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104-752: Ruangwa is one of six districts of the Lindi Region of Tanzania . It is bordered to the north by the Kilwa District , to the south by the Mtwara Region and to the west by the Nachingwea District . In 2016 the Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics report there were 136,065 people in the district, from 131,080 in 2012. The region boasts an abundance of minerals and a huge agricultural potential. Being in

208-463: A neural arch more than twice as high as the centrum, the vertebral body, and almost completely occupied by the extremely spacious neural canal , a trait unique to Kentrosaurus. The diapophyses too were laterally elongated, creating a Y-shape in anterior view. The sacrum (part of pelvis with vertebrae) consists of 6 fused centra, the first being a loose sacrodorsal, while the rest of the centra's transverse processes (extensions of bone) are fused to

312-452: A beak restricted to the jaw tips. Other researchers have interpreted these ridges as modified versions of similar structures in other ornithischians which might have supported fleshy cheeks, rather than beaks. There are two nearly complete braincases known from Kentrosaurus though they exhibit some taphonomic distortion. The frontals and parietals are flat and broad, with the latter bearing two transversely concave ventral sides with

416-423: A beak used to bite off plant material that would be digested in a large gut. It had a, probably double, row of small plates running down its neck and back. These plates gradually merged into spikes on the hip and tail. The longest spikes were on the tail end and were used to actively defend the animal. There also was a long spike on each shoulder. The thigh bones come in two different types , suggesting that one sex

520-402: A behaviour also found in other vertebrates. The problem posed by the ratio is that the multiple specimens studied, died in the same place, but probably not in a sudden mass-death and so do not represent a single herd or contemporary population. The results may have been distorted by a greater chance for robust animals of getting fossilised or discovered. In an earlier study by Galton in 1982, it

624-410: A bone core length of 731 millimetres. The plates have a thickened section in the middle, as if they were modified spines. The spikes and plates were likely covered by horn . Aside from a few exceptions they were not found in close association with other skeletal remains. Thus, the exact position of most osteoderms is uncertain. A pair of closely spaced spikes was found articulated with a tail tip, and

728-421: A browser of low-growing vegetation. This interpretation is supported by the absence of premaxillary teeth and their likely replacement by a horny beak or rhamphotheca . The presence of a beak extended along much of the jaws may have precluded the presence of cheeks in stegosaurs. Due to its phylogenetic position, it is unlikely that Kentrosaurus had an extensive beak like Stegosaurus and it instead probably had

832-522: A distinct Alcovasaurus : Alcovasaurus Paranthodon Tuojiangosaurus Kentrosaurus Adratiklit Dacentrurus Miragaia Jiangjunosaurus Hesperosaurus Loricatosaurus Stegosaurus Like all ornithischians , Kentrosaurus was a herbivore . The fodder was barely chewed and swallowed in large chunks. One hypothesis on stegosaurid diet holds that they were low-level browsers, eating foliage and low-growing fruit from various non-flowering plants. Kentrosaurus

936-427: A holotype is not valid, because Hennig's selection has priority. In 2011, Heinrich Mallison clarified that all the material known to Hennig in 1915, i.e. all the bones discovered before 1912, when Hermann Heck concluded the last German excavations, are paralectotypes , and that MB.R.4800 is the correct lectotype. Kentrosaurus was a small stegosaur. It had the typical dinosaurian body bauplan , characterised by

1040-516: A long ilium , did not support the animal alone, and the very robust forelimbs took up 10 to 15% of the bodyweight. The center of mass was not heavily modified by the osteoderms (bony structures in skin) in Kentrosaurus or Stegosaurus , which allowed the animals to stay mobile despite their armament. The hindlimbs’ thigh muscles were very powerful, allowing Kentrosaurus to reach a tripod stance on its hindlegs and tail. Eight specimens from

1144-422: A number of spikes were found apparently regularly spaced in pairs along the path of an articulated tail. Hennig and Janensch, while grouping the dermal armour elements into four distinct types, recognised an apparently continuous change of shape among them, shorter and flatter plates at the front gradually merging into longer and more pointed spikes towards the rear, suggesting an uninterrupted distribution along

