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82-566: Mount Rinjani ( Sasak : Gunong Rinjani , Indonesian : Gunung Rinjani ) is an active volcano in Indonesia on the island of Lombok . Administratively the mountain is in the Regency of North Lombok , West Nusa Tenggara ( Indonesian : Nusa Tenggara Barat , NTB). It rises to 3,726 metres (12,224 ft), making it the second highest volcano in Indonesia. It is also the highest point in

164-410: A 35% share. The mine is located in southwest Sumbawa. Due to the mine, Sumbawa Barat Regency along with other remote mining towns, and Jakarta, has the highest GDP per capita rates in Indonesia, Sumbawa Barat's is 156.25 million rupiah (US$ 17,170) as of 2010 , Newmont and its partners have invested about $ 1.9 billion in the mine. The reserves are expected to last until 2034, making Batu Hijau one of

246-457: A Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) rating of 1. Lava volume of 6.6 million cubic metres (230 × 10 ^  cu ft) and a tephra volume of 20,000 cubic metres (710,000 cu ft) was recorded. The area of activity described was the east side of Barujari at 2,250 m (7,380 ft). Eruptive characteristics were documented as a central vent eruption, explosive eruption and lava flow(s). In December 1944, Rinjani appears to have had

328-401: A central vent eruption on the flank (excentric) vent, a crater lake eruption, explosive eruption, lava flow(s) and a lava dome extrusion with associated damage to land, property. On 27 September 2004 a DVGHM (Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) report noted the decision to increase Rinjani's hazard status to Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) Alert Level 2 (Yellow). During

410-594: A combination of the two. They are written in hanacaraka , a script nearly identical to Balinese . Its basic letters consist of a consonant plus the vowel a . The first five letters read ha , na , ca , ra and ka , giving the script its name. Syllables with vowels other than a use the basic letter plus diacritics above, below or around it. Final consonants of a syllable or consonant clusters may also be encoded. Sumbawa Sumbawa has an area (including minor offshore islands) of 15,323.77 square kilometres or 5,916.54 square miles (three times

492-585: A few eruptions of such magnitude in the last 2,000 years. The eruption obliterated most of Tambora's summit, reducing its height by about a third and leaving a six-kilometer-wide caldera . Regardless, Tambora remains the highest point on the island. Highlands rise in four spots on the island, as well as on Sangeang Island. The large western lobe of Sumbawa is dominated by a large central highland, and Tambora, Dompu, and Bima each have more minor highlands. There are several large surrounding islands, most notably Moyo Island , volcanically active Sangeang Island, and

574-769: A literary language based on Old Javanese , has significantly influenced Sasak. It is used in Sasak puppet theatre, poetry and some lontar-based texts , sometimes mixed with Sasak. Kawi is also used for hyperpoliteness (a speech level above Sasak's "high" level), especially by the upper class known as the mènak . Eight vowels appear in Sasak dialects, contrasting with each other differently by dialect. They are represented in Latin orthography by ⟨a⟩ , ⟨e⟩ , ⟨i⟩ , ⟨o⟩ and ⟨u⟩ , with diacritics sometimes used to distinguish conflated sounds. The usual Indonesian practice

656-476: A maximum amplitude of 6–53 mm and 110 seconds long earthquake, earthquake tremor events with a maximum amplitude of 1 mm and 55 second long duration, 15 Local Tectonic earthquake events and two events of tectonic earthquake . The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) Alert Level was raised to 2 (on a scale of 1–4) on 2 May 2010. Level 1 is "Normal" and Level 2 is "Advisory" with an Aviation Alert color of Yellow-Advisory. Based on analysis of satellite imagery,

738-446: A nasal linker ( / n / in most dialects, / ŋ / in some). For example, compounding mate ('eye') and bulu ('hair') will result in maten bulu ('eyelash'). Sasak has a flexible word order , typical of western Indonesian languages . Frequency distributions of the various word orders are influenced by the verb forms in the clause (i.e. whether the clause involves a nasal or an unmarked verb, see #Verbs ). Clauses involving

820-452: A number of occasions, including funerals, weddings and circumcision ceremonies. Rural Sasak read the lontar texts as part of a ritual to ensure the fertility of their farm animals. Peter K. Austin described a pepaòsan which was performed as part of a circumcision ceremony in 2002, with paper copies of lontar texts rather than palm leaves. Lombok's lontar texts are written in Sasak, Kawi (a literary language based on old Javanese) or

