferry them to Môn. Betrayed, Gruffudd and Cadwgan were forced to flee to Ireland in a skiff . The Normans landed on Anglesey, and their furious 'victory celebrations' which followed were exceptionally violent, with rape and carnage committed by
660-508: A bias towards 'skulls'; the crania recovered recently at Liverpool Street had a wide date range and therefore could not have amassed as the result of a single event (the 2nd-century bias noted above probably simply reflects the size of Roman London's population). The vast numbers of crania found across the Walbrook valley suggest that, in essence, there were probably several different factors at play. Some individuals may indeed have experienced
770-628: A campaign against the Normans was launched from Gwynedd in revenge for the execution of Gwenllian ferch Gruffudd ap Cynan , the wife of the King of Deheubarth and the daughter of Gruffudd. When word reached Gwynedd of Gwenllian's death and the revolt in Gwent, Gruffudd's sons Owain and Cadwaladr invaded Norman controlled Ceredigion, taking Llanfihangle , Aberystwyth , and Llanbadarn . Liberating Llanbadarn, one local chronicler hailed Owain and Cadwaladr both as "bold lions, virtuous, fearless and wise, who guard
880-557: A commote in the Dyffryn Clwyd cantref, and Hywel ab Ithel , lord of Rhufoniog and Rhos , brought Powys and Chester into conflict in the Perfeddwlad. Powys brought a force of 400 warriors to the aid of its ally Rhufoniog, while Chester sent Norman knights from Rhuddlan to the aid of Dyffryn Clwyd. The bloody Battle of Maes Maen Cymro , fought 1 mile (1.5 kilometres) northwest of Ruthin, ended with Llywarch ab Owain slain and
990-535: A cousin of Maglos the magistrate". The use of terms such as "citizen" and "magistrate" may be cited as evidence that Romano-British culture and institutions continued in Gwynedd long after the legions had withdrawn. The background involving the Kingdom of Gwynedd starts with the history of Wales . After the last ice age, Wales was settled during the prehistoric times. Neolithic sites have been discovered with tools made from flint , such as near Llanfaethlu ,
1100-600: A long time, and resolving to cut off all the race of the English within the borders of Britain. Despite the war and 14 battles undertaken by the allied forces of Gwynedd and Mercia against Northumbria, of which the chief one was the Battle of Cefn Digoll in 632, an alliance was concluded when Cadwallon married Alcfritha, daughter of Pybba of Mercia . However, the effect of these tumultuous events would come to be short-lived, for he died in battle in 634 close to Hadrian's Wall , at
1210-552: A massacre occurring during a Roman civil war, the Carausian Revolt of AD 286–296. In Geoffrey's account, a Roman legion under Livius Gallus , besieged in London, agrees to surrender to the forces of Julius Asclepiodotus on condition they are given safe passage out of Britain. Asclepiodotus is happy to grant this, but his allies the Venedoti moved on the captives, beheading them all in a single day. Geoffrey wrote that
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#17327723516691320-547: A more stable realm than had hitherto existed in Gwynedd for more than 100 years. No foreign army was able to cross the Conwy into upper Gwynedd. The stability of Gruffudd's long reign allowed Gwynedd's Welsh to plan for the future without fear that home and harvest would "go to the flames" from invaders. Settlements became more permanent, with buildings of stone replacing timber structures. Stone churches, in particular, were built across Gwynedd, with so many limewashed that "Gwynedd
1430-517: A new era; the Romans founded towns with churches and installed governors . During the centuries of sub-Roman Britain , new political structures were established. The Brythonic Kingdom of Gwynedd was established in the 5th century, and it proved to be the most durable of these Brythonic states, surviving until the late 13th century. Boundaries and names emerging from the 1st millennium AD onwards are still being used today to define towns and counties of
1540-635: A partnership among the Environment Agency , Natural England , The River Restoration Centre, and the Greater London Authority set out a strategy for putting this into effect by creating the London Rivers Action Plan. Kingdom of Gwynedd United Kingdom The Kingdom of Gwynedd ( Medieval Latin : Venedotia / Norwallia / Guenedota ; Middle Welsh : Guynet ) was a Welsh kingdom and
1650-426: A series of their kings. In this furious campaign, his armies devastated Northumbria , captured and sacked York in 633 and briefly controlled the kingdom. At this time, according to Bede , many Northumbrians were slaughtered, "with savage cruelty", by Cadwallon. [H]e neither spared the female sex, nor the innocent age of children, but with savage cruelty put them to tormenting deaths, ravaging all their country for
1760-476: A situation which led Cunedda , his sons and their entourage, to migrate in the mid-5th century from Manaw Gododdin (now Clackmannanshire ) to settle and defend North Wales against the raiders and bring the region within Romano-British control. Whether they were invited to keep out the invaders or were raiders themselves, however, is unknown. According to traditional pedigrees, Cunedda's grandfather
1870-405: A title used to "denote a less archaic form of kingship ," according to Professor John Davies. Genealogical lists compiled around 960 bear out that a number of these early rulers claimed degrees of association with the old Roman order, but do not appear in the official royal lineages. "It may be assumed that the stronger kings annexed the territories of their weaker neighbours and that the lineages of
