Hugo Adolf Eugen Victor Stinnes commonly known as Hugo Stinnes (12 February 1870 – 10 April 1924) was a German industrialist and politician who served as a member of Reichstag from 1920 to 1924 (his death). During the late era of the German Empire and early Weimar Republic, he was considered to be one of the most influential entrepreneurs in Europe.
104-668: Ruth Fischer (11 December 1895 – 13 March 1961) was an Austrian and German Communist , and a co-founder of the Austrian Communist Party (KPÖ) in 1918. Along with her partner Arkadi Maslow , she led the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) through both the May 1924 and December 1924 federal elections . After being removed from the KPD, she became involved with various anti-Stalinist left-wing groups, and would remain
208-592: A Nazi prison or concentration camp. She claimed in her memoir, Stalin and German Communism , that she was listed as member number one. Eight days later, she claimed, a crowd of rioters proclaimed her editor of Vienna's largest daily, the Neue Freie Presse , and she was arrested and charged with treason, but released under amnesty. She opposed the failed attempt to seize power in Austria in June 1919 instigated by
312-639: A biographer of Trotsky and Stalin, described her as a "young, trumpet-tongued woman, without any revolutionary experience or merit, yet idolized by the Communists of Berlin." In 1955, Fischer returned to Paris and published her books Stalin and German Communism and Die Umformung der Sowjetgesellschaft . Fischer died in Paris in 1961, aged 65, from undisclosed causes. She had one child, Friedrich Gerhart Friedländer (F.G. Friedlander), born in Vienna 1917, later
416-458: A car. Before World War I , he was the possessor of a significant fortune which was vaguely estimated at several million pounds. He was a director of many of the largest industrial and mining companies of Westphalia , the Rhineland and Luxembourg . Business interests of this magnitude were constantly expanding, and he became interested in numerous subsidiary enterprises, such as tramways and
520-452: A country of great poets, writers, and novelists. It was the home of novelists Arthur Schnitzler , Stefan Zweig , Thomas Bernhard , and Robert Musil , and of poets Georg Trakl , Franz Werfel , Franz Grillparzer , Rainer Maria Rilke , and Adalbert Stifter . Famous contemporary Austrian playwrights and novelists include Elfriede Jelinek and Peter Handke . Writers of philosophy include Ernst Mach , Ludwig Wittgenstein , Karl Popper and
624-575: A dilemma about their identity which prompted the Social Democratic Leader Otto Bauer to state that the dilemma was "the conflict between our Austrian and German character." The state as a whole tried to work out a sense of a distinctively Austrian identity. The Austro-Hungarian Empire created ethnic conflict between the German Austrians and the other ethnic groups of the empire. Many pan-German movements in
728-568: A group of Nazi students, proclaiming that "Those who call for a struggle against Jewish capital are already, gentlemen, class strugglers, even if they don’t know it. You are against Jewish capital and want to fight the speculators. Very good. Throw down the Jewish capitalists, hang them from the lamp-post, stamp on them. But, gentlemen, what is your position with respect to the big capitalists, the Stinneses and Klöckners ?" Ruth Fischer argued that
832-553: A mathematician & Fellow of the Royal Society , who died in the United Kingdom in 2001. The International Institute of Social History has an archive of her papers. Austrian people Austrians ( German : Österreicher , pronounced [ˈøːstɐraɪçɐ] ) are the citizens and nationals of Austria . The English term Austrians was applied to the population of Habsburg Austria from
936-592: A modest enterprise in Mülheim. After passing his graduating examination from a secondary school ( Realschule ), young Stinnes was placed in an office at Koblenz where he received business training. In order to get a practical knowledge of mining, he worked for a few months as a miner at the Wiethe colliery . Then, in 1889, he attended a course of instruction at the Bergakademie Berlin (in 1916 merged
1040-564: A monument in Vienna in 1860 to Archduke Charles , victor over Napoleon in the Battle of Aspern-Essling in 1809, it carried the dedication "To the persistent fighter for Germany's honour", to underline the Germanic mission of the House of Austria. The idea of uniting all ethnic Germans into one nation-state began to be challenged in Austria by the rise of Austrian nationalism , especially within
1144-473: A rapid rise of German nationalism within the German Confederation , especially in the two most powerful German states, Austria and Prussia. The question of how a unified Germany was to be formed was a matter of debate. The German Question was to be solved by either unifying all German-speaking peoples under one state as the "Greater German solution" ( Großdeutsche Lösung ), which was promoted by
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#17327723506221248-476: A sense of a common German national identity , and also by a fear that the new state, stripped of its one-time imperial possessions, and surrounded by potentially hostile nation-states, would not be economically viable. An Austrian identity emerged to some degree during the First Republic, and although Austria was still considered part of the "German nation" by most, Austrian patriotism was encouraged by
1352-748: A solid and powerful bloc of opinion in Germany in support of law and order and the promotion of the highest industrial and commercial efficiency . His newspaper purchases included the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung in Berlin , formerly the organ of Otto von Bismarck and then of all the succeeding German governments, the Münchener Neueste Nachrichten and the München-Augsburger Zeitung ,
