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77-545: Pratt was born on December 6, 1840, in Rushford, New York , to Richard and Mary Pratt (née Herrick). He was the eldest of their three sons. He contracted smallpox as a young child, and had lifelong facial scarring as a result. In 1847, his father moved the family west to Logansport, Indiana . Pratt's father later left his family to take part in the California Gold Rush in 1849, hoping to strike it rich, but

154-458: A US Indian Agent , said that "The parents of these Indian children are ignorant, and know nothing of the value of education... Parental authority is hardly known or exercised among the Indians in this agency. The agent should be endowed with some kind of authority to enforce attendance. The agent here has found that a threat to depose a captain if he does not make the children attend school has had

231-472: A day marked by rank segregation. Pratt was opposed to the segregation of Native American tribes on reservations , believing that it made them vulnerable to speculators and people who would take advantage of them. He came into conflict with the Indian Bureau and other government officials who supported the reservation system, as well as all those who made profits from them. In May 1904, Pratt denounced

308-463: A good effect." Ward reiterated the US government's self-appointed position as a patriarchal ward over natives. Government officials treated tribal nations as dependents, and acted as if they could justifiably force a childlike nation to do what was best for them. The US officially legalized the denial of native parental rights in 1891, leading to mass forced removal of native children from their families. It

385-415: A highly structured, quasi-military regime. He was known to use corporal punishment, which was not uncommon in society at the time, on students. Carlisle emerged as the model for 26 off-reservation Bureau of Indian Affairs boarding schools that were ultimately developed in 15 states and territories. Some private boarding schools were sponsored by religious denominations. In addition, the government operated

462-690: A household in the town was $ 27,557, and the median income for a family was $ 30,938. Males had a median income of $ 26,800 versus $ 20,855 for females. The per capita income for the town was $ 13,156. About 13.4% of families and 16.1% of the population were below the poverty line , including 26.9% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over. 42°23′N 78°14′W  /  42.383°N 78.233°W  / 42.383; -78.233 Carlisle Indian Industrial School The United States Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania , generally known as Carlisle Indian Industrial School ,

539-569: A lively interest" in what Pratt had to say. He was a tribal leader and head of a large household with at least ten children. He believed that his children would have to deal with whites, and perhaps live with them, whether they liked it or not. He decided to send two sons and a daughter for the first class at Carlisle in 1879. Pratt was so successful in his correspondence and methods that many Western chiefs, whose people were suffering from cold and hunger on their reservations, begged him to bring more children East. The chiefs also wrote to Washington with

616-601: A local church, but had their choice among those in town. Carlisle students were required to attend a daily service and two services on Sundays. Students were expected to participate in various extracurricular activities. In addition to the YMCA and King's Daughters Circle, the girls could choose between the Mercer Literary Society and the Susan Longstreth Society . The boys had a choice of

693-424: A remarkable man. [...] You are such an able man that you are the principal chief of these thousands of your people. But Spotted Tail, you cannot read or write. You claim that the government has tricked your people and placed the lines of your reservation a long way inside of where it was agreed that they should be. [...] You signed that paper, knowing only what the interpreter told you it said. If anything happened when

770-439: A request to educate more of their children. News of the educational experiment spread rapidly, and many whites went to Carlisle to volunteer services and professional talents. Pratt developed a photographic record of the school for publicity and documentation. The institution and the school were photographed during the school's existence by approximately a dozen professional photographers. The first and best known photographer of

847-409: A talk. "The astronomer explained that there would be an eclipse of the moon the following Wednesday night at twelve o'clock. We did not believe it. When the moon eclipsed, we readily believed our teacher about geography and astronomy." In addition to academic contact, the two institutes had contact in the public venue as well. The best known instances include the regular defeats of Dickinson College by

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924-718: A total of more than 300 schools on reservations, many of which accepted boarding students from other tribes. At Fort Marion , Florida in the 1870s, Pratt was assigned to supervise former warriors, several dozen Native American prisoners selected from among those who had surrendered in the Indian Territory at the end of the Red River War . He gradually introduced them to classes in the English language, art, guard duty, and craftsmanship. The program became well-known. Distinguished visitors began to visit from all over