1980-523: A violent end. The majority of the crania, however, were likely to have been displaced from their nearby graves by a combination of gravel extraction (to enable a 2nd-century expansion to Londinium which required large amounts of gravel for new roads, yards and thresholds) and occasional flooding by the Walbrook itself. Roman gravel-extraction workers, in a similar way to 19th-century construction workers, may have created an unintentional bias in, respectively, reverential crania reburial and crania collection and it
2090-509: Is now South and Central Scotland . The long distances these armies travelled suggests they were moving across the Irish Sea , but, because almost all of what is now northern England was at this point (c. 550) under Brittonic rule, it is possible that his army marched to Strathclyde overland. Rhun returned to Gwynedd, and the rest of his reign was for the majority uneventful until the relatives of Elidir renewed their aggressions against Rhun who
2200-424: Is that which has emerged to help to create such an intriguing phenomenon. The Walbrook had many small tributaries and the course of the various branches are ill-mapped and ill-understood, particularly in the upper reaches above London's Wall. Each new excavation in the area brings a refined understanding. The routes of the various branches may have changed over time, further complicating the limited understanding of
2310-664: The Battle of Heavenfield . On account of these deeds, he and his son Cadwaladr , (who fought at the Battle of the Winwaed ) appear to have been considered the last two High Kings of Britain . Cadwaladr presided over a period of consolidation and devoted much time to the Church, earning the title " Bendigaid " for "Blessed". As a monk in later life, he was involved with Clynnog's abbey , and St Cadwaladr's Church, Llangadwaladr on Anglesey. The Tudors of Penmynydd and Henry VII of England in particular claimed descent from Cadwaladr in
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#17327723516692420-703: The Battle of Mynydd Carn in 1081 over his Mathrafal rivals then in control of Gwynedd. However, Gruffudd's victory was short-lived as the Normans launched an invasion of Wales following the Saxon revolt in northern England , known as the Harrowing of the North . Shortly after the Battle of Mynydd Carn in 1081, Gruffudd was lured into a trap with the promise of an alliance but seized by Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester , in an ambush near Corwen . Earl Hugh claimed
2530-558: The Celtic cult of the head . Archaeological excavations across this area in the late 20th and early 21st centuries (two examples are Finsbury Circus and Liverpool Street ) revealed a Roman burial ground which included graves scoured by the River Walbrook, and it was suggested that skulls might come from this. Other factors should also be considered here: the 'heads' or 'skulls' which have been recovered were actually crania (ie only
2640-469: The Conwy , defeating Hugh, Earl of Chester. In 1101, after Earl Hugh's death, Gruffudd and Cadwgan came to terms with England's new king, Henry I , who was consolidating his own authority and also eager to come to terms. In the negotiations which followed Henry I recognised Gruffudd's ancestral claims of Anglesey, Llŷn, Dunoding ( Eifionydd and Ardudwy ) and Arllechwedd , being the lands of upper Gwynedd to
2750-514: The Deceangli , Ordovices , and Gangani in the 5th century. The sons of their leader, Cunedda , were said to have possessed the land between the rivers Dee and Teifi . The true borders of the realm varied over time, but Gwynedd proper was generally thought to comprise the cantrefs of Aberffraw , Cemais , and Cantref Rhosyr on Anglesey and Arllechwedd , Arfon , Dunoding , Dyffryn Clwyd , Llŷn , Rhos , Rhufoniog , and Tegeingl at
2860-725: The Dowris bucket ). And the Moel Hebog shield which is also 3,000 years old (similar to the Rhyd-y-gors example), and more recently the Trawsfynydd tankard, which was used to drink mead and beer between 100 BC and 75 AD. Examples of early settlement in Gwynedd are Bryn Eryr near Llansadwrn, Anglesey , now found at the St Fagans National Museum of History , and Garn Boduan , a Celtic hillfort on
2970-590: The Irish Sea to Dublin , – a place which would come to host many royal refugees from Gwynedd. All must have seemed lost but Cadwallon ( Welsh : Meigen ) raised an enormous army and after a brief time in Guernsey he invaded Dumnonia , relieved the West Welsh who were suffering a Mercian invasion and forced the pagan Penda of Mercia into an alliance against Northumbria. With new vigour Cadwallon returned to his Northumbrian foes, defeated their armies and slew
3080-756: The Llŷn Peninsula . Iron Age forts were being adapted until after the Roman conquest of Britain , 'Castle of Buan' (Garn Boduan) in Llŷn was recorded as being fortified until the 7th century. During the Roman period, new roads and forts were constructed throughout the Roman empire and for centuries in Wales and England, Welsh examples include Caer Gybi (fort) on Anglesey , and Segontium in Caernarfon , Gwynedd. The establishment of Christianity in Wales also gave rise to
3190-579: The Mathrafal dynasty of Powys , Gruffudd's maternal half-brothers, came to terms with Harold and took over the rule of Gwynedd and Powys. Shortly after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 the Normans began to exert pressure on the eastern border of Gwynedd. They were helped by internal strife following the killing of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn in 1075 by his second cousin Rhys ap Owain King of Deheubarth. Another relative of Bleddyn's Trahaearn ap Caradog seized
3300-538: The Scandinavian York mercenaries. These raids no doubt had a seriously debilitating effect on the country but fortunately for Gwynedd, the victims of the Vikings were not confined to Wales. The House of Cunedda – as the direct descendants of Cunedda are known – eventually expired in the male line in 825 upon the death of Hywel ap Rhodri Molwynog and, as John Edward Lloyd put it, "a stranger possessed