1456-568: A staunch anti-Stalinist activist for the rest of her life. Fischer was born Elfriede Eisler in Leipzig in 1895, the daughter of Marie Edith Fischer and Rudolf Eisler , a professor of philosophy at Leipzig but of Austrian nationality. Her father was Jewish and her mother was Lutheran. She was the elder sister to noted film and concert composer Hanns Eisler and fellow communist activist Gerhart Eisler . She studied philosophy , economics and politics at University of Vienna , where her father
1560-539: A stricter nationality law enacted by the Austrian legislature. During the 2000s, an average number of 27,127 foreign nationals per year was naturalized as Austrian citizens, compared to an average 67,688 children per year born with Austrian nationality. Today, the largest group of foreign nationals are Germans. As of January 2018 - 186,891 Germans lived in Austria. Vienna , the capital city of Austria has long been an important center of musical innovation. Composers of
1664-664: A syphilis bacillus. By August 1925, Zinoviev and other soviet leaders had decided that Fischer and Maslow were unreliable, and the executive of Comintern passed a resolution attacking them by name, without mentioning Thälmann. She was ordered to stay in Moscow (while Maslow was in prison in Germany), and Thälmann took over the leadership of the German party. When the rift between Zinoviev and Stalin became public, she began meeting Zinoviev to settle their past differences. In February 1926, she
1768-447: A year of his death. Parts of his empire continued as Stinnes AG (now DB Mobility Logistics ), Hugo Stinnes Schiffahrt and RWE , the second-largest energy supplier in Germany. In 1895, Hugo Stinnes married Cläre Wagenknecht; the couple had seven children: Edmund Hugo (1896–1980), Hugo Hermann (1897–1982), Clärenore (1901–1990), Otto (1903–1983), Hilde (1904–1975), Ernst (1911–1986), and Else (1913–1997). Their daughter Clärenore
1872-657: Is a latinization of Österreich , the German name for Austria. This word is derived from Ostarrîchi , which first appears in 996. This, in turn, is probably a translation of the Latin Marcha Orientalis , which means "eastern borderland" (viz. delimiting the eastern border of the Holy Roman Empire ). It was a margraviate of the Duchy of Bavaria , ruled by the House of Babenberg from AD 976. During
1976-416: Is one example of this. Austrian cuisine is known primarily in the rest of the world for its pastries and sweets. The majority of Austrians are traditionally Catholic . Catholicism in Austria has played a significant role both in the culture and in the politics of Austria . It enabled the House of Habsburg to rule Spain and its empire as a Catholic Monarchy from the 16th century, and it determined
2080-544: The Austrian State Treaty between Austria and them was signed to end occupation and to regain Austrian sovereignty. Immediately after 1945 the majority of Austrians still saw themselves as Germans, as a broader Austrian national identity took time to develop. In a 1956 survey, 46% of Austrians still considered themselves to be Germans. Another survey carried out in 1964 revealed that only 15% of Austrians still considered themselves to be Germans. In contrast,
2184-724: The Christian Social Party that identified Austrians on the basis of their predominantly Catholic religious identity as opposed to the predominantly Protestant religious identity of the Prussians. Habsburg influence over the German Confederation, which was strongest in the southern member states, was rivalled by the increasingly powerful Prussian state. Political manoeuvering by the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck resulted in military defeat of
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#17327723506222288-592: The Freikorps . Captain Waldemar Pabst , who was responsible for the murder of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht , is said to have been financed through one of his confidants. Already at the end of 1918 he had contributed around 4.4 million Reichsmarks to the financing of the Alfred Hugenberg media empire, which was supposed to carry nationalist propaganda to the population and which later became
2392-704: The German Empire in 1871, which was Prussian-dominated, without the inclusion of Austria and the German Austrians. After Austria was excluded from Germany in 1866, the following year Austria joined Hungary as a dual empire known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire . A further major change resulted from a reorganisation of the Austrian Empire in 1867 into a dual monarchy , acknowledging the Kingdom of Hungary as an independent state bound to
2496-735: The Hamburg-American Line and the North German Lloyd . His Hamburg interests continued to multiply in something like geometrical progression. He purchased half a dozen landed estates in Saxony to supply timber for pit props. At Flensburg in Schleswig , he secured control of the largest Baltic shipping concern, and proceeded to build a new fleet of ships, christening one of them the "Hindenburg". Stinnes' connection with Ludendorff led to his becoming an influence behind
2600-664: The Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 which resulted in Prussia expelling the Austrian Empire from the Confederation. Thus, when Germany was founded as a nation-state in 1871 , Austria was not a part of it . In 1867, Austria was reformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire . After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 at
2704-634: The Hungarians to the east. The unification of the various territories of Austria outside of the March of Austria proper (i.e. parts of Bavaria, Swabia and Carinthia) was a gradual process of feudal politics during the High and Late Middle Ages, at first in the Archduchy of Austria under the House of Babenberg during the 12th to 13th centuries, and under the House of Habsburg after 1278 and throughout