1001-471: A year. In 1905, a survey of 296 Carlisle graduates showed that 124 had entered government service (often with reservation agencies), and 47 were employed off the reservations. Anniversaries and other school events attracted whites of distinction. US senators, Indian commissioners, secretaries of the Interior, college presidents, and noted clergymen were among those invited to present the diplomas or address

1078-502: Is a town in Allegany County , New York , United States. The population was 1,085 at the 2020 census. Rushford is in the northwest part of Allegany County and is northeast of Olean . The first settlers, Enos Gary and two of his children , arrived in 1808. The town of Rushford was formed in 1816 from part of the town of Caneadea . Part of Rushford was taken to form the newer town of New Hudson in 1825. When Rushford Lake

1155-418: Is the border of Cattaraugus County (town of Farmersville ). New York State Route 243 crosses the town (east-west). As of the census of 2000, there were 1,259 people, 479 households, and 346 families residing in the town. The population density was 35.6 inhabitants per square mile (13.7/km ). There were 1,394 housing units at an average density of 39.4 per square mile (15.2/km ). The racial makeup of

1232-505: The Indian Territory at the end of the Red River War . In addition, he worked to give prisoners agency and some independence: enlisting them in guard duty, assigning them other supervisory roles over their community, leading marching and maneuvers for exercise. In June 1879, while he was still stationed in Florida, Pratt visited a Seminole village which was headed by Chief Chipco . Pratt spoke to Chipco and wrote an ethnographic study about

1309-694: The Oklahoma Territory , they were nicknamed by Native Americans as the " Buffalo Soldiers ", because of the texture of their hair. Pratt's long and active military career included eight years in the Great Plains , during the Indian Wars. He participated in the Washita campaign of 1868–1869 and the Red River War of 1874–1875. The severe winter of 1874-1875 resulted in many hostiles surrendering to US Indian Agents for their tribes. Pratt

1386-578: The Standard Literary Society or the Invincible Debating Society. A summer camp was established in the mountains at Pine Grove Furnace State Park , near a place called Tagg's Run. Students lived in tents and picked berries, hunted and fished. Luther Standing Bear recalled: "In 1881, after the school closed for the summer vacation, some of the boys and girls were placed out in farmers' homes to work throughout

1463-470: The U.S. Army War College , [1901], and U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center , [1967]) were vacant and available for use. The military site was less than two miles from an already well established educational institution, Dickinson College (founded 1773, chartered 1783). When the first Indian School students arrived in Carlisle on October 6, 1879, they were in tribal dress. "For the people of Carlisle it

1540-468: The U.S. Department of Defense . The property is now part of the U.S. Army War College . Founded in 1879 by Lieutenant Richard Henry Pratt under U.S. government authorization, Carlisle Indian Industrial School was an early federally funded off-reservation Indian boarding school initiated by the U.S. government. Choctaw Academy in Scott County, Kentucky , was the first such boarding school, but

1617-460: The cultural assimilation efforts of the larger American Indian boarding school system, by requiring children to speak only English, practice Christianity, take on new names and wear European-American style clothing. Pratt wrote that he believed that Native Americans were 'equal' to European Americans, and that the school worked to immerse students into mainstream Euro-American culture. He believed that this would enable them to advance and thrive in

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1694-727: The "best classes" of Americans. In his writings he described his belief that the government must "kill the Indian...to save the man". Pratt was outspoken and a leading member of what was called the "Friends of the Indian" movement at the end of the 19th century. He believed in the "noble" cause of "civilizing" Native Americans. He said, "The Indians need the chances of participation you have had and they will just as easily become useful citizens." Pratt regarded Native Americans as worthy of respect and help, and capable of full participation in society. Many of his contemporaries regarded Native Americans as nearly subhuman. . Pratt preached assimilation in