902-408: A period of global cooling known as the " Year Without a Summer " in 1816. It also apparently destroyed a small culture of Papuan affinity, known to archaeologists as the " Tambora culture ". Sumbawa is administratively divided into four regencies ( kabupaten ) and one kota (city). The regencies and cities are listed below with their administrative capitals, their areas, and their populations at

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984-592: A rating of 3(?) with the area of activity described as Gunung Barujari. Eruptive characteristics documented for the events of that time are described as, central vent eruption with an explosive eruption, with pyroclastic flow (s), lava flow(s), fatalities and mudflow (s) (lahars). In May 1994 a glow was noticed on the crater floor of Barujari cone, which at this time had undergone no significant activity since August 1966. A portable seismograph (PS-2) and telemetry seismograph (Teledyne) were put into operation on 27 May and 9 June, respectively. One volcanic earthquake event/day

1066-588: A significant event. Between 25 December 1944 and 1(?) January 1945 eruptive activity is rated 2 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) The event has been listed in the historical records of the Global Volcanism Program indicating a lava volume: of 74 × 10 ^  m (2.6 × 10 ^  cu ft) occurring in an area of activity on the north west flank of Barujari (Rombongan). The eruptive characteristics are described

1148-404: A single stress on the final syllable. Final / a / in Sasak roots change phonetically to a tense [ə] ( mid central vowel ); for example, /baca/ ('to read') will be realized (and spelled) as bace , but when affixed the vowel stays the same, as in bacaan , 'reading' and pembacaan , 'reading instrument'. In compounding , if the first element ends in a vowel, the element will take

1230-401: A steep-sided conical profile when viewed from the east, but the western side of the compound volcano is truncated by the 6 x 8.5 km, oval-shaped Segara Anak caldera. The western half of the caldera contains a 230-metre-deep lake whose crescentic form results from growth of the post-caldera cone Barujari at the eastern end of the caldera. On the basis of the plate tectonics theory , Rinjani

1312-474: A word (like an affix) but a separate word syntactically—similar to the English language clitic 'll . Simple clitics occur in a demonstrative specifier attached to a previous noun or noun phrase ; for example, ni ('this') in dengan ni ('this person'). Special clitics occur with noun hosts to encode inalienable possession , and with other hosts to encode agents and patients . For example,

1394-472: Is a feature interpreted to represent a marked break in the Sunda Arc Zone. Faulting and folding caused strong deformation in the eastern part of Lombok Basin and is characterized by block faulting, shale diapirs and mud volcano. The Rinjani caldera -forming eruption is thought to have occurred in the 13th century. Dated to "late spring or summer of 1257," this 1257 Samalas eruption is now considered

1476-581: Is concluded that the Rinjani calc-alkaline suite, which in many respects is typical of many suites erupted by circum-pacific volcanoes, probably originated by partial melting of the peridotite mantle-wedge overlying the active Benioff Zone beneath Lombok Island. The Pleistocene-Recent calcalkaline suite from the active volcano, Rinjani is composed of a diverse range of lavas. These include: ankaramite, high-Al basalt, andesite, high-K andesite and dacite. Sr-isotopic and geochemical constraints suggest that this suite

1558-460: Is increasingly popular with trekkers able to visit the rim, make their way into the caldera or even to make the more arduous climb to the highest point; fatalities, however, are not unheard of. In July 2009 the summit route was closed due to volcanic activity at that time and subsequently reopened when the activity decreased. During early 2010 up to and including May 2010 access to Rinjani was at times again restricted due to volcanic activity. The park

1640-631: Is just beginning, with a few surf spots renowned for being world-class, Jelenga and Supersuck Beaches near the mine, as well as Hu'u and Lakey Beach in the Gulf of Cempi . A large gold and copper mine, Newmont Mining Corporation 's Batu Hijau mine began commercial operations in 2000, a decade after the copper and gold were discovered. Newmont holds a 45% stake in the operation through its shareholding in PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara. A local unit of Japan's Sumitomo Corporation has

1722-545: Is nearly identical to Balinese script . Sasak is spoken by the Sasak people on the island of Lombok in West Nusa Tenggara , Indonesia, which is located between the island of Bali (on the west) and Sumbawa (on the east). Its speakers numbered about 2.7 million in 2010, roughly 85 percent of Lombok's population. Sasak is used in families and villages, but has no formal status. The national language, Indonesian ,