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1248-602: A partial humerus, but the anatomy of the humerus is very similar to that of Kentrosaurus and both date to the Late Jurassic. In a phylogenetic analysis, the Chubut stegosaurid was recovered in polytomy with Kentrosaurus as basal stegosaurids, further suggesting that they are closely related. In Hennig's 1915 description, Kentrosaurus was assigned to the family Stegosauridae due to the preservation of dermal armor and features like posterodorsally angled neural spines on

1352-413: A ridge running down the middle that divides them. The lateral surface of the frontals form part of the orbit (eye socket) and the medial side creates the anterior part of the endocranial cavity (braincase). Basioccipitals (where the skull articulated with the cervical vertebrae) form the posterior floor of the brain and the occipital condyle , which is large and spherical in Kentrosaurus . The rest of

1456-677: A small head, a long neck, short forelimbs and long hindlimbs, and a long, horizontal and muscular tail. Typical stegosaurid traits included the elongation and flatness of the head, the powerful build of the forelimbs, erect and pillar-like hindlimbs and an array of plates and spikes running along both sides of the top mid-line of the animal. Kentrosaurus aethiopicus was a relatively small stegosaur, reaching 4–4.5 m (13–15 ft) in length and 700–1,600 kg (1,500–3,500 lb) in body mass. Some specimens suggest that relatively larger individuals could have existed. These specimens are comparable to some Stegosaurus specimens in terms of

1560-541: A substantially larger percentage of people who had completed their education (41.9%). (34.9 percent). The similar arrangement holds true for those who were actively enrolled, with 23.1 percent of the rural population and 28.7 percent of the urban population both attending school.Liwale District Council had the highest district council attendance percentage (26.9%), followed by Lindi Municipal Council (26.4%) and Nachingwea District Council (23.4%). (25.4 percent). Ruangwa District Council (20.8%) and Lindi District Council (22.2%) had

1664-518: A tropical savanna climate with a Köppen climate classification of 49 and Aw. Lindi Eegion receives annual precipitation level of 750 to 1200 millimeters, often raining in February and March during the wet season . The average temperature is lower at Nachingwea with a monthly mean of 22.2 degrees Celsius and a monthly mean temperature of 27.7 degrees Celsius at the coast in Kilwa Masoko . Lindi

1768-566: A variety of activities, including exploration (prospecting and retention), mining (small, medium, and large scales), processing, smelting, and reefing, as well as mineral business (dealer's and broker's) licenses. Graphite, feldspar, salt, coal, gold, marble, nickel, copper, manganese, iron ore, limestone, gem, gypsum, and other minerals may be found in Lindi. Lindi is the only Tanzanian region that hosts two of Tanzania's UNESCO World Heritage Site , within its borders, namely, Selous Game Reserve and

1872-681: A variety of issues, including a drop in seaweed prices and illnesses, are causing a yearly fall in seaweed yield. Lindi is one of the most forested regions in Tanzania with 57.17% of the region being covered in forests. 38% of these forested lands are within Nyerere National Park and Selous Game Reserve . Moreover, 6% of land in the Lindi Region is part of the National Forest Reserves. In addition, 12% of

1976-424: A vertebra) and rounded ventral keels. The diapophyses are large and strongly angled posteriorily and parallel to each other. The spinous processes got larger towards the posterior end, while the postzygapophyses became smaller and less horizontal, giving the anterior part of the neck lots of mobility laterally. The dorsal column consists of 13 dorsal (back) vertebrae which are tall and have short centra. They have

2080-483: A very broad base. Because of bone morphology classic reconstructions placed it on the hips, at the iliac blade, while many recent reconstructions place it on the shoulder, because a similarly shaped spike is known to have existed on the shoulder in the Chinese stegosaurs Gigantspinosaurus and Huayangosaurus . Like the spikes and shields of ankylosaurs , the bony plates and spines of stegosaurians evolved from