3410-527: The cantrefs . On the death of Einion ap Cadwgan, lord of Meirionnydd , a quarrel engulfed his kinsmen on who should succeed him. Meirionnydd was then a vassal cantref of Powys , and the family there a cadet of the Mathrafal house of Powys. Gruffudd gave licence to his sons Cadwallon and Owain to press the opportunity the dynastic strife in Meirionnydd presented. The brothers raided Meirionnydd with
River Walbrook - Misplaced Pages Continue
3520-458: The "twenty-second degree". During the later part of the 9th and 10th centuries, the coastal areas of Gwynedd, particularly Anglesey, were coming under increasing attack by the Vikings . Wales had also been at war with the neighbouring English Kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex who were assisted by Anglo-Saxons and Danes (Vikings). But it was the kings of Welsh kingdoms who were protected by
3630-803: The 1st century marked the Llŷn Peninsula as the "Promontory of the Gangani ", which is also a name he recorded in Ireland. It is theorised in the 1st century BC some of the Gangani tribe may have landed in what is now the Llŷn Peninsula and had driven out the Deceangli or the Ordovices tribe from that area either peacefully or by force. In the late and post-Roman eras, Irish from Leinster may have arrived in Anglesey and elsewhere in northwest Wales with
3740-500: The Aberffraw line from Gwynedd making himself ruler there, and by 1055 was able to make himself king of most of Wales. He became powerful enough to present a real menace to England and annexed some neighbouring parts after several victories over English armies. Eventually, he was defeated by Harold Godwinson in 1063 and later killed by his own men in a deal to secure peace with England. Bleddyn ap Cynfyn and his brother Rhiwallon of
3850-418: The Britons of southern Scotland and northern England and it is very likely that Merfyn Frych brought many of these legends as well as his pedigree with him when he came to north Wales. It appears most probable that it was at Merfyn's court that all the lore of the north was collected and written down during his reign and that of his son. Rhodri the Great (844–878), son of Merfyn Frych and Nest ferch Cadell,
3960-513: The City Wall. The river flowed south down what is now Blomfield Street, to the east of Finsbury Circus . Just to the north of wall , the main branch (Deepditch) formed the boundary of the city wards of Coleman Street to the west, and Bishopsgate Without to the east. It then entered the walled area of the City just west of All Hallows-on-the-Wall Church. The brook flowed southward through
4070-588: The Conwy which were already firmly in Gruffudd's control. Cadwgan regained Ceredigion , and his share of the family inheritance in Powys, from the new earl of Shrewsbury, Robert of Bellême . With the settlement reached between Henry I and Gruffudd, and other Welsh lords, the dividing of Wales between Pura Wallia , the lands under Welsh control; and Marchia Wallie , Welsh lands under Norman control, came into existence. Author and historian John Davies notes that
4180-562: The Empire retreated from Britain, particularly with the use of Latin in writing and sustaining the Christian religion. The ruling classes continued to emphasise Roman ancestors within their pedigrees as a way to link their rule with the old imperial Roman order, suggesting stability and continuity with that old order. According to Professor John Davies , "[T]here is a determinedly Brythonic, and indeed Roman, air to early Gwynedd." So palpable
4290-440: The English king as the Norman army advanced. There were no battles or skirmishes fought in the face of the vast host brought into Wales; rather, Owain and Gruffudd entered into truce negotiations. Owain ap Cadwgan regained royal favour relatively easily. However, Gruffudd was forced to render homage and fealty and pay a heavy fine, though he lost no land or prestige. The invasion left a lasting impact on Gruffudd, who by 1116
4400-484: The House of Aberffraw was restored. Nonetheless, surviving manuscripts of Cyfraith Hywel recognise the importance of the lords of Aberffraw as overlords of Wales along with the rulers of Deheubarth . Between 986 and 1081 the throne of Gwynedd was often in contention with the rightful kings frequently displaced by rivals within and outside the realm. One of these, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn , originally from Powys, displaced
4510-545: The House of Cunedda and the new House of Aberffraw, as Merfyn's descendants came to be known, shared Coel Hen as a common ancestor, although the House of Cunedda traced their line through Gwawl his daughter and wife of Cunedda. Merfyn married Nest ferch Cadell , the sister or daughter of Cyngen ap Cadell , the King of Powys of the Gwertherion dynasty , and founded the House of Aberffraw , named after his principal court on Anglesey. No written records are preserved from
River Walbrook - Misplaced Pages Continue
4620-521: The Lord Mayor Robert Large paid for the lower Walbrook to be covered over. By the time of the first maps of the area, the "copperplate" map of the 1550s and the derivative "Woodcut" map of c. 1561, the whole Walbrook within the city walls was culverted . John Stow , the historian of London, wrote about the Walbrook in 1598, saying that the watercourse, having several bridges, was afterwards vaulted over with brick and paved level with
4730-457: The Lord of Powys as important there as he was in the Perfeddwlad. However, it would not be until 1136 that the cantref was firmly within Gwynedd's control. Perhaps because of their support of Earl Hugh of Chester, Gwynedd's rival, in 1124, Cadwallon slew the three rulers of Dyffryn Clwyd, his maternal uncles, bringing the cantref firmly under Gwynedd's vassalage that year. And in 1125 Cadwallon slew
4840-577: The Mathrafal house of Powys, their traditional dynastic rivalry notwithstanding. Gruffudd and Cadwgan led the Welsh resistance to the Norman occupation in the north and mid-Wales. However, by 1098 Earl Hugh of Chester and Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury advanced their army to the Menai Strait , with Gruffudd and Cadwgan regrouping on defensible Anglesey , where they planned to make retaliatory strikes from their island fortress. Gruffudd hired