1771-592: The Captain exclaimed. "I wish all my boys would run away!" In November 1878, Pratt was ordered by the War Department to report to the Secretary of the Interior for 'Indian education' duty. He traveled to Dakota Territory to recruit Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota students for the new school. These tribes were selected by Commissioner of Indian Affairs Ezra Hayt, because they had resisted ceding more territory to

1848-602: The Carlisle Indian School and his notable lectures on electricity ("Why Does It Burn"), "Lightning" and "Gunpowder" received a favorable reaction from parents and students. Himes lectured to Chiefs Red Cloud , Roman Nose and Yellow Tail, and brought Indian students to the Dickinson laboratory to give lectures. Himes also promoted Carlisle's success in national academic circles. Luther Standing Bear recalled that one day an astronomer came to Carlisle and gave

1925-504: The Carlisle Indian School football team and other athletic competitions. Carlisle curricula included subjects such as English, math, history, drawing and composition. Students also learned trade and work skills such as farming and manufacturing. Older students used their skills to help build new classrooms and dormitories. Carlisle students produced a variety of weekly and monthly newspapers and other publications that were considered part of their "industrial training," or preparing for work in

2002-522: The Carlisle Indian School was John Nicolas Choate . After Indian dress was replaced with military uniforms and the children's hair was cut in Anglo fashion, the Indians' physical appearance was transformed. In an effort to convince doubters of the transformation possible, Pratt hired photographers to present this evidence. Before and after "contrast" photos were sent to officials in Washington, friends of

2079-612: The Hampton Institute would be useful for educating and assimilating Native Americans. Give me three hundred young Indians and a place in one of our best communities, and let me prove it! Carlisle Barracks in Pennsylvania, has been abandoned for a number of years. It is in the heart of fine agricultural country. The people are kindly disposed, and long free from the universal border prejudice against Indians. Pratt and his supporters successfully lobbied Congress to establish

2156-491: The Indian Bureau and the reservation system as a hindrance to the civilization and assimilation of Native Americans. This controversy, coupled with earlier disputes with the government over civil service reform, led to Pratt's forced retirement as superintendent of the Carlisle School on June 30, 1904. The legacy of Pratt's boarding school programs is controversial among modern Native American tribes. Some have labelled

2233-558: The Indian School, and college students volunteered services, observed teaching methods and participated in events. Dickinson College also provided Carlisle Indian School students with access to the Dickinson Preparatory School ("Conway Hall") and college level education. Thomas P. Marshall, a Sioux from Pine Ridge agency , South Dakota , was one of the first Native American students at Dickinson (he

2310-450: The Indian children could not be civilized while wearing moccasins and blankets. Their hair was cut because in some mysterious way long hair stood in the path of our development. They were issued the clothes of white men. High collar stiff-bosomed shirts and suspenders fully three inches in width were uncomfortable. White leather boots caused actual suffering. Standing Bear said that red flannel underwear caused "actual torture." He remembered

2387-457: The Natives were disadvantaged by being unable to speak and write English and, if they had that knowledge, they might have been able to protect themselves. Pratt used this speech to convince chief Spotted Tail to send his children to the school. At first he had been reluctant to relinquish his children to the government that had stolen native land and violated their treaties. Spotted Tail, you are

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2464-521: The Retired List. After the Indian Wars subsided, President Ulysses S. Grant 's Attorney General concluded that a state of war could not exist between a nation and its wards (which the federally recognized tribes were considered). He ordered the prisoners to be sent as prisoners of war for permanent imprisonment at Fort Marion , St. Augustine, Florida . Pratt was chosen to lead and supervise

2541-456: The U.S. government urgently sought a 'progressive' educational model to quickly assimilate Indians into white culture. Whether this could be achieved and how rapidly it could be done was unknown. Pratt believed he could make use of the Carlisle facility. He thought its proximity to officials in Washington, D.C. would help him educate officials about the Indian capacity for learning. As part of Pratt's curriculum in cultural and language immersion,