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1804-482: Is not available as the island of Lombok is in a location that remained very remote to the record keeping of the era. On 3 November 1994, a cold lahar (volcanic mudflow) from the summit area of Rinjani volcano traveled down the Kokok Jenggak River killing thirty people from the village of Aikmel who were caught by surprise when collecting water from the river in the path of the flow. In connection with

1886-710: Is one of the series of volcanoes built in the Lesser Sunda Islands due to the subduction of Indo-Australian oceanic crust beneath the Lesser Sunda Islands, and it is interpreted that the source of melted magma is about 165–200 kilometres (103–124 mi) depth. The geology and tectonic setting of Lombok (and nearby Sumbawa ) are described as being in the central portion of the Sunda Arc . The oldest exposed rocks are Miocene , suggesting that subduction and volcanism began considerably later than in Java and Sumatra to

1968-502: Is popular for mountain climbs and trekking and represents an important nature reserve and water catchment area. The park is officially 41,330 hectares (159.6 sq mi) within the park boundaries and includes a further 66,000 hectares (250 sq mi) of protected forest outside. The mountain and its satellites form the Mount Rinjani National Park (Taman Nasional Gunung Rinjani). Mount Rinjani has obtained

2050-613: Is similar to the Sasak language from nearby Lombok; the Bima people in the east speak Nggahi Mbojo ( Bahasa Bima ), which is closer to the languages spoken on Flores and Sumba . They were once separated by the Tambora culture , which spoke a language related to neither. After the demise of Tambora due to the 1815 eruption , local kingdoms based in Sumbawa Besar and Bima became the two focal points of Sumbawa. This division of

2132-543: Is spoken by the Sasak ethnic group, which make up the majority of the population of Lombok , an island in the West Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia . It is closely related to the Balinese and Sumbawa languages spoken on adjacent islands, and is part of the Austronesian language family . Sasak has no official status; the national language, Indonesian , is the official and literary language in areas where Sasak

2214-480: Is spoken. Some of its dialects, which correspond to regions of Lombok, have a low mutual intelligibility . Sasak has a system of speech levels in which different words are used depending on the social level of the addressee relative to the speaker, similar to neighbouring Javanese and Balinese . Not widely read or written today, Sasak is used in traditional texts written on dried lontar leaves and read on ceremonial occasions. Traditionally, Sasak's writing system

2296-594: Is the language of education, government, literacy and inter-ethnic communication. The Sasak are not the only ethnic group in Lombok; about 300,000 Balinese people live primarily in the western part of the island and near Mataram , the provincial capital of West Nusa Tenggara . In urban areas with more ethnic diversity there is some language shift towards Indonesian, mainly in the forms of code-switching and mixing rather than an abandoning of Sasak. Austronesian linguist K. Alexander Adelaar classified Sasak as one of

2378-401: Is to use ⟨e⟩ for the schwa , ⟨é⟩ for the close-mid front vowel , ⟨è⟩ for the open-mid front vowel , ⟨ó⟩ for the close-mid back vowel and ⟨ò⟩ for the open-mid back vowel . Sasak has the diphthongs (two vowels combined in the same syllable) /ae/ , /ai/ , /au/ , /ia/ , /uə/ and /oe/ . Sasak words have

2460-588: The Majapahit Empire of eastern Java . Because of Sumbawa's natural resources, it was regularly invaded by outside forces – from the Javanese , Balinese , and Makassar , to the Dutch and Japanese . The Dutch first arrived in 1605 but did not effectively rule Sumbawa until the early 20th century. For a short period, the Balinese kingdom of Gelgel ruled a part of western Sumbawa. The eastern parts of

2542-740: The Malayo-Sumbawan languages group (a group he first identified) of the western Malayo-Polynesian family in a 2005 paper. Sasak's closest sister language is Sumbawa and, with Balinese , they form the Balinese-Sasak-Sumbawa (BSS) subgroup. BSS, Malayic (which includes Malay , Indonesian and Minangkabau ) and Chamic (which includes Acehnese ) form one branch of the Malayo-Sumbawan group. The two other branches are Sundanese and Madurese . This classification puts Javanese , previously thought to belong to