4950-460: The Norman army left unchecked. The earl of Shrewsbury had an elderly priest mutilated and made the church of Llandyfrydog a kennel for his dogs. During the 'celebrations' a Norse fleet led by Magnus Barefoot , King of Norway , appeared off the coast at Puffin Island, and in the battle that followed, known as the Battle of Anglesey Sound , Magnus shot dead the earl of Shrewsbury with an arrow to
5060-591: The Northern Low Level Sewer at a point near the Bank of England . Many small leaks stream into the rounded sewer for much of the year when the water table is high enough. On 18 June 1999, during the " Carnival Against Capitalism ", timed to coincide with the 25th G8 summit , fire hydrants were opened along the route of the Walbrook by Reclaim the Streets , symbolically releasing the river to "reclaim
5170-600: The Perfeddwlad up to the River Clwyd (the commotes of Tegeingl and Rhufoniog ; the modern counties of Denbighshire , Flintshire , and Wrexham ) as part of Chester, and viewed the restoration of the Aberffraw family in Gwynedd as a threat to his own expansion into Wales. The lands west of the Clwyd were intended for his cousin Robert of Rhuddlan , and their advance extended to the Llŷn Peninsula by 1090. By 1094 almost
5280-508: The Perfeddwlad, particularly from Rhos , at the time harassed by Richard, 2nd Earl of Chester . Alarmed by Gruffudd's growing influence and authority in north Wales, and on pretext that Gruffudd sheltered rebels from Rhos against Chester, Henry I launched a campaign against Gwynedd and Powys in 1116, which included a vanguard commanded by King Alexander I of Scotland . While Owain ap Cadwgan of Ceredigion sought refuge in Gwynedd's mountains, Maredudd ap Bleddyn of Powys made peace with
5390-626: The Scot , Bishop of Bangor , between 1120 and 1139. Gruffudd's remains were interred in a tomb in the presbytery of Bangor Cathedral. Owain ap Gruffudd ( Owain Gwynedd c. 1100 – 23 or 28 November 1170 ) succeeded his father to the greater portion of Gwynedd in accordance with Welsh law , the Cyfraith Hywel , the Laws of Hywel; and became known as Owain Gwynedd to differentiate him from another Owain ap Gruffudd,
5500-605: The Walbrook. Later scholars have been doubtful. Ralph Merrifield reported a stream flowing SW through the area that would later be the Roman Forum, which would have flown into this putative stream in Lombard Street. The main mentioned at the top of this section reports another stream called the 'Lorteburn' flowing directly into the Thames; perhaps there has been confusion between these various streams. It emerged just to
5610-584: The Welsh parishioners remained hostile to Hervey's appointment, and the bishop was forced to carry a sword with him and rely on a contingent of Norman knights for his protection. Additionally, Hervey routinely excommunicated parishioners who he perceived as challenging his spiritual and temporal authority. Gruffudd escaped imprisonment in Chester and slew Robert of Rhuddlan in a beachside battle at Deganwy on 3 July 1093. Gruffudd recovered Gwynedd by 1095, and by 1098 Gruffudd allied with Cadwgan ap Bleddyn of
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#17327723516695720-417: The Welsh of Gwynedd to concentrate on those martial skills necessary for their very survival, and the Romano-Britons of western Britain did offer stiffer and ultimately successful resistance. The region of Venedotia, however, had been under Roman military administration and included established Gaelic settlements, and the civilian element there was less extensive, perhaps facilitating technological loss. In
5830-405: The Welshman Maredudd ap Tudur , Ednyfed Fychan being his famous ancestor, his family were seneschals to the Kings of Gwynedd. The Tudor dynasty became ancestors to the House of Stuart , and the Stuarts formed the European Jacobite family , they include direct descendants in United Kingdom , Ireland , France , Germany , Italy and other countries on the continent of Europe, and all around
5940-416: The bed of the river, generally in the vicinity of the initial discovery. It is believed that the number of heads destroyed by development, or awaiting discovery, may be in the order of many thousands. Writing around 1136, Geoffrey of Monmouth seemed to be aware of the presence of the remarkable number of skulls on the riverbed. His History of the Kings of Britain explained their origin as resulting from
6050-528: The border shifted on occasion, "in one direction and in the other", but remained more or less stable for almost the next two hundred years. After generations of incessant warfare, Gruffudd began the reconstruction of Gwynedd, intent on bringing stability to his country. According to Davies, Gruffudd sought to give his people the peace to "plant their crops in the full confidence that they would be able to harvest them". Gruffudd consolidated royal authority in north Wales, and offered sanctuary to displaced Welsh from
6160-450: The centre of the walled city, bringing a supply of fresh water whilst carrying waste away to the River Thames , at Dowgate ; it effectively divided the settlement in two. Stow in the 16th century suggested there was a branch, called the Langbourne (see Langbourne Ward) to the east, rising at St Katherine Coleman and running SW along Fenchurch Street (making this area 'fenny'), along Lombard Street, into Sherborne Lane and presumably into
6270-402: The challenge of survival they faced: "Militarized tribal societies, despite their political fragmentation and internecine strife, seem to have offered better protection against Germanic invasion than exclusive dependence on a professional Roman army (that in the troubled years of the fifth century was all too prone to melt away or mutiny)." Reverting to a more militaristic tribal society allowed