2808-738: The Kapp Putsch as a senseless adventure, but at the same time made friendly gestures towards Wolfgang Kapp personally. Substantial support was provided by Stinnes to the NSDAP. It is assumed that it was his donations to the Nazi party treasury that created the financial base of the Beer Hall Putsch . About the time of his election to the Reichstag, Stinnes began to buy up leading German newspapers, one of his main objects being to organize
2912-595: The Prussian House of Representatives . In January 1925, she was arrested in Austria, after crossing the border illegally on a mission to revive the Austrian communist party. During the power struggle in the Soviet Union following the death of Lenin , the trio backed the Comintern chairman Grigory Zinoviev , who at that time was aligned with Joseph Stalin , against Trotsky and Radek. In June 1924, she led
3016-799: The Technische Hochschule in Charlottenburg (now Technische Universität Berlin )). In 1890, he inherited his father's coal mining and other financial enterprises. Gradually, from working in the coal industry, he purchased his own shipyard. He also began to purchase seagoing vessels as well as river steamers and barges, the latter—especially on the Rhine—on a constantly increasing scale. He next organized an extensive international business in coal, and had 13 steamers trading to and from North Sea , Baltic , Mediterranean and Black Sea ports. They carried coal, wood, grain and iron ore. By
3120-646: The 12th century, the Marcha Orientalis under the Babenbergs became independent of Bavaria. What is today known as Lower Austria corresponds to the Marcha Orientalis , while Upper Austria corresponds to the eastern half of the core territory of Bavaria (the western half forming part of the German state of Bavaria ). The adjective Austrian entered the English language in the early 17th century, at
3224-478: The 14th and 15th centuries. The various populations of these territories were not unified under the single name of "Austrians" before the early modern period . The Habsburg , who had ruled the territory of Austria since the Late Middle Ages , greatly increased their political prestige and power with the acquisition of the lands of the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia in 1526. The Hungarian aristocracy
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3328-628: The 17th or 18th century. Subsequently, during the 19th century, it referred to the citizens of the Empire of Austria (1804–1867), and from 1867 until 1918 to the citizens of Cisleithania . In the closest sense, the term Austria originally referred to the historical March of Austria , corresponding roughly to the Vienna Basin in what is today Lower Austria . Historically, Austrians were regarded as Germans and viewed themselves as such. The Austrian lands (including Bohemia) were part of
3432-591: The 18th and 19th centuries were drawn to the city by the patronage of the Habsburgs , and made Vienna the European capital of classical music. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , Franz Schubert and Johann Strauss, Jr. , among others, were associated with the city. During the Baroque period, Slavic and Hungarian folk forms influenced Austrian music. Complementing its status as a land of artists, Austria has always been
3536-532: The 1920s, Stinnes was embroiled in a legal dispute with Mayer Wilderman. Wilderman, who had been born in Bessarabia (then part of Russia), had set up a series of factories in Germany in 1912. However, at the outbreak of World War I, Stinnes seized the factories and deprived Wilderman of his assets, using the excuse that Wilderman was an "enemy alien". In 1918, Bessarabia became part of Romania , and Wilderman attempted to recover his assets. However, Stinnes delayed
3640-488: The 1970s. As with Germany , the largest immigrant group are Turks . An estimated total of 350,000 ethnic Turks lived in Austria in 2010, accounting for 3% of the Austrian population. The rate of naturalization has increased after 1995, since which dates Turks in Austria could retain their citizenship in Turkey after naturalization in Austria ( dual citizenship ). After 2007, the rate of naturalizations has decreased due to
3744-412: The 1980s. An estimated 66% of Austrians adhered to Roman Catholicism in 2009, compared to 78% in 1991 and 89% in 1961. There is a traditional Lutheran minority, accounting for 4% of the population in 2009 (down from 6% in 1961). An estimated 17% are nonreligious (as of 2005). Islam in Austria has grown rapidly during the 1990s and 2000s, rising from 0.8% in 1971 to an estimated 6% in 2010, overtaking
3848-507: The Austrian Empire and its supporters. On the other hand, the "Lesser German solution" ( Kleindeutsche Lösung ) advocated only to unify the northern German states and exclude Austria; this proposal was favored by the Kingdom of Prussia and its supporters. This debate became known as German dualism . The lands later called Cisleithania (except Galicia and Dalmatia ) were members of the German Confederation since 1815 as they had been part of
3952-545: The Austrian lands, let the state turn away from Germany and turn its gaze towards the Balkan Peninsula . Thereby the influence of pan-Germanism was diminished in the Habsburg territories, but as the term "Austrians" still was used supra-national, German-speaking Austrians considered themselves Germans (and were counted as such in the censuses). After Bismarck had excluded Austria from Germany, many Austrians faced
4056-564: The Austrian parliament, elected in 1911, met in Vienna to found the Provisional National Assembly of German Austria ("Provisorische Nationalversammlung für Deutschösterreich"). On October 30, 1918, they installed the first German Austrian government, leaving the question "monarchy or republic" open. ( German nationalists and social democrats favoured the republic, the Christian Socialists wanted to keep