2184-405: A wedge-shaped proximal end. The manus (hand) was small and had five toes with 2 toes bearing only a single phalange. The hindlimbs were much larger and too are similar to those of other stegosaurs. The femur (thigh bone) is the longest element in the body, with the largest known femur measuring 665 mm from the proximal to distal end. The tibia (shin bone) was wide and robust, while the fibula

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2288-680: Is K. aethiopicus , named and described by German palaeontologist Edwin Hennig in 1915. Often thought to be a " primitive " member of the Stegosauria , several recent cladistic analyses find it as more derived than many other stegosaurs, and a close relative of Stegosaurus from the North American Morrison Formation within the Stegosauridae . Fossils of K. aethiopicus have been found only in

2392-679: Is Mnacho, a 1 square kilometer area of thickets and shrubs planted with acacia siamea in 1978 to provide woodfuel for the town of Lindi. It is located on the road between Lindi and Mingoyo/Mnazi Mmoja. This is now a part of the Lindi Municipality, along with the Mkunguru forest, which is located about 20 km south of the Lindi Creek. Despite being degazetted in 1960 (GN No 487), the Livengula Forest Reserve, which

2496-458: Is an old Swahili word meaning "hiding pits", a place where Swahili people will hide to defend themselves from hostile invasions. The region is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites , namely; Kilwa Kisiwani and Selous Game Reserve . According to the 2012 national census, the region had a population of 864,652, which was lower than the pre-census projection of 960,236. For 2002–2012, the region's 0.9 percent average annual population growth rate

2600-646: Is cultivated together with the cashew tree. Lindi is also home to many native trees include the miombo or ebony tree as well as other common savannah flora found in neighbouring regions and countries. Kitope (8 Km2) and Mbinga are two small forest remnants in the Lindi Region (6 Km2). Others include the Km2, Ringo, and Maleshi Forest Reserves, as well as Nanyoma Caves (which have a 4 acre trial patch of mninga trees). Low-lying plants and forest are present in Ngarama North and South. According to Erikson et al. in 1994,

2704-577: Is divided into two main agro-ecological zones; the coastal zone which is the main cultivation of tree crops such as cashew , coconut and mango . These areas are Lindi and Kilwa districts respectively with an elevation of 0 to 400 meters. Roughly 10% of farmers commercially grow cashews for export. The second agro-ecological zone is the midlands where the main cultivation of crops include maize , African rice , sesame and cassava . These areas are mostly Liwale and Nachingwea districts with an elevation of 300 to 900 meters above sea level. Rearing of livestock

2808-409: Is far from any populated areas. In terms of GDP, the regional economy of Lindi makes a very small contribution to the national economy, accounting for only about 2% of GDP. This is a result of the potentials not being fully utilized to contribute to the national economy generally and the regional economy specifically. In fact, Singida, Pwani, and Lindi are the three regions that contribute the least to

2912-414: Is greater than, that of the thigh bone. The caudal (tail) vertebrae are 29 in number, though 27-29 are coossified for attachment to the thagomizers (tail spikes). The caudal vertebrae are unique, as they have a combination of transverse processes up to the 28th vertebra and rod-shaped processes on the posterior caudals. These posterior caudal processes have narrow bases that do not tough the plate formed by

3016-567: Is home to a number of major rivers, the largest being Mbwemkuru River . Other major rivers are Matandu River , Lukuledi River and Mavuji River . Some tributary rivers of the Rufiji River that begin in Lindi Region are Njenje River and Lukuliro River . Lindi Region is also home to the Tendaguru Formation , a Late Jurassic fossil record, where a complete skeleton of the largest land animals to ever exist; Giraffatitan

3120-548: Is next to Lake Narunyu and directly to the north of the coconut plantation, continues to be a cashewnut woods. The Mtama Forest is situated 2 km from Masasi. The woodlands of Lionjo and Nyera/Kiperere in the Liwale and Nachingwea Districts are close to the Liwale to Nachingwea Road. The least vulnerable coastal forest in Tanzania is Lungonya Forest, which is located in the Seleou Game Reserve's far north-east corner and