6380-399: The churches and their indwellers, defenders of the poor [who] overcome their enemies, affording a safest retreat to all those who seek their protection". The brothers restored the Welsh monks of Llanbadarn, who had been displaced by monks from Gloucester brought there by the Normans who had controlled Ceredigion. By late September 1136, a vast Welsh host gathered in Ceredigion , which included
6490-467: The combined forces of Gwynedd, Deheubarth, and Powys, and met the Norman army at the Battle of Crug Mawr at Cardigan Castle . The battle turned into a rout, and then into a resounding defeat of the Normans. When their father Gruffudd died in 1137, the brothers Owain and Cadwaladr were on a second campaign in Ceredigion and took the castles of Ystrad Meurig , Lampeter ( Stephen's Castle ), and Castell Hywell ( Humphries Castle ) Gruffudd ap Cynan left
6600-406: The defeat of his ally Trahaearn ap Caradog in 1081, a move which earned him the epithet Bradwr "the Traitor" ( Welsh : Owain Fradwr ), among the Welsh. In late 1098 Gruffudd and Cadwgan landed in Wales and recovered Anglesey without much difficulty, with Hervé the Breton fleeing Bangor for safety in England. Over the course of the next three years, Gruffudd was able to recover upper Gwynedd to
6710-439: The defeat of Dyffryn Clwyd. However, it was a pyrrhic victory as the battle left Hywel ab Ithel mortally wounded. In the last of his line, when Hywel ab Ithel died six weeks later, he left Rhufoniog and Rhos bereft. Powys, however, was not strong enough to garrison Rhufoniog and Rhos, nor was Chester able to exert influence inland from its coastal holdings of Rhuddlan and Degannwy. With Rhufoniog and Rhos abandoned, Gruffudd annexed
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#17327723516696820-434: The east. It is thought that in the Anglo-Saxon period there may have been two Stallerships in the City, one for the land west of the river, and one for the east. Even beyond the walls, the river separated landholdings, with the Soke of Cripplegate to the west and the Soke of Bishopsgate to the east. By the 11th century, the two halves of the City had a distinct economy, character, customs and regulations. The western side
6930-448: The eldest son, is said to have died in Manaw Gododdin, but his son Meirion (Marianus) comes into the picture as lord of Meirionydd . Einion Yrth completes the number". Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion one of his grandsons, was the final leader to defeat the Irish on Anglesey. However, this overly neat origin myth has been met with skepticism, "Early Welsh literature contains a wealth of stories seeking to explain place-names, and doubtless,
7040-420: The eye. The Norse left as suddenly and as mysteriously as they had arrived, leaving the Norman army weakened and demoralized. The Norman army retired to England, leaving a Welshman, Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl , in command of a token force to control Ynys Môn (now Anglesey) and upper Gwynedd, and ultimately abandoning any colonisation plans there. Owain ap Edwin transferred his allegiance to Chester following
7150-407: The grandsons of Edwin ap Goronwy of Tegeingl , leaving Tegeingl bereft of lordship. However, in 1132 while on campaign in the commote of Nanheudwy , near Llangollen , 'victorious' Cadwallon was defeated in battle and slain by an army from Powys. The defeat checked Gwynedd's expansion for a time, "much to the relief of the men of Powys", wrote historian Sir John Edward Lloyd (J.E Lloyd). In 1136
7260-429: The greater part of Wales. When Rhodri died in 878 AD (battle against Ceolwulf I of Mercia ) the relative unity of Wales ended and it was once again divided into its component parts each ruled by one of his sons. Rhodri's eldest son Anarawd ap Rhodri inherited Gwynedd and would firmly establish the princely House of Aberffraw . His son Merfyn ap Rhodri was given the Kingdom of Powys to rule and Cadell founded
7370-414: The growth of the metropolis of London . They now flow through culverts , with some of them integral parts of London's sewerage system and diverted accordingly. From west to east - sub-tributaries are shown indented From west to east - sub-tributaries are shown indented In June 2008, the office of Mayor of London published outline plans to reinstate some underground rivers. In January 2009,
7480-526: The late 12th century, the family asserted its rights as the senior line of descendants from Rhodri the Great who had conquered most of Wales during his lifetime. Gruffudd ap Cynan 's biography was first written in Latin and intended for a wider audience outside Wales. The significance of this claim was that the Aberffraw family owed nothing to the English king for its position in Wales and that they held authority in Wales "by absolute right through descent," wrote historian John Davies . The House of Aberffraw
7590-419: The main/top part of the skulls - the accompanying jaw bones, which would have provided vital evidence for beheadings, execution or indeed massacre, were missing); human skulls are profoundly identifiable as being human and are more likely to have been spotted and collected during construction work - every single controlled archaeological excavation in this area has also uncovered other human bones, creating less of
7700-484: The medieval Welsh Royal House of Dinefwr in Deheubarth , this divided Wales into North Wales , Mid Wales and South Wales respectively. Gwynedd and the Aberffraw dynasty thrived with but a few interruptions until 1283. From the successes of Rhodri and the seniority of Anarawd among his sons the Aberffraw family claimed primacy over all other Welsh lords including the powerful kings of Powys and Deheubarth . In The History of Gruffudd ap Cynan , written in