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2624-604: The Sumbawa language ). This name is probably derived from Sanskrit śāmbhawa ( शम्भु ), meaning 'related to Śambhu (= 'the Benevolent', a name for Shiva )'. The 14th-century Nagarakretagama mentioned several principalities identified to be on Sumbawa; Dompu , Bima , Sape, and one on the Sang Hyang Api island just off the coast of northeast Sumbawa. Four principalities in western Sumbawa were dependencies of

2706-509: The Sunda Trench (also known as Java trench) and is situated about 170 kilometres (110 mi) above the active north dipping Benioff zone . Based on the composition of andesites which have very low Ni concentrations and low Mg/Mg+Fe It is suggested that the Rinjani suite is of mantle origin, but that all the andesites and dacites as well as many of the basalts have probably been modified by fractional crystallization processes. It

2788-586: The Timor islands; all are located at the edge of the Australian continental shelf . Volcanoes in the area are formed due to the action of oceanic crusts and the movement of the shelf itself. Rinjani is one of at least 129 active volcanoes in Indonesia, four of which belong to the volcanoes of the Sunda Arc trench system forming part of the Pacific Ring of Fire – a section of fault lines stretching from

2870-804: The Western Hemisphere through Japan and South East Asia . The islands of Lombok and Sumbawa lie in the central portion of the Sunda Arc. The Sunda Arc is home to some of the world's most dangerous and explosive volcanoes. The eruption of nearby Mount Tambora on Sumbawa is known for the most violent eruption in recorded history on 15 April 1815, with a scale 7 on the VEI . The highlands are forest clad and mostly undeveloped. The lowlands are highly cultivated. Rice , soybeans , coffee , tobacco , cotton , cinnamon , cacao , cloves , cassava , corn , coconuts , copra , bananas and vanilla are

2952-491: The 2010 census and the 2020 census, together with the official estimates as of mid-2023. Proposals have been under consideration since 2013 by the People's Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat or DPR) to create a separate Sumbawa Island province; there is no information as to whether the remaining part of the present province (i.e. the districts comprising Lombok Island) would then be renamed. However, since 2013

3034-545: The Darwin VAAC (Volcanic Ash Advisory Center) reported that on 5 May a possible ash plume from Rinjani rose to an altitude of 5.5 kilometres (3.4 mi) a.s.l. and drifted 150 kilometres (93 mi) NW. The plume was not seen in imagery about six hours later. CVGHM (Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) advised the VAAC that intermittent activity could produce ash plumes to 1.5 km (4,900 ft) above

3116-596: The Indonesian Government have maintained a moratorium on the intended creation of new provinces, regencies and cities. Islam , the dominant faith of the island, was introduced by the Makassarese of Sulawesi . Sumbawa had, historically speaking, three major linguistic groups who spoke languages that were unintelligible to each other. The Sumbawa people centered on the western side of the island speak Basa Semawa (Indonesian: Bahasa Sumbawa ) which

3198-530: The Indonesian province of West Nusa Tenggara . Adjacent to the volcano is a 6-by-8.5-kilometre (3.7 by 5.3 mi) caldera , which is filled partially by the crater lake known as Segara Anak or Anak Laut ( Child of the Sea ), due to the color of its water, as blue as the sea ( laut ). This lake is approximately 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) above sea level and estimated to be about 200 metres (660 ft) deep;

3280-659: The World Legacy Award from Conservation International and Traveller (2004), and was a finalist for Tourism for Tomorrow Awards (2005 and 2008) from the World Travel Tourism Council (WTTC). The Rinjani scops owl was found in 2003 and after 10 years of research was recognized as a new endemic species (specimens had been collected in the 19th century but had been identified as being Mollucas scops owls). Sasak language The Sasak language ( base Sasak Balinese script : ᬪᬵᬲᬵᬲᬓ᭄ᬱᬓ᭄)

3362-685: The caldera also contains hot springs . The lake and mountain are sacred to the Sasak people and Hindus , and are the site of religious rituals. UNESCO made Mount Rinjani Caldera a part of the Global Geoparks Network in April 2018. Mount Rinjani or Samalas are the largest volcanic eruption in the last 2000 years. Lombok is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands , a small archipelago which, from west to east, consists of Bali , Lombok , Sumbawa , Flores , Sumba and