2618-461: The US would have leverage against the tribes in their continuing attempt to acquire tribal land. Pratt said that, "The children would be hostages for the good behavior of the people." Pratt persuaded tribal elders and chiefs that the reason the " Washichu " (Lakota word for white man, loosely translates to Takes the Fat) had been able to take their land was that the Indians were uneducated. He said that

2695-729: The United States , a military society for officers who had served the Union during the Civil War. Pratt returned to Logansport, Indiana to be reunited with Anna, where he ran a hardware store. After two years in the hardware business, he re-entered the Army in March 1867 as a second lieutenant of the 10th United States Cavalry. This was an African American regiment, some of whose members were freedmen . When they were assigned to Fort Sill in

2772-627: The United States and its territories, including African Americans, Puerto Ricans, Mexicans, Latinos, Pacific Islanders, Asians, and Mormons. He took his pedagogical inspiration from the Puritans. Pratt instituted a practice of Americanization of Native Americans by cultural assimilation, which he effected both at Fort Marion and Carlisle. He believed that to claim their rightful place as American citizens, Native Americans needed to renounce their tribal way of life, convert to Christianity, abandon their reservations, and seek education and employment among

2849-540: The United States government. It was less than three years after Lakota warriors and their allies had defeated Custer and the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment at the Little Big Horn . The War Department ordered Pratt to go to Red Cloud (Oglala) and Spotted Tail (Sicangu), to compel the chiefs to surrender their children. The government believed that by removing the Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota children from their homes,

2926-400: The country, especially as St. Augustine had become a winter resort for the wealthy. The U.S. Commissioner of Education came to see firsthand what Pratt was doing, as did the president of Amherst College . Pratt's Fort Marion program convinced him that "distant education" was the only way to totally assimilate the Indian. He wrote, the Indian "is born a blank, like all the rest of us. Transfer

3003-588: The dominant society, and be leaders to their people. After the government assessed the initial success of older Indian students at Hampton Normal and Agricultural School and some in Upstate New York , who were former prisoners of war, Lieutenant Pratt was authorized to establish the first all-Indian school, and founded the Carlisle Indian Industrial School at the historic Carlisle Barracks in central Pennsylvania , and

3080-413: The equal of whites, and founded Carlisle to immerse their children in white culture and teach them English, new skills and customs, in order to help them survive. After the end of Great Sioux War in 1877, the Lakota people were impoverished, harassed and confined to reservations ... many believed that Native Americans were a vanishing race whose only hope for survival was rapid cultural transformation. Thus

3157-431: The first worship service at the Indian School in 1879. It was Mrs. Pratt who had initiated the contact between the Indian School and Dickinson. Upon Pratt's absence one Sunday, Mrs. Pratt wrote to President McCauley and requested his aid as a minister which he graciously accepted. The relationship did not stop there with Richard Pratt noting that, "from that time forward Dr. McCauley became an advisor and most valued friend to

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3234-585: The graduating class upon these occasions. The gymnasium held 3,000 persons and was generally filled with an audience of townspeople and distinguished visitors showing their support for aspiring Carlisle students. In 1880, Carlisle, Pennsylvania , was a thriving town as a borough and county seat of Cumberland County , west of the Susquehanna River , with a population of 6,209 people. The shoe factory in town employed over 800 residents. There were two railroads, three banks and ten hotels in Carlisle by

3311-572: The larger economy. Marianne Moore was a teacher at Carlisle before she became one of America's leading poets. Music was a part of the program, and many students studied classical instruments. The Carlisle Indian Band earned an international reputation. Native American teachers eventually joined the faculty, such as Ho-Chunk artist Angel DeCora , taught students about Native American art and heritage and fought harsh assimilation methods. Students were instructed in Christianity and expected to attend

3388-461: The new school, and back to reservations to recruit new students. The minimum age for students was fourteen, and all students were required to be at least one-fourth Indian. The Carlisle term was five years, and the consent forms which the parents signed before the agent so stated. Pratt refused to return pupils earlier unless they were ill, unsuitable mentally, or a menace to others. Between 1899 and 1904, Carlisle issued thirty to forty-five degrees