7810-558: The mountainous mainland region of Snowdonia opposite. The name Gwynedd is believed to be a borrowing from early Irish (reflective of Irish settlement in the area in antiquity), either cognate with the Old Irish ethnic name Féni , "Irish People", from Primitive Irish * weidh-n- "Forest People"/"Wild People" (from Proto-Indo-European * weydʰ- "wood, wilderness"), or (alternatively) Old Irish fían "war band", from Proto-Irish * wēnā (from Proto-Indo-European * weyh₁- "chase, pursue, suppress"). Ptolemy in
7920-527: The name Llŷn derived from Laigin , an Old Irish form that means "Leinstermen, or simply Leinster." The 5th-century Cantiorix Inscription now in Penmachno church seems to be the earliest record of the name. It is in memory of a man named Cantiorix, and the Latin inscription is Cantiorix hic iacit/Venedotis cives fuit/consobrinos Magli magistrati : "Cantiorix lies here. He was a citizen of Gwynedd and
8030-638: The neighbouring Kingdom of Powys acted in concert to rebuff the Anglian advance but were defeated at the Battle of Chester in 613. Following this catastrophe, the approximate borders of northern Wales were set with the city of Caerlleon (now called Chester ) and the surrounding Cheshire Plain falling under the control of the Anglo-Saxons. Beli's grandson was Cadfan ap Iago from the line of Maelgwn, his tombstone in Gwynedd wrote in Latin : "Catamanus rex sapientisimus opinatisimus" (most renowned), he
8140-513: The other hand, miracles performed against him by Christian saints. He is attributed in some old stories as hosting the first Eisteddfod , and he is also one of five Celtic British kings castigated for their sins by the contemporary Christian writer Gildas (who referred to him as Maglocunus, meaning 'Prince-Hound' in Brittonic), written in the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae . Maelgwn
8250-472: The parish of Shoreditch , and one or more others flowing from Finsbury to the west. The picture is unclear, but both of these branches may have had ultimate sources as far north as Islington. The main branch of the stream, entering the city along the line of Blomfield Street, was known as Deepditch . This main stream, and one or more of the western tributaries appear to have met in Moorfields , north of
8360-594: The phenomena of the Walbrook Skulls (below); recounting, or inventing an explanation where the name Gallobroc derived from the name of a vanquished Roman leader called Livius Gallus . The main branch flowing from the parish of Shoreditch was known (above the Wall) as the Deepditch , Flood Ditch or just The Ditch . The Walbrook divided the city into two hills: Ludgate Hill to the west and Cornhill to
8470-470: The plague in 547, leaving a succession crisis in his wake. His son-in-law, Elidyr Mwynfawr of the Kingdom of Strathclyde , claimed the throne and invaded Gwynedd to displace Maelgwn's son, Rhun Hir ap Maelgwn . Elidyr was killed in the attempt, but his death was then avenged by his relatives, who ravaged the coast of Arfon . Rhun counter-attacked and exacted the same penalty on the lands of his foes in what
8580-601: The post-Roman period, the earliest rulers of Wales and Gwynedd may have exerted authority over regions no larger than the cantrefi ( hundreds ) described in Welsh law codified centuries later, with their size somewhat comparable in size to the Irish tuath . These early petty kings or princelings (Lloyd uses the term chieftain ) adopted the title rhi in Welsh (akin to the Irish Gaelic rí ), later replaced by brenin ,
8690-578: The realm during the time of relative peace following the Battle of Badon , where the Anglo-Saxons were defeated. During that peace, he established a mighty kingdom. After Cadwallon, Gwynedd appears to have held a pre-eminent position among the petty Cambrian states in the post-Roman period. The great-grandson of Cunedda, Maelgwn Hir (Maelgwn the Tall), was regarded as an able military leader, impetuous and generous. There are several legends about his life concerning either his own trickery and craftiness or, on
8800-563: The region. Noteworthy descendants from the Kingdom of Gwynedd include royalty such as Owain Glyndŵr , and the titular Prince of Wales , also the Salusbury family via Katheryn of Berain . The people mentioned can be associated with the Anglesey based Tudors of Penmynydd family. The Tudors were ancestors and namesake to the former English Royal House of Tudor , they were descended from
8910-471: The river was afterwards named after Livius Gallus , the leader of the beheaded Romans, as Nantgallum in Welsh (the language of the native Britons), or in the Saxon English as Galobroc , from which Walbrook was derived. However, Geoffrey's History is unreliable, and other theories have been proposed. Some historians consider these skulls to be a result of the rebellion of Boudica . More recently,
9020-616: The river, acting like a dam to impede the flow of the river and create the marshy conditions which characterised the open space at Moorfields . The wall's surrounding ditch may have diverted some of the water that would otherwise have gone through the City. In 1838 construction workers building a new sewer under Blomfield Street , on the course of the Walbrook, discovered very large numbers of human skulls, though very few other bones were present. " An immense number of human skulls were found throughout this street" (ie Blomfield Street) Since that time, around 300 further heads have been found in
9130-452: The river’s history. These changes in course may have been due to natural changes and human intervention. Modern maps of London in the Roman period show the Walbrook as having many tributaries. Roman London - a New Map and Guide shows six branches. Most of these branches are to the West of the main eastern stream. The river appears to have had a main eastern branch which ran from Hoxton , in
9240-465: The skulls have been dated mostly to the early 2nd century AD, and it has again been suggested that the skulls are the consequence of an anti-Roman rebellion in the 120s when London suffered a second major fire often called the Hadrianic fire. The three martial explanations may link to the proposition, made by archaeologists, that some of the skulls may have represented ritual deposits of heads related to