4160-498: The Austrian political elite referred to their experiences in concentration camps and in prison, which had brought out a desire for the lost independence of the Austrian state. Kreissler (1993) writes: "It was not until after the (long dark) night of the Third Reich that Austrian identity was brought back to consciousness by resistance and exile". Austrians developed a self-image unambiguously separate from their German neighbour. It
4264-584: The Austrians in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the collapse of the Confederation, both effectively ending any future Austrian influence on German political events. When asked by Edward VII to abandon Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany for co-operation with England, Franz Joseph replied "I am a German prince." The Franco-Prussian War and the establishment of a German Empire in 1871, headed by Prussia and pointedly excluding any of
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4368-605: The Berlin branch of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), and she and Arkadi Maslow emerged as leaders of the left of the communist party, who blamed the party's over-cautious leadership for the failure of the March Action in 1921, and opposed the tactic of a 'united front' with the German Social Democratic Party. The German authorities tried to forcibly repatriate her to Austria. Thus she married
4472-584: The Communist Party of Germany leaders were saying: "In no circumstances must we proclaim the general strike. The bourgeoisie will discover our plans and destroy us before we have moved. On the contrary, we must calm the masses, hold back our people in the factories and the unemployed committees until the government thinks the moment of danger has passed." When the leaders of the Communist Party of Germany met leaders in Moscow in September 1923 to discuss
4576-480: The German delegation to the Fifth Congress of Comintern, where she denounced Trotsky in public, in language not previously heard. At the sixth congress of the KPD, in 1925, she went on to attack the two most famous martyrs of German communism, Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht for having "burdened us with great errors which we must eradicate." Writing in a party journal, she likened Luxemburg's influence to
4680-461: The German language. The sole official language at the federal level of Austria is German, and the standard used is called Austrian German since German is considered a pluricentric language , like English. Austrian German is defined by the Austrian Dictionary ( German : Österreichisches Wörterbuch ), published under the authority of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture . Thus, all websites, official announcements and most of
4784-475: The Holy Roman Empire until 1806. Until 1848, Austria and its chancellor Prince Metternich unanimously dominated the confederation. The developing sense of a German nationality had been accelerated massively as a consequence of the political turmoil and wars that engulfed Central Europe following the French Revolution and the rise to power of Napoleon Bonaparte . Although the years of peace after Napoleon's fall quickly saw German nationalism largely pushed out of
4888-586: The Hungarian communist Erno Bettelheim, and during the recriminations that followed, she left her husband and moved to Berlin. She visited the Comintern representative Karl Radek many times while he was interned in Moabit prison, acting as his contact with the Communist Party of Germany. In a memoir of his year in Berlin, Radek commented: "She gave the impression of being a lively, if uneducated female .. I saw that she could grasp ideas easily, but that they didn't sink in very far, and she could easily fall under some other influence." In 1921, Fischer became leader of
4992-459: The KPD, at Brandler's expense. In April 1924, the 9th party convention elected her and Maslow co-chairpersons of the Communist Party of Germany. In May 1924, she travelled to the UK as a fraternal delegate to a sixth congress of the Communist Party of Great Britain, whom she accused of being too close to the Labour Party, and narrowly avoided being arrested in Manchester. She was elected to the Reichstag under her then legal name Elfriede Golke, and to
5096-442: The Nazi capitulation, they accepted the Declaration of Independence which Austrian politicians had signed at Vienna's city hall on April 27, 1945, and they made the first national elections possible in the autumn of that year. By the end of 1945, Austria, under the supervision of the Allied Council in Vienna, had a democratic parliament and government again, acknowledged by all four allied occupation zones. The Austrian resistance to
5200-444: The Nazi rule started with the Anschluss in 1938. Historians estimate that there were about 100,000 members of resistance facing 700,000 NSDAP members in Austria. The sign of the Austrian resistance was O5, where the 5 stands for E and OE is the abbreviation of Österreich with Ö as OE. The end of World War II in 1945 saw the re-establishment of an independent Austria, although the Allied Powers remained in occupation until 1955, when
5304-408: The accuracy of her account of events that had happened a quarter of a century or more before she was writing has been challenged. Rosa Luxemburg's biographer, J. P. Nettl , described the book as "generally unreliable; in places deliberately so." E. H. Carr looked into one of the claims made in the book and concluded that it was "inaccurate in every particular that can be checked." Isaac Deutscher ,