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3444-430: The caldera. On 31 October 2015, Mount Rinjani started erupting again. On 29 July 2018 a magnitude 6.4 earthquake caused landslides on the north portion of Mount Rinjani. On 5 August 2018, a second earthquake struck Lombok , causing more landslides and small tsunamis due to its proximity to the northern coast. The area around Rinjani was evacuated due to concerns of a possible eruption, but no increase in activity

3526-509: The eruption of the cone Gunung Barujari the status for Gunung Rinjani was raised from Normal ( VEI Level 1) to 'be vigilant' (VEI Level 2) since 2 May 2009. In May 2010 Gunung Rinjani was placed in the standby status by Center for Volcanology & Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia with a recommendation that there be no activity within a radius of 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from the eruption at Gunung Barujari. In Lombok, Rinjani volcano lies approximately 300 kilometres (190 mi) north of

3608-479: The five labels do not "reflect fully the extensive geographical variation ... found within Sasak" in many linguistic areas. Some dialects have a low mutual intelligibility . Sasak has a system of speech levels in which different words are used, depending on the social level of the addressee relative to the speaker. The system is similar to that of Balinese and Javanese (languages spoken on neighbouring islands) and Korean . There are three levels in Sasak for

3690-410: The hazard status to Alert Level 3 (Orange). Details regarding the initial 1 October 2004 eruption are indistinct. During 2–5 October 2004 explosions sent ash columns 300 to 800 m (980–2,620 ft) above the summit. Gray, thick ash columns drifted to the north and detonation sounds accompanied every explosion. Successive explosions occurred at intervals of 5 to 160 minutes. Explosions vented on

3772-448: The island (including minor outlying islands) was 1.56 million at the latest decennial census in 2020, comprising 29.46% of the population of the entire Province of West Nusa Tenggara 's 5.32 million people; the official estimate as at mid-2023 was 1,626,517 - of whom 682,437 inhabit the western half and 944,080 the eastern half of the island. Due to the lack of work opportunities on the island and its frequent droughts, many people on

3854-564: The island during the fourteenth century. The oldest surviving lontar texts date to the nineteenth century; many were collected by the Dutch and kept in libraries in Leiden or Bali . The Mataram Museum in Lombok also has a collection, and many individuals and families on the island keep them as heirlooms to be passed from generation to generation. The lontar texts are still read today in performances known as pepaòsan . Readings are made for

3936-427: The island into two parts remains today; Sumbawa Besar and Bima are the two largest towns on the island (although the town of Dompu to the west of Bima has a greater urban area population than Sumbawa Besar), and are the centers of distinct cultural groups that share the island. The Don Donggo or "Mountain People" are a small minority ethnic group who occupy the cloudy highlands west of Bima Bay. The population of

4018-580: The island seek work in the Middle East as laborers or domestic servants; some 500,000 workers, or over 10% of the population of West Nusa Tenggara, have left the country to work overseas. The island is bounded by bodies of water; to the west is Alas Strait , south is the Indian Ocean , Saleh Bay creates a major north-central indentation in the island, and the Flores Sea runs the length of

4100-517: The island were traditionally divided into four sultanates: Sumbawa, Sanggau, Dompo, and Bima , which had links to the Bugis and Makassar peoples of South Sulawesi. Historical evidence indicates that people on Sumbawa island were known in the East Indies for their honey, horses , sappanwood , which is used to make red dye, and sandalwood , which is used for incense and medications. The area

4182-485: The islands of Lombok and Sumbawa. In addition, these islands lie to the west of those parts of the easternmost Sunda and west Banda arcs where collision with the Australian plate is apparently progressing. The volcano of Rinjani is 165 to 190 kilometres (103–118 mi) above the Benioff Zone . There is a marked offset in the line of active volcanoes between the most easterly Sumbawa volcano (Sangeang Api) and

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4264-572: The largest copper mines in the world. It is also one of the worst water-polluting mines, notably with at least three pipe breaks since its opening in 1999. Another important deposit of gold and copper has been discovered in 2020 near Onto. PT Sumbawa Timur Mining (STM) hopes to start exploitation in 2030. There is a road network in Sumbawa, but it is poorly maintained and has long portions of rough gravel. Frequent ferry service to Sumbawa ( Poto Tano ) from Lombok ( Labuhan Lombok ) exists; however,