9350-496: The source either son or husband of Essyllt daughter of Cynan Dindaethwy a former King of Gwynedd. The most ancient genealogical sources agree that Merfyn was the son of Essyllt, heiress and cousin of the aforementioned Hywel ap Caradog, last of the ruling House of Cunedda in Gwynedd, and that Merfyn's male line went back to the Hen Ogledd to Llywarch Hen , a first cousin of Urien and thus a direct descendant of Coel Hen . Thus
9460-479: The south to the Dee in the east, and incorporating Anglesey. Other evidence supports Nennius 's claim that a leader came to North Wales and brought the region a measure of stability although an Irish Gaelic element remained until the mid-5th century. Cunedda's heir Einion Yrth ap Cunedda defeated the remaining Gaelic Irish on Anglesey by 470, while his son, Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion , appears to have consolidated
9570-618: The story is propaganda aimed at justifying the right of Cunedda and his descendants to territories beyond the borders of the original Kingdom of Gwynedd. That kingdom probably consisted of the two banks of the Menai Straits and the coast over towards the estuary of the River Conwy, the foundations upon which Cunedda's descendants created a more extensive realm." The inhabitants of Gwynedd remained conscious of their Romano-British heritage, and an affinity with Rome survived long after
9680-535: The street" from the "capitalist forces" of city growth which had subsumed it. 51°30′33.89″N 0°5′33.25″W / 51.5094139°N 0.0925694°W / 51.5094139; -0.0925694 Subterranean rivers of London The subterranean or underground rivers of London are or were the direct or indirect tributaries of the upper estuary of the Thames (the Tideway ) that were built over during
9790-479: The streets and lanes where it passed and that houses had been built so that the stream was hidden as it is now. The construction of the massive infrastructure of the London sewerage system , with five main sewers, incorporated many existing culverts, storm sewers, and sluices. This included the culverted Walbrook, which by 1860 had been linked into a network of 82 miles (132 km) of new sewerage lines, channelled to
9900-710: The throne but was soon challenged by Gruffudd ap Cynan , the exiled grandson of Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig who had been living in the Norse–Gael stronghold of Dublin . In 1081 Trahaearn was killed by Gruffudd in battle and the ancient line of Rhodri Mawr was restored. The Aberffraw dynasty suffered various depositions by rivals in Deheubarth, Powys, and England in the 10th and 11th centuries. Gruffudd ap Cynan (c. 1055–1137), who grew up in exile in Norse–Gael Dublin , regained his inheritance following his victory at
10010-506: The throne of Gwynedd." This "stranger" who became the next King of Gwynedd was Merfyn "Frych" (Merfyn "the Freckled"). When, however, Merfyn Frych's pedigree is examined – and to the Welsh pedigree meant everything – he seems not a stranger but a direct descendant of the ancient ruling line. He was the son of Gwriad, the contemporaneous King of Mann from the Isle of Man and depending on
10120-504: The time of John Stow , writing in 1603. It has been suggested that the probable derivation of the name Walbrook, river of foreigners (i.e. the native Britons), meant that there was a part of the city inhabited by native Britons (also known as Welsh), and this is assumed to be the eastern side on Cornhill , with the Saxons based on the higher status western Ludgate Hill . London's defensive wall seems to have had an unintended impact on
10230-516: The two but would also guarantee that Welsh self-rule would end upon Llywelyn's death, and so it represented the completion of the first stage of the conquest of Wales by Edward I . Welsh tradition credited the founding of Gwynedd to the Brittonic polity of Gododdin ( Old Welsh Guotodin , earlier Brittonic form Votadini ) from Lothian invading the lands of the Brittonic polities of
10340-470: The victors are the only lineages to have survived," according to Davies. Smaller and weaker chieftains coalesced around more powerful princelings, sometimes through voluntary vassalage or inheritance, though at other times through conquest, and the lesser princelings coalesced around still greater princelings until a regional prince could claim authority over the whole of north Wales from the River Dyfi in
10450-479: The west of the present-day Cannon Street Railway Bridge . During Roman times it was also used for transport, with the limit of navigation some 200 m from the Thames, where the Bucklersbury building now stands. It was there the Romans built a port and temple to Mithras on the east bank of the stream. The temple was found and later excavated during rebuilding work after World War II . The Roman Governor's palace
10560-550: The whole of Wales was occupied by Norman forces. However, although they erected many castles, Norman control in most regions of Wales was tenuous at best. Motivated by local anger over the "gratuitously cruel" invaders, and led by the historic ruling houses, Welsh control over the greater part of Wales was restored by 1100. In an effort to further consolidate his control over Gwynedd, Earl Hugh of Chester had Hervey le Breton elected as Bishop of Bangor in 1092, and consecrated by Thomas of Bayeux , Archbishop of York . However,
10670-535: The world. The region became known as Venedotia in Latin . The name was initially attributed to a specific Irish colony on Anglesey but broadened to refer to Irish settlers as a whole in North Wales by the 5th century. According to the 9th-century monk and chronicler Nennius , North Wales was left defenceless by the Roman withdrawal and subject to increasing raids by marauders from the Isle of Man and Ireland,