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#17327723506225408-456: The age of 23, Stinnes was heavily invested in the steel industry. He also imported great quantities of English coal and had an agency at Newcastle as well as an interest in some English mines. This led to his establishing branches of his business at Hamburg and at Rotterdam . Since its founding in 1898, Stinnes had been on the Board of Directors of the Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk Aktiengesellschaft ( RWE ). He envisioned using
5512-401: The allies declared that they would reestablish an independent Austrian state after their victory (the Moscow Declaration of 1943) the only Austrians who heard them were those secretly listening to enemy broadcasts ("Feindsender"), which was a criminal offence and heavily prosecuted. Though the Allied forces treated Austria as a belligerent party in the war and maintained occupation of it after
5616-402: The anti-Nazi/anti-Socialist clerico-authoritarianist state ideology known as Austrofascism from 1934 to 1938. The Engelbert Dollfuss / Kurt von Schuschnigg government accepted that Austria was a "German state" and believed Austrians were "better Germans", but strongly opposed the annexing of Austria to Nazi Germany. By March 1938, with Nazi governments in control of both Berlin and Vienna,
5720-469: The central government set up in Vienna in the mid-18th century. The term Austrian in these times was used for identifying subjects of the Domus Austriae, the House of Austria, as the dynasty was called in Europe, regardless of their ethnic ancestry. Although not formally a united state, the lands ruled by the Habsburgs would sometimes be known by the name "Austria". In reality they remained a disparate range of semi-autonomous states, most of which were part of
5824-399: The city only rose to importance in the High Middle Ages as the chief settlement of the March of Austria (the March river just east of Vienna marks the ancient border between Francia and the Avars). After the defeat of the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, the East March or March of Austria came to be the easternmost portion of the Holy Roman Empire , bordering on Moravia to
5928-409: The complex network of states that was the Holy Roman Empire (the imperial institutions of which were themselves controlled for much of their later existence by the Habsburgs). However, the second half of the 18th century saw an increasingly centralised state begin to develop under the reign of Maria Theresa of Austria and her son Joseph II . After the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon ,
6032-419: The country was annexed to Germany ( Anschluss ) as Ostmark . In 1942 the name was changed to the "Alpen-und Donau-Reichsgaue" ("Alpine and Danubian Gaue"), thus eradicating any links with a special Austrian past. Some of the most prominent Nazis were native Austrians, including Adolf Hitler , Ernst Kaltenbrunner , Arthur Seyss-Inquart , Franz Stangl , Otto Skorzeny , and Odilo Globocnik , as were 40% of
6136-420: The defeat of Nazi Germany and the end of World War II in Europe , both the political ideology of pan-Germanism and the union with Germany have become associated with Nazism , resulting in Austrians developing their own separate and distinct national identity . Today, the vast majority of Austrians do not identify as German. The English word Austrian is a derivative of the proper name Austria, which
6240-406: The dynasty, the term "German Austria" (Deutschösterreich) was a term used in the press to mean all the Austrian districts with an ethnic German majority among the inhabitants. Austrian pan-Germans such as Georg Ritter von Schönerer and his followers agitated against the "multi-national" Austro-Hungarian Empire and advocated for German Austria to join the German Empire. Although many Austrians shared
6344-488: The east. In the 8th century, the former territories of Raetia and Noricum fell under Carolingian rule , and were divided into the duchies of Swabia , Bavaria and principality Carantania . Pannonia until the end of the 8th century was part of the Avar Khaganate . The " East March " ( Ostmark ) during the 9th century was the boundary region separating East Francia from the Avars and the Magyars . The site of Vienna had been settled since Celtic times (as Vindobona ), but
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#17327723506226448-473: The emperor Franz II formally founded the Austrian Empire in 1804 and became as Franz I the first Austrian emperor. For the first time the citizens of the various territories were now subjects of the one same state, while most of the German states, Prussia excluded, still cultivated their Kleinstaaterei and did not succeed in forming a homogenous empire. Following Prussia's victory in the Austro-Prussian war in 1866, Otto von Bismarck successfully unified
6552-469: The empire desired the reinforcement of an ethnic German identity and that the empire would collapse and allow for a quick annexation of Austria to Germany. Although it was precisely because of Bismarck's policies that Austria and the German Austrians were excluded from Germany, many Austrian pan-Germans idolized him. While the high bureaucracy of Austria and many Austrian army officers considered themselves "black-yellow" (the Habsburg colours), i.e. loyal to
6656-406: The end of World War I, Austria was reduced to a rump state and adopted and briefly used the name the Republic of German-Austria ( German : Republik Deutschösterreich ) in an attempt for union with Germany, but was forbidden due to the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) . The First Austrian Republic was founded in 1919. Nazi Germany annexed Austria with the Anschluss in 1938. After
6760-410: The fellow communist Gustav Golke (1889–1937, executed in the Soviet Great Purge ), in order to be naturalised as a German. Heinrich Brandler was the national leader of the Communist Party of Germany. In the early months of 1923, Ruth Fischer and urged Brandler to organize an uprising on the model provided by the Bolsheviks in 1917. Together they developed the "theory of the offensive". Fischer denounced