3465-507: The off-reservation boarding school for Native Americans at the historic Carlisle Barracks in Carlisle, Pennsylvania . By October 1879, Lieutenant Pratt had recruited the first students for the Carlisle Indian Industrial School; 82 boys and girls arrived one night at midnight at the railroad station. They were met by hundreds of local residents who escorted them to the "Old Barracks". The Carlisle Indian School formally opened on November 1, 1879, with an enrollment of 147 students. The youngest

3542-418: The one hundred and twenty-eighth commencement of Dickinson College, where he presented an Honorary Degree of Master of Arts to Pratt's successor, Superintendent Moses Friedman , for his work at the Carlisle Indian School. Prof. Charles Francis Himes was a professor of natural science at Dickinson College for three decades and instrumental in expanding the science curriculum. Professor Hines took an interest in

3619-653: The paper was being made up that changed its order, if you had been educated and could read and write, you could have known about it and refused to put your name on it. Do you intend to let your children remain in the same condition of ignorance in which you have lived, which will compel them always to meet the whiter man at a great disadvantage through an interpreter, as you have to do? [...] As your friend, Spotted Tail, I urge you to send your children with me to this Carlisle School and I will do everything I can to advance them in intelligence and industry in order that they may come back and help you. Consent to send students to Carlisle

3696-452: The plaudits of government officials for allowing their children to participate in the Carlisle experiment. Some tribes initially consented to sending their children to off-reservation boarding schools, but many were skeptical of the school system and its intentions. Many tribes did not believe the promises of the schools, as they were scarred by the genocidal tactics of the U.S. government. Once students were in school, communication with home

3773-426: The position of President of Dickinson College and continued the close relationship between the Indian School and Dickinson College through Pratt's departure in 1904. Reed told an audience at the Indian School that "we who live in Carlisle, who come in constant contact with the Indian School, and who know of its work, have occasion to be agreeably surprised with the advance we are able to see." In June 1911, Reed addressed

3850-492: The prisoners at the fort, because he had experience with both the Indians and interpreters from working on their cases. After he requested further authority over the prisoners, he began to experiment with education at the fort. In the 1870s at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, Florida , he introduced classes in the English language, art, and craftsmanship to several dozen prisoners who had been chosen from among those who had surrendered in

3927-476: The property was transferred from the War Department to the U.S. Department of the Interior for this purpose. As at Hampton, arriving students were shorn of their long hair, and even their names were changed. However, "unlike Hampton, whose purpose was to return assimilated educated Indians to their people, Carlisle meant to turn the school into the ultimate Americanizer". At Carlisle, Pratt established

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4004-421: The red flannel underwear as "the worst thing about life at Carlisle." Some children arrived at Carlisle able to speak some English; they were used by school officials as translators for other students. Officials sometimes took advantage of the children's traditional respect for elders to get them to inform on peers' misbehaviors. This was consistent with accepted practice in the large European-American families of

4081-487: The savage born infant to the surroundings of a civilization and he will grow to possess a civilized language and habit." Pratt wrote: If all men are created equal, then why were blacks segregated in separate regiments and Indians segregated on separate tribal reservations? Why weren't all men given equal opportunities and allowed to assume their rightful place in society? Race became a meaningless abstraction in his mind. Pratt believed an industrial school model similar to

4158-399: The school's students were expected to learn English. School officials also required students to take new English names, either by choice or assignment. This was confusing, as the names from which they had to choose had no meaning for them. Luther Standing Bear ( Sicangu - Oglala ) was one of the first students when Carlisle began operations in 1879. He was asked to choose a name from a list on

4235-421: The school.". The collaborative effort between Dickinson College and the Carlisle Indian School lasted almost four decades, from the opening day to the closing of the school. Dr. McCauley helped Pratt to develop a board of trustees and a Board of Visitors composed of different heads of leading national educational institutions and wealthy donors. Dickinson College professors served as chaplains and special faculty to