4346-600: The last 10,000 years before the caldera forming eruption. The eruptions of 1994 and 1995 have presented at Gunung Baru (or 'New Mountain' – approximately 2,300 metres (7,500 ft) above sea level) in the center of this caldera and lava flows from subsequent eruptions have entered the lake. This cone has since been renamed Gunung Barujari (or 'Gunung Baru Jari' in Indonesian). The first historical eruption occurred in September 1847. The most recent eruption of Mount Rinjani

4428-456: The last third of 2004, the number of volcanic and tectonic earthquakes had increased. Their increase followed a rise in the number of tectonic earthquakes that began 18 August 2004. Tremor registered on 23, 24, 25, and 26 September 2004. Tremor amplitudes ranged between 12 and 13.5 mm, and the duration of the tremor stood between 94 and 290 seconds. At 05:30 on 1 October 2004 Rinjani erupted. The eruption caused authorities to immediately raise

4510-537: The likely source of high concentrations of sulfur found in widely dispersed ice core samples and may have been "the most powerful volcanic blast since humans learned to write." The massive eruption may have triggered an episode of global cooling and failed harvests. Before this eruption, the Segara Anak caldera was a volcanic mountain named Samalas , which was higher than Rinjani. Eruption rate, eruption sites, eruption type and magma composition have changed during

4592-519: The line of active volcanoes in Flores. This suggests that a major transcurrent fault cut across the arc between Sumbawa Island and Flores. This is considered to be a feature representing a major tectonic discontinuity between the east and west Sunda Arcs (the Sumba Fracture). Further, a marked absence of shallow and intermediate earthquake activity in the region to the south of Lombok and Sumbawa

4674-419: The major crops grown in the fertile soils of the island. The slopes are populated by the indigenous Sasak population. There are also some basic tourist related activities established on Rinjani primarily in or about the village of Senaru. Rinjani volcano on the island of Lombok rises to 3,726 metres (12,224 ft), second in height among Indonesian volcanoes only to Sumatra's Kerinci volcano. Rinjani has

4756-414: The nasal form adds the nasal prefix n- . The nasal prefix, which also appears as nge- , m- and other forms, may delete the first consonant of the basic form. For example, the unmarked form of 'to buy' is beli and the nasal form is mbeli . The nasal prefix can also turn a noun into the corresponding verb; for example, kupi ('coffee') becomes ngupi ('to drink coffee'). The function of

4838-661: The nasal verb form are predominantly subject-verb-object (SVO), similar to actor-focus classes in other western Indonesian languages. In contrast, clauses with an unmarked verb form do not have a dominant word order; three of the six possible orders ( subject-verb-object , verb-subject-object and object-verb-subject ) occur with roughly-equal frequency. Verbs, like those of other western Indonesian languages, are not conjugated for tense , mood or aspect . All affixes are derivational . Verbs may appear in two forms: unmarked (also known as basic or oral) and nasal. The basic form appears in vocabulary lists and dictionaries, and

4920-520: The north eastern slope of Barujari volcano. Some material also vented from Barujari's peak and fell down around its edifice. A press report in the Jakarta Post indicated that evacuations were not considered necessary. A Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI):2 rating was issued for the activity between 1 May 2004 through to (on or after) 5 October 2004. On 27 April 2009 Gunung Barujari became active, with activity continuing through to May 2009. The mountain

5002-580: The northern coastline. The Sape Strait lies to the east of the island and separates Sumbawa from Flores and the Komodo Islands, there are several bays and gulfs, most notably Bima Bay , Cempi Bay , and Waworada Bay . Sumbawa's most distinguishing features are Saleh Bay and the Sanggar Peninsula. On the latter stands Mount Tambora (8°14’41” S, 117°59’35” E), a large stratovolcano famous for its VEI 7 eruption in 1815, one of only

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5084-500: The population). The system is observed in regional varieties of the language. Although low-level terms have large regional variations, non-low forms are consistent in all varieties. According to Indonesian languages specialist Bernd Nothofer , the system is borrowed from Balinese or Javanese. The Sasak have a tradition of writing on dried leaves of the lontar palm . The Javanese Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit empire , whose sphere of influence included Lombok, probably introduced literacy to