6864-400: The industrial production of occupied Belgium and to help to set in motion the gigantic production of war material which the German general headquarters demanded. During the war, Stinnes extended his activities in Hamburg, and in 1916 he bought up the Woermann and the East African steamship lines. In these new undertakings, he became associated with the two greatest German shipping companies,
6968-427: The inter-war period. Proponents who recognize Austrians as a nation claim that Austrians have Celtic heritage, as Austria is the location of the first characteristically Celtic culture to exist. It is said that Celtic Austria became culturally Romanized under Roman rule and later culturally Germanized after Germanic invasions. Contemporary Austrians express pride in having Celtic heritage and Austria possesses one of
7072-535: The languages of the Tyrol , Carinthia , and Styria and the former including the dialects of Vienna , Burgenland , Upper Austria , and Lower Austria . The vast majority of Austrians are however able to speak Austrian Standard German in addition to their native dialect, as it is taught in all modern day schools. The minority languages Slovene , Croatian and Hungarian are spoken and officially recognized by some states of Austria. Like most of Central Europe , Austria has had high levels of immigration since
7176-426: The largest collections of Celtic artifacts in Europe. Austria's multicultural history and geographical location has resulted in post-Soviet era immigration from Slovenia , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Slovakia , Romania , and Poland . As with neighbouring Germany, there has also been heavy immigration from Turkey and former Yugoslav states such as Croatia and Serbia . Austrians have historically spoken
7280-403: The latter being one of the oldest newspapers in Germany. Both of the Munich journals were previously exponents of a very much more democratic trend of opinion than that which came to characterize them under his proprietorship. Ancillary to these acquisitions, Stinnes secured large interests in paper mills in order to make his newspapers independent of the paper market. By the early 1920s, Stinnes
7384-549: The leadership for "making concessions to social democracy", for "opportunism" and for "ideological liquidationism and theoretical revisionism". Chris Harman, author of The Lost Revolution (1982) has pointed out: "Articulate and energetic, they were able to gather around them many of the new workers who had joined the party." Although she appeared to represent a minority view in the Communist Party of Germany at that time, Comintern ordered that she should be co-opted onto its Central Committee in April 1923. In 1923, Fischer appealed to
7488-739: The media are carried out in Austrian German. In terms of native language, it is generally not Austrian German that is used, but instead local dialects of the Austro-Bavarian and Allemannic (in Vorarlberg and the Tiroler Außerfern) family. The Austro-Bavarian dialects are considered to belong either to the Central Austro-Bavarian or Southern Austro-Bavarian subgroups, with the latter encompassing
7592-467: The members of the Vienna circle . Austrian cuisine, which is often incorrectly equated with Viennese cuisine, is derived from the cuisine of the Austro-Hungarian Empire . In addition to native regional traditions it has been influenced above all by German, Hungarian , Czech , Jewish , Italian and Polish cuisines, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. Goulash
7696-400: The monarchy.) This government in the first days of November took over the duties of the last imperial-royal government in a peaceful way. Initially the new state adopted the name " German Austria ", reflecting the republic being the German part of the old Austria and showing the popular desire to unite with the new German republic. On November 12, 1918, the provisional national assembly voted for
7800-530: The nation-wide propaganda machine for Adolf Hitler 's NSDAP . In June 1920, after the German Revolution , Stinnes was elected to the Reichstag . He acted as spokesman for German industry towards trade unions and laid the foundation of today's system of cooperation between the unions and employers in Germany. The introduction of the eight-hour day is a prime example of it. Stinnes denounced
7904-452: The nations of Austria to create national councils, with the aim to instigate a restructuring of the state under Habsburg rule. The nations followed the invitation (the Czechs had founded their national council already before the invitation) but ignored the will of the emperor to keep them in a restructured Austrian state. Their goal was total independence. On October 21, the German members of
8008-406: The new Austrian state, as well as in the southern part of Tyrol which now found itself part of Italy. In total, more than 3.5 million German-speaking Austrians were forced to remain outside the Austrian state. The collapse of the empire caused an apparent struggle for some German Austrians between an "Austrian" and a "German" character. The idea of unifying Austria with Germany was motivated both by
8112-521: The north and on the Kingdom of Hungary to the east. As a consequence, the national character of the Austro-Bavarian speaking majority population of Austria throughout their early modern and modern history remained characterized by their neighbourhood to the West Slavs ( Czechs , Slovaks ) to the north, the South Slavs ( Slovenes , Carinthian Slovenes , Burgenland Croats ) to the south, and
8216-443: The process by disputing the facts surrounding Wilderman's birth, such as accusing Wilderman of forging his birth certificate, and used financial sleight of hand to pretend the assets had in fact been dissipated and, therefore, there was nothing that could be restored. Stinnes died in Berlin as a result of a gall bladder operation. Although his financial empire held some 4500 companies and 3000 manufacturing plants, it collapsed within