4312-537: The streets of Carlisle and on to the school on the edge of town." Residents of Carlisle stood on their doorsteps and cheered as the Carlisle Band led a snake dance from one end of town to the other. Carlisle was also home to Dickinson College , less than two miles from the Carlisle Indian School, America's 16th oldest college. Dickinson College and the Carlisle Indian School collaboration began when Dr. James Andrew McCauley , President of Dickinson College, led

4389-471: The summer. Those who remained at school were sent to the mountains for a vacation trip. I was among the number. When we reached our camping place, we pitched out tents like soldiers all in a row. Captain Pratt brought along a lot of feathers and some sinew, and we made bows and arrows. Many white people came to visit the Indian camp, and seeing us shooting with the bow and arrow, they would put nickels and dimes in

4466-433: The time Pratt established his school. By the late 19th century, there were 1,117 "colored residents" in Carlisle. Carlisle boasted a low unemployment rate and a high literacy rate at the time of the census. It was considered a good location, as it was not in a big city. It was not so far West that the students would be able to run away back to their families. The historic Carlisle Barracks (established 1757, afterwards site of

4543-663: The time, where older children were often required to care for and discipline their younger siblings. School discipline was strict and consistent, according to the military tradition. Students faced 'courts-martial' for serious cases. Elaine Goodale Eastman , who had supervised government Indian education on reservations west of the Missouri River, later wrote of Carlisle that organizing Indian boys into squads and companies appealed to their warrior traditions. She believed they complied because they wanted to earn officers' ranks, recognition, and privileges. She also observed that there

4620-514: The town was 98.97% White , 0.08% Native American , 0.08% Asian , 0.16% from other races , and 0.71% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.87% of the population. There were 479 households, out of which 32.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.9% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.6% were non-families. 21.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.1% had someone living alone who

4697-507: The village. On November 1, 1879, he founded the Carlisle Indian Industrial School at Carlisle, Pennsylvania , the first of many off-reservation boarding schools for Native Americans. Pratt did not regard his innovations at Fort Marion as limited to Native Americans. He developed the paradigm of compulsory immersion education. At various times, it would be used in attempted assimilation of other minorities in

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4774-676: The wall. He randomly pointed at the symbols on a wall, and was renamed as Luther. The school assigned his father's name, Standing Bear, as his surname. The children were forced to change their manner of dress and to give up their traditional tribal ways. The boys all had long hair, which was a strong tradition in their cultures: it was cut short in Euro-American style. Students were required to wear school uniforms of American-style clothing, and girls were provided with uniform dresses. Standing Bear later wrote of this period: The civilizing process at Carlisle began with clothes. Whites believed

4851-706: The wider American Indian boarding school system, that Pratt began, as a form of cultural genocide that adversely affected their children and families. Pratt retired to his home in Rochester, New York . During his retirement years, he continued to lecture and argue his viewpoints. Pratt died on March 15, 1924, at the Letterman Army Hospital in present-day San Francisco . He is interred at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia . Rushford, New York Rushford

4928-598: The winter of 1863-1864, Pratt met Anna Mason. They were married on April 12, 1864. Eight days later he was commissioned as a first lieutenant of the 11th Regiment Indiana Cavalry. Pratt served in administrative roles for the remainder of the war and was mustered out of the Volunteer Service on May 29, 1865, at the rank of captain . He became a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of

5005-421: Was 'genuine affection' between the Captain and the students. Children who could not adjust at Carlisle eventually returned to their families and homes. Some ran away because of being homesick and unhappy. According to Eastman, several years after one young man ran away, he approached Pratt in the lobby of a New York hotel. He said that he had found a good job, was working hard, and had saved some money. "Hurrah!"