5166-719: The possessive clitic ku (or kò or k , depending on dialect)—which means 'my' and corresponds to the pronoun aku ('I')—can attach to the noun ime ('hand') for imengku ('my hand'). Sasak has significant regional variations, including by phonology , vocabulary and grammar . Native speakers recognize five labelled dialects, named for how "like that" and "like this" are pronounced: Kutó-Kuté (predominant in North Sasak), Nggetó-Nggeté (Northeast Sasak), Menó-Mené (Central Sasak), Ngenó-Ngené (Central East Sasak, Central West Sasak) and Meriaq-Meriku (Central South Sasak). However, linguist Peter K. Austin said that

5248-433: The prefix and nasal derivations from the basic form differ by dialect. For example, eastern dialects of Sasak have three types of nasalization: the first marks transitive verbs, the second is used for predicate focus , and the third is for a durative action with a non-specific patient . Imperative and hortative sentences use the basic form. Sasak has a variety of clitics , a grammatical unit pronounced as part of

5330-668: The river in the path of the flow. One person remained missing as of 9 November 1994. No damage to the village was reported. Local volcanologists noted that additional lahars could be triggered by heavy rainfall. During 4 June 1994 – January 1995 the DVGHM (Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) noted that explosions occurred on Rinjani. Those explosions came from the Barujari volcano. Between 3 June 1994 and 21 November 1994 records of Rinjani's eruptive history indicate activity accorded Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) with

5412-448: The same group, outside the Malayo-Sumbawan group in a different branch of the western Malayo-Polynesian family. The Malayo-Sumbawan proposal, however, is rejected by Blust (2010) and Smith (2017), who included the BSS languages in the putative "Western Indonesian" subgroup, alongside Javanese, Madurese, Sundanese, Lampung , Greater Barito and Greater North Borneo languages. Kawi ,

5494-413: The size of Lombok ) with a population (at the 2020 Census) of 1,561,461; the official estimate as at mid-2023 was 1,626,517. It marks the boundary between the islands to the west, which were influenced by religion and culture spreading from India , and the region to the east which was less influenced. In particular, this applies to both Hinduism and Islam. While the name "Sumbawa" is used by outsiders for

5576-637: The status of the addressee (low, mid- and high), and a humble-honorific dimension which notes the relationship between the speaker and another referent. For example, 'you' may be expressed as kamu (low-level), side (mid-), pelinggih (high) or dekaji (honorific). 'To eat' is mangan (low), bekelór (mid-), madaran (high) or majengan (honorific). All forms except low are known as alus ('smooth' or 'polite') in Sasak. They are used in formal contexts and with social superiors, especially in situations involving mènak (the traditional upper caste, which makes up eight percent of

5658-596: The summit. Between 3 and 10 June 1994, up to 172 explosions could be heard each day from the Sembalun Lawang volcano observatory (about 15 km (9.3 mi) NE). During this period, seismic data indicated a dramatic increase in the number of explosions per day, from 68 to 18,720. Eruptions were continuous at least through 19 June 1994, with maximum ash plume heights of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) on 9–11 June 1994. Between 28 March 1966 and 8 August 1966 records of Rinjani's eruptive history indicate activity accorded

5740-471: The tourist Komodo Islands (administered under Flores) to the east. Sumbawa is part of the Lesser Sunda deciduous forests ecoregion. There are several smaller offshore islands which fall within the regencies based on Sumbawa Island: Many of the island residents are at risk of starvation when crops fail due to lack of rainfall. The majority of the population works in agriculture. Tourism

5822-638: The volcano's official monitoring agency, ash from Mount Rinjani was reported as rising up to two kilometers into the atmosphere and damaged crops. The volcano did not threaten villagers at that time. Lava flowed into the caldera lake, pushing its temperature up from 21 to 35 °C (70 to 95 °F), while smoke spread 12 kilometres (7.5 mi). In February 2010 observers at the Gunung Rinjani Observation Post located 1.25 km (4,100 ft) northeast of G. Rinjani saw one whitish-colored plume that rose 100 metres (328 ft) from

5904-666: The volcano. Dense whitish plumes (and possibly brown) rose 500 to 900 m (1,600–3,000 ft) in March 2010 on 26 occasions and as high as 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in April 2010 on 41 occasions. Plumes seen on 1 and 2 May 2010 were "chocolate" in color and rose a maximum height of 1,600 metres (5,200 ft). From February 2010 through April 2010 seismicity decreased, although the maximum amplitude of earthquakes increased. CVGHM (Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) also noted that ash eruptions and ejected incandescent material fell within Rinjani caldera, but some ash