3224-545: Is organised into 28 fishing groups. Currently, there are 6 groups in Kilwa district, 14 in Lindi Town, and 8 in Lindi district. Aquaculture is significant in the region with 125 saltwater fish farms and 148 freshwater fish farms. Fish stocking in man-made dams, sea weed farming, and fishing in the ocean, rivers, and dams are all part of the region's fishing industry. The Indian Ocean, River Lukuredi, Lake Rutamba, and dams are

Ruangwa District, Lindi - Misplaced Pages Continue

3328-435: Is preserved, with a large crown and long root. The crown notably has fewer marginal denticles and a prominent cingulum compared to Stegosaurus , Tuojiangosaurus , and Huayangosaurus . The neck was composed of 13 cervical (neck) vertebrae, the first being the atlas which was strongly fused to the occipital region of the skull and followed by the axis . The other 11 cervicals had hourglass-shaped centra (the base of

3432-423: Is still low in Lindi compared to other regions. There are hardly any manufacturing industries in the Lindi region. The Region had one sawmill (ISIC 161), one manufacturer of chemical products (ISIC 202), and one furniture manufacturer, per the 2009 Annual Survey of Industrial Production for enterprises employing 10 and above persons. Between Sudi village in the south of the Lindi district and Marendego village in

3536-911: The Late Jurassic Tendaguru Formation . The main Kentrosaurus quarries were located in the Middle Saurian Beds dating from the upper Kimmeridgian. Some remains were found in the Upper Saurian Beds dating from the Tithonian. Since 2012, the boundary between the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian is dated at 152.1 million year ago. The Tendaguru ecosystem primarily consisted of three types of environment: shallow, lagoon-like marine environments, tidal flats and low coastal environments; and vegetated inland environments. The marine environment existed above

3640-531: The Stegosauridae , which lived in the later part of the Jurassic and early Cretaceous, and which were defined by Paul Sereno as all stegosaurians more closely related to Stegosaurus than to Huayangosaurus . This group is widespread, with members across the Northern Hemisphere, Africa and possibly South America . The South American remains come from Chubut , Argentina and consist only of

3744-485: The Tendaguru Formation , dated to the late Kimmeridgian and early Tithonian ages, about 152 million years ago . Hundreds of bones were unearthed by German expeditions to German East Africa between 1909 and 1912. Although no complete skeletons are known, the remains provided a nearly complete picture of the build of the animal. In the Tendaguru Formation, it coexisted with a variety of dinosaurs such as

3848-430: The fair weather wave base and behind siliciclastic and ooid barriers. It appeared to have had little change in salinity levels and experienced tides and storms. The coastal environments consisted of brackish coastal lakes, ponds and pools. These environments had little vegetation and were probably visited by herbivorous dinosaurs mostly during droughts. The well vegetated inlands were dominated by conifers . Overall,

3952-453: The specific name aethiopicus to denote the provenance from Africa. Soon after its description, a controversy arose over the stegosaur's name, which is very similar to the ceratopsian Centrosaurus . Under the rules of biological nomenclature, forbidding homonymy , two animals may not be given the same name. Hennig renamed his stegosaur Kentrurosaurus , "pointed-tail lizard", in 1916, while Hungarian paleontologist Franz Nopcsa renamed

4056-435: The 2002 and 2012 Censuses, the population of the Lindi Region as a whole increased by 9.8%. However, over a 14-year period (1988–2002), the population of the Lindi Region as a whole has grown by 1.4%. All Lindi districts saw population growth between the 2002 and 2012 Censuses. Ruangwa District experienced the smallest population change, while Lindi Municipal Council experienced the biggest (91.9%) (5.7 percent). The district with