10780-597: Was Padarn Beisrudd , Paternus of the red cloak , "an epithet which suggests that he wore the cloak of a Roman officer", and perhaps it was evidence of a high-ranking officer. Cunedda ( fl. 5th century ) brought order to North Wales and after his death, Gwynedd was divided among his sons: Dynod was awarded Dunoding , another son Ceredig received Ceredigion ," Afloeg by Aflogion in Lleyn , Dogfael by Dogfeiling in Dyffryn Clwyd , and Edern by Edeirnion ... Osfeilion of Osfael has not yet been located; Tybion,
10890-458: Was a British speaking quarter in the city in the Anglo-Saxon period , and this possibility has been linked to the division of the city by the Walbrook, with claims that the Britons lived on Cornhill to the east, while the Saxons lived on Ludgate Hill to the west. Another theory is that it was so named because it ran through or under the London Wall . Geoffrey of Monmouth linked it to
11000-477: Was able to add the Powys to his realm after its king (his maternal uncle) died on a pilgrimage to Rome in 855. Later, he married Angharad ferch Meurig , the sister of King Gwgon of Seisyllwg . When Gwgon drowned without an heir in 872, Rhodri became a steward over the kingdom and was able to install his son, Cadell ap Rhodri , as a subject king. Thus, he became the first ruler since the days of Cunedda to control
11110-562: Was an ancestor of the future Kings of Gwynedd. The Battle of Chester did not end the ability of the Welsh to seriously threaten the Anglo-Saxon polities. Among the most powerful of the early kings was Cadwallon ap Cadfan (c. 624 – 634), grandson of Iago ap Beli . He became engaged in an initially disastrous campaign against Northumbria where following a series of epic defeats he was confined first to Anglesey, and then just to Puffin Island , before being forced into exile across
11220-532: Was bespangled with them as is the firmament with stars". Gruffudd had built stone churches at his royal manors, and Lloyd suggests Gruffudd's example led to the rebuilding of churches with stone in Penmon , Aberdaron , and Towyn in the Norman fashion . Gruffudd promoted the primacy of the Episcopal See of Bangor in Gwynedd, and funded the building of Bangor Cathedral during the episcopate of David
11330-405: Was curiously described as "the dragon of the island" by Gildas which was possibly a title, but explicitly as the most powerful of the five named British kings. "[Y]ou the last I write of but the first and greatest in evil, more than many in ability but also in malice, more generous in giving but also more liberal in sin, strong in war but stronger to destroy your soul." Maelgwn eventually died from
11440-594: Was displaced in 942 by Hywel Dda , a King of Deheubarth from a junior line of descent from Rhodri Mawr. This occurred because Idwal Foel , the King of Gwynedd, was determined to cast off English overlordship and took up arms against the new English king, Edmund I . Idwal and his brother Elisedd were both killed in battle against Edmund's forces. By normal custom Idwal's crown should have passed to his sons, Ieuaf and Iago ab Idwal , but Hywel Dda intervened and sent Iago and Ieuaf into exile in Ireland and established himself as ruler over Gwynedd until his death in 950 when
11550-465: Was found further down the east bank of the stream, near its entry into the Thames. In the 15th century, the monasteries of Charterhouse and St Bartholomews diverted the headwaters of the Walbrook to their sites in the River Fleet catchment. It has been suggested that this caused a significant reduction in the flow of the Walbrook. When the church of St Margaret Lothbury was rebuilt in 1440,
11660-440: Was in his 60s and with failing eyesight. For the remainder of his life, while Gruffudd continued to rule in Gwynedd, his sons Cadwallon , Owain , and Cadwaladr , would lead Gwynedd's army after 1120. Gruffudd's policy, which his sons would execute and later rulers of Gwynedd adopted, was to recover Gwynedd's primacy without blatantly antagonising the English crown. In 1120 a minor border war between Llywarch ab Owain , lord of
11770-503: Was killed in the conflict. He was succeeded by his son or in some accounts nephew Beli ap Rhun in c. 586. On the accession of Beli's son Iago ap Beli in c. 599, the situation in Britain had deteriorated significantly. Most of northern England had been overrun by the invading Angles of Deira and Bernicia , who were in the process of forming the Kingdom of Northumbria . In a rare show of common interest, it appears that Gwynedd and
11880-512: Was lost as the Romano-Britons shifted towards a streamlined militaristic near-tribal society that no longer included the use of coinage and other complex industries dependent on a money economy, architectural techniques using brick and mortar, and even more basic knowledge such as the use of the wheel in pottery production. Ward-Perkins suggests the Welsh had to abandon those Roman ways that proved insufficient, or indeed superfluous, to meet
11990-414: Was more populous and prosperous, it had the cathedral, the royal palace (which later moved to Westminster) and its large market, Westcheap , was focussed on land-based trade. The east was poorer and more sparsely settled; its smaller market, Eastcheap , was sited near the river to allow it to specialise in seaborne trade. The division of the City into two parts persisted, in a less fundamental way, even to
12100-523: Was the Roman heritage felt that Professor Bryan Ward-Perkins of Trinity College, Oxford , wrote, "it took until 1282, when Edward I conquered Gwynedd , for the last part of Roman Britain to fall [and] a strong case can be made for Gwynedd as the very last part of the entire Roman Empire, east and west, to fall to the barbarians ." Nevertheless, there was generally quick abandonment of Roman political, social, and ecclesiastical practices and institutions within Gwynedd and elsewhere in Wales. Roman knowledge
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