8320-512: The prospect of seizing power that autumn, Leon Trotsky was so disturbed by the antagonism between the different factions that, out of loyalty to Brandler, he proposed that Maslow and Fischer be ordered to stay in Moscow. In the event, it was agreed that Maslow would stay, but Fischer could return to Germany. After the failure of the Hamburg Uprising , and Maslow's return to Germany, Fischer, Maslow and Ernst Thälmann gained control of
8424-493: The public political arena by reactionary absolutism, the Revolutions of 1848 established it as a significant political issue for a period of nearly hundred years. Political debate now centred on the nature of a possible future German state to replace the Confederation, and part of that debate concerned the issue of whether or not the Austrian lands had a place in the German polity. When Emperor Franz Joseph I ordered to build
8528-688: The remaining part of the empire, as well independent, by a personal and real union, the Emperor of Austria being the Apostolic King of Hungary (with both titles on the same level). The Austrian half, a patchwork of crown-lands, broadly coterminous with the modern-day Austria, the Czech Republic , and parts of Slovenia , Poland , Ukraine , Italy , and Croatia , was bound together by the common constitution of 1867, stating that all subjects now would carry "uniform Austrian citizenship" and have
8632-558: The republic and for unification with Germany with a large majority. The creation of the Czecho-Slovak and South Slav states , the dissolution of the real union with Hungary , and the post-war treaties imposed by the victorious Allies combined to see the newly established Austrian republic both with the boundaries it has today, and a largely homogeneous German-speaking population. In the Treaty of Saint-Germain , in September 1919
8736-461: The role of Habsburg Austria in the Thirty Years' War . The music in the tradition of Viennese classicism is sacral to a significant extent, including works such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 's Great Mass in C minor , Joseph Haydn 's masses (1750-1802), Ludwig van Beethoven 's Mass in C major (1807), down to Anton Bruckner 's Te Deum (1903). Secularism has been on the rise since
8840-705: The same fundamental rights. These non-Hungarian lands were not officially called the Austrian Empire. Until 1915, they were officially called "the Kingdoms and States Represented in the Imperial Council" and politicians used the technical term Cisleithania (labelling the Hungarian lands as Transleithania ). The general public called them Austria, and in 1915, the non-parliamentary Cisleithanian government decreed to use this term officially, too. The idea of grouping all Germans into one nation-state gave way to
8944-552: The same views, a lot of them still showed allegiance to the Habsburg monarchy and hoped for Austria to remain an independent country. Although not as radical as Schönerer and his followers, populists such as Karl Lueger used anti-semitism and pan-Germanism as a form of populism to further their own political purposes. The last year of World War I saw the collapse of Habsburg authority throughout an increasingly greater part of its empire. On October 16, 1918, emperor Karl I invited
9048-747: The same year the Nazi government annulled her naturalisation of 1923. When Trotsky founded the Fourth International in 1938, he 'set great store' by the accession of Fischer, who visited him frequently in France, though her opposition to Stalinism went further than his. In 1941, Fischer left France for the United States. In 1947, she testified before HUAC against her brothers Gerhart and Hanns. Her testimony against Hanns resulted in his blacklisting and deportation. She testified that Gerhart
9152-655: The scenes in German politics. In 1918 he became a founding member of the Deutsche Volkspartei ( German People's Party or DVP), the new electioneering name of the former National Liberal Party . On his initiative, on January 10, 1919, Stinnes conducted a meeting of top representatives of the German economy in revolutionary Berlin and funded Antibolschewistenfonds (Anti-Bolshevist Fund) of the Anti-Bolshevist League , which distributed anti-communist propaganda and financed right wing groups such as
9256-469: The staff at Nazi extermination camps . During the war, Austrians' infatuation with Germany faded as Austrian-born Hitler 's series of victories ended. When social democrat Adolf Schärf , from 1945 party president and vice-chancellor and from 1957 federal president of Austria, was visited by German friends who wanted to talk about post-war government, he spontaneously explained to his surprised visitors, "love for Germany has been put out in Austrians". When
9360-412: The steam from his mines to drive turbines for electricity production. As soon as Stinnes recognized RWE's potential he and steel magnate Fritz Thyssen bought shares to become the majority shareholder. The reason for RWE's rapid growth were the permits provided by the communities. However, since these concessions were time-limited, he chose to make the communities permanent shareholders, and gave each mayor
9464-560: The supply of electric power and light. He was always engaged in founding new companies or amalgamating existing ones. Stinnes managed to maintain an extensive and even a detailed knowledge of the working of all the companies in which he was engaged and, in all of them, to exact zealous and conscientious work from his business subordinates. The secret of his success was vertical integration and an essential unity of direction and coordination of aims in all branches of his enterprises. When World War I broke out, Stinnes secured an enormous share in