5082-453: Was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.09. In the town, the population was spread out, with 27.3% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 17.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.2 males. The median income for

5159-610: Was a gala day and a great crowd gathered around the railroad. The older Indian boys sang songs aloud in order to keep their spirits up and remain courageous, even though they were frightened." "For years, it was a common event for the people of Carlisle to greet the Carlisle Indian football victors on their homecoming. Led by the Indian School Band, the Carlisle Indians paraded in their nightshirts down

5236-519: Was formed by a dam on Caneadea Creek in 1927, the communities of East Rushford and Kelloggville were flooded by the rising water. According to the United States Census Bureau , the town has a total area of 36.1 square miles (93.5 km ), of which 35.3 square miles (91.4 km ) is land and 0.77 square miles (2.0 km ), or 2.19%, is water. The town center, Rushford , is a census-designated place . The western town line

5313-417: Was initiated by Choctaw leaders and then funded by the U.S. government through the 1819 Civilization Fund Act . Pratt had earlier supervised Native American prisoners of war, and supported some of them in gaining education at Hampton College. He became convinced that education was the key to assimilation. In his own words, Pratt's motto was, "Kill the Indian, save the man." The US applied this principle to

5390-498: Was laid to rest at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School /CIIS/ cemetery). Carlisle is also home to the Dickinson School of Law , (1834) - now part of The Pennsylvania State University , and in the early 1900s a few Carlisle Indian School graduates attended the law school: Albert A. Exendine , Ernest Robitaille , Hastings M. Robertson , Victor M. Kelley, and William J. Gardner . In 1889, Dr. George Edward Reed assumed

5467-403: Was not until the 1976 Indian Child Welfare Act that this practice was ended. Oglala Lakota Chief American Horse was one of the earliest advocates of 'western' (Euro-immigrant) education for Native Americans. While recruiting at Pine Ridge Reservation , Pratt had met strong opposition from Chief Red Cloud. He distrusted white education but had no school-age children. American Horse "took

5544-456: Was often gained with concessions, such as the promise to allow tribal leaders inspect the school soon after it opened. The first group of inspectors, some 40 Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota chiefs representing nine Missouri River agencies, visited Carlisle in June 1880. Other tribal leaders followed. Before tribal delegations returned home, they usually spent a few days in Washington where they received

5621-630: Was responsible for gathering testimony to assess charges against men for actions outside warfare. He worked with interpreters and prisoners to clear as many charges as possible. Pratt was promoted to captain in February 1883; major in July 1898; lieutenant colonel in February 1901; and to colonel in January 1903. He retired from the Army in February 1903; in April 1904 he was advanced to brigadier general on

5698-584: Was robbed and murdered by another prospector. Pratt had to support his mother and two younger brothers. At the outbreak of the American Civil War , Pratt enlisted in the 9th Indiana Infantry Regiment . After his first three-month term expired, he re-enlisted as a sergeant of the 2nd Regiment Indiana Cavalry ; he saw action at the Battle of Chickamauga . While on a recruiting detail in Indiana during

5775-510: Was six and the eldest twenty-five, but the majority were teenagers. Two-thirds were children of leaders of the Plains Indian tribes, with whom the U.S. had recently been at war. The first class was made up of 84 Lakota, 52 Cheyenne, Kiowa and Pawnee, and 11 Apache. The class included a group of students, former prisoners from Fort Marion, who wanted to continue their education with Pratt at Carlisle. Pratt believed Native Americans were

5852-486: Was the flagship Indian boarding school in the United States from its founding in 1879 through 1918. It was based in the historic Carlisle Barracks , which was transferred to the Department of Interior from the War Department for the purpose of establishing the school. After the United States entered World War I , however, the school was closed, and the property on which it was located was transferred back for use by

5929-609: Was virtually cut off. Letters from parents were left unsent by Indian Agents, and parents were not notified promptly when their children were ill or even after they died. Although the Civilization Fund Act of 1819 required parental consent for children to be sent to off-reservation boarding schools, in practice children were regularly forcibly removed. US officials justified the practice of forceful removal because they believed that native parenting practices were seen as inferior to mainstream white parenting. John S. Ward,

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