5986-687: The west, where there are abundant volcanic and intrusive rocks of Late Mesozoic age. The islands are located on the eastern edge of the Sunda shelf, in a zone where crustal thickness is apparently rapidly diminishing, from west to east. The seismic velocity structure of the crust in this region is transitional between typical oceanic and continental profiles and the Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho) appears to lie at about 20 kilometres (12 mi) depth. These factors tend to suggest that there has been limited opportunity for crustal contamination of magmas erupted on

6068-467: The whole island, locally the term is only applied to the western half (Sumbawa and West Sumbawa Regencies), while the eastern half is referred to by inhabitants as "Bima" (meaning the city as well as Bima and Dompu Regencies), as the two parts of the island are divided by geography, culture and language. Sumbawa come from Portuguese Cumbava or Cimbava, assimilated from the locally used name Sambawa (still found as such in Makassarese , cf. also Semawa in

6150-524: Was blown out of the caldera. The activity in early 2010 centred about Gunung Barujari, a post-caldera cone that lies within the Rinjani's caldera lake of Segara Anak. The Volcanological Survey of Indonesia reported on 1 May 2010, that a column of smoke was observed rising from G. Rinjani "issuing eruptions 1300–1600 metres tall with thick brown color and strong pressure". Their report Evaluasi Kegiatan G. Rinjani of 4 May also stated that on 1 May 2010 at 10:00 four events of explosive earthquake were recorded with

6232-508: Was closed at that time as the eruptions intensified with plumes of smoke and ash as high as 8,000 m (26,000 ft). A Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI):2 rating was issued for the activity between 2 May 2009 and 20 December 2009. The activity during this period was described as having the characteristics of central vent eruption, flank (excentric) vent, explosive eruption and lava flow(s). Rinjani erupted three times on 22 May 2010 with activity continuing until early on 23 May. According to

6314-427: Was derived from the sub-arc mantle. Geochemical models suggest that fractional crystallization is an important process in the suite's differentiation, although the series: ankaramite-high-Al basalt-andesite-dacite does not represent a continuously evolving spectrum of liquids. In September 1995 an aviation report was issued concerning an unconfirmed ash cloud from Rinjani. A NOTAM about volcanic activity from Rinjani

6396-670: Was detected at Rinjani or the nearby volcano Mount Agung on Bali. Gunung Rinjani Observation Post Rinjani Sembalun is located in the village of Lawang, Sub Sembalun 2.5 km (4000 feet) northeast of G. Rinjani) in the Regency of East Lombok . Observers at this post monitor G.Rinjani, G.Barujari/G.Tenga within the Segara Anak Caldera. The volcano and the caldera are protected by the Gunung Rinjani National Park established in 1997. Tourism

6478-557: Was in May 2010 and the most recent significant eruptions occurred during a spate of activity from 1994 to 1995 which resulted in the further development of Gunung Barujari. Historical eruptions at Rinjani dating back to 1847 have been restricted to Barujari cone and the Rombongan dome (in 1944) and consist of moderate explosive activity and occasional lava flows that have entered Segara Anak lake. The eruptive history of Rinjani prior to 1847

6560-518: Was issued by the Bali Flight Information Region on the morning of 12 September. An ash cloud was reportedly drifting to the south west with the cloud top around 4 km (2.5 mi) altitude. On 3 November 1994, a cold lahar (volcanic mudflow) from the summit area of Rinjani volcano traveled down the Kokok Jenggak River killing thirty people from the village of Aikmel who were caught by surprise when collecting water from

6642-484: Was recorded on 27, 28, 30, and 31 May. After 4 June, however, volcanic tremor with a maximum amplitude of 35 mm was recorded, presumably associated with the upward movement of magma. At 0200 on 3 June 1994, Barujari cone began erupting by sending an ash plume 500 m (1,600 ft) high. One 8 June 1994 press report described emission of "smoldering lava" and "thick smoke," as well as ashfall in nearby villages from an ash cloud rising 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above

6724-520: Was thought to be highly productive agriculturally. In the 18th century, the Dutch introduced coffee plantations on the western slopes of Mount Tambora , a volcano on the north side of Sumbawa, thus creating the Tambora coffee variant. Tambora's colossal eruption in 1815 was the most powerful in recorded history, ejecting 180 cubic kilometres (43 cu mi) of ash and debris into the atmosphere. The eruption killed up to 71,000 people and triggered

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