9568-455: The time referring to Habsburg Austria in the sense of "members of the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg " (the junior branch emerging from the dynastic split into Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs in 1521), but from the 18th century also "a native or inhabitant of Austria". The territory of what is today Austria in the Roman era was divided into Raetia , Noricum and Pannonia . Noricum
9672-580: The traditional size of the Lutheran community in Austria. This rapid growth was due to the significant immigration to Austria from Turkey and Yugoslavia during the 1990s to 2000s. Hugo Stinnes Stinnes was born in Mülheim , in the Ruhr Valley , North German Confederation . His parents Hermann Hugo (1842–1887) and Adeline Stinnes (1844–1925), and his grandfather, Matthias Stinnes, had founded
9776-579: The union with Germany was prohibited, and the new republic's name "Deutschösterreich" was prohibited by the treaty; instead the term "Republic of Austria" was used. The westernmost province Vorarlberg 's wish to unite with Switzerland was also ignored. On October 21, 1919, the state changed its name accordingly. Many German Austrian communities were left scattered throughout the other new states, especially in Czechoslovakia, where more than 3 million German Bohemians had not been allowed to become part of
9880-460: The war profits which enlarged the fortunes of the great industrialists. In enemy countries, his enterprises were sequestrated, and his firm at Rotterdam placed on the Allies' "black list". But, apart from the regular indemnification paid by the German government, he was richly compensated when he was called in by Erich Ludendorff , as the most competent expert to give advice, to organize the coal and
9984-703: Was a Celtic kingdom, while the Pannonii were of Illyrian stock. The Raetians were an ancient alpine people probably akin to the Etruscans . During the Migration period ( c. 6th century ), these territories were settled by the Bavarians and other Germanic groups in the west ( Alemanni in Vorarlberg , Lombards in Tyrol ), and by Slavic groups (principality Carantania ), Huns and Avars in
10088-741: Was also using his influence in the press to attack the Versailles Treaty . Stinnes used his access to hard foreign currency during the period of inflation in the Weimar Republic to borrow vast sums in Reichsmark, repaying the loans with nearly worthless currency later. This earned him the title of " Inflationskönig " (Inflation King). In 1923, the American magazine Time called him "The New Emperor of Germany" to describe his far-reaching political influence and wealth. In
10192-772: Was an important Comintern agent. During the early years of the Cold War Fischer also served as an agent for the precursor to the CIA , The Pond . Under code-named "Alice Miller," she was considered a key Pond agent for eight years,working under her cover as a correspondent, including for the North American Newspaper Alliance. Her tasks included getting intelligence on Stalinists, Marxists and socialists in Europe, Africa and China. In 1948, she published her memoir Stalin and German Communism - but
10296-705: Was based on cultural achievements of the past, the Moscow Declaration , geopolitical neutrality, language variation, the Habsburg legacy, and the separation of the two empires in the late 19th century. The German Empire was formed without Austria and the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the arrangement known as the Kleindeutsche Lösung or "the Little Germany Solution". It proved favourable for Austrians not to be held guilty for World War II, genocide and war crimes, since Austria
10400-403: Was considered a victim of Nazi Germany , although some historians call this a "big lie" and have challenged this statement. Unlike earlier in the 20th century, in 1987 only 6% of Austrians identified themselves as "Germans". Today over 90% of the Austrians see themselves as an independent nation. The logic of the existence of an independent Austrian state is no longer questioned as it was in
10504-534: Was more successful at retaining the Magyars ' cultural and political preponderance in multi-ethnic Hungary than Bohemia, on three sides surrounded by German neighbours, which underwent a period of intense German colonisation, germanizing the leading classes of the Czech people as well. The common German identity of lands such as Carinthia, Styria, or Tyrol, and the ruling dynasty made it easier for these lands to accept
10608-564: Was publicly linked to the anti-Stalinist left, despite her previous clashes with Trotsky. On 19 August 1926, she and Maslow were expelled from the KPD. In Germany, she and Maslow formed a splinter group to the left of the KPD, arguing that Stalin was the leader of a counter-revolution in the USSR, which was ruled by a new class of bureaucrats running a form of state capitalism. She lost her Reichstag seat in 1928, and fled to Paris in 1933 and in August
10712-495: Was summoned by Stalin, who told her she could return to Germany and be readmitted to the party leadership if she submitted to the party line, which she refused to do. When the executive of Comintern held a special session, private letters she had written, which had been intercepted by the censorship were read out, including one to Maslow, in which she wrote "We are condemned to death, since terror reigns in Leningrad." From then, she
10816-510: Was working. At an undisclosed time, before March 1921, she adopted her mother's maiden name as part of her writer's name, "Ruth Fischer." According to later records of the British Security Service ( MI5 ), she also used the names of her partner Maslow and husband Pleuchot. The Austrian Communist Party was founded on 3 November 1918 by Ruth Fischer and Paul Friedländer, a medical student she married in 1917, who later died in
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