4160-419: The 2002 and 2012 censuses. For people aged 5 and older, the literacy rate improved from 54.4 to 63.2 percent, and for people aged 15 and older, it went from 59.1 to 68 percent. Male and female literacy rates among those aged 5 and older have likewise increased, from 61.1 to 67.8 percent for men and 48.4 to 59 percent for women. Ruangwa District Council (40.9%), Kilwa (43.4%), and Lindi District Council (43.4%) have

4264-456: The GDP of the nation; Dar es Salaam, Mwanza, and Mbeya are the two regions that contribute the most. With 1,127,104 TZS annually, Lindi is ranked 11th out of 21 Tanzanian regions, followed by Rukwa, Mara, and Mtwara with 1,116,699 TZS, 1,095,641 TZS, and 1,041,805 TZS, respectively. Dar es Salaam tops the list with 1,990,043 TZS, and Iringa comes second with 1,660,532 TZS per person. However, throughout

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4368-736: The German Expedition found over 1200 bones of Kentrosaurus , belonging to about fifty individuals, many of which were destroyed during the Second World War. Today, almost all remaining material is housed in the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin (roughly 350 remaining specimens), while the museum of the Institute for Geosciences of the University of Tübingen houses a composite mount, roughly 50% of it being original bones. In

4472-1031: The Late Jurassic Tendaguru climate was subtropical to tropical with seasonal rains and pronounced dry periods. During the Early Cretaceous , the Tendaguru became more humid. The Tendaguru Beds are similar to the Morrison Formation of North America except in its marine interbeds. Kentrosaurus would have coexisted with fellow ornithischians like Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki ; the sauropods Giraffatitan brancai , Dicraeosaurus hansemanni and D. sattleri , Janenschia africana , Tendaguria tanzaniensis and Tornieria africanus ; theropods " Allosaurus " tendagurensis , "Ceratosaurus" roechlingi , "Torvosaurus" ingens, Elaphrosaurus bambergi , Veterupristisaurus milneri and Ostafrikasaurus crassiserratus ; and

4576-665: The Lindi District Council (44,583 households). 15 percent of households (26,817 households) in urban areas engaged in agricultural activity in the agricultural year 2011–12. This indicates that agriculture is also an economic activity in urban regions. Additionally, it was discovered that the percentage of households engaged in agriculture varied from 86 percent in Nachingwea District Council to 62 percent in Lindi Municipal. The region

4680-838: The Lindi Region is Godfrey Zambi . Lindi Region is divided into six districts , each administered by a council: Urban regions of Lindi had a substantially higher literacy rate (74.3%) than rural areas (60.6 percent). While in both rural and urban areas, men had higher literacy rates than women. Adult literacy in the Lindi Region is 68.0 percent, with urban regions having a higher rate (77.2 percent) than rural ones (65.7 percent). In both rural and urban areas, males had higher literacy rates than females. District-level adult literacy rates range from 75.7% in Nachingwea District to 60.3% in Lindi District (Map 9.1). Liwale District (73.2%) and Lindi Municipal District were

4784-467: The Lindi region has a young population, with 50.5% of the territory's inhabitants being under the age of 15. Ages 65 and over make up just six percent of the region's total population. As of 2019, the projected Lindi Region population was 1,004,439. This shows that Lindi Region is growing at a small pace compared to other regions at 0.9% per annum. With the current growth rate projection Lindi will only add 54,240 people by 2025. The regional commissioner of

4888-680: The Pindiro Forest has at least 15 hectares of swamp forest. Mpingo and woodland grassland predominate in Matapwa Forest Reserve. A section of baobab forest may be found in Kikwetu's Municipal Council borders, to the east of Lindi Airport. On the Noto Plateau, there is a sizable area of forest: Makangela, which contains miombo woodland, is located on the southern side of the main road between Rutamba and Lilola. Another

4992-469: The Ruvuma basin it has large deposits of graphite and uranium, among other commercially demanded minerals. With the discovery of minerals, the area has seen an influx of people working in the sector. This has put a pressure on existing social amenities such as hotels, guest houses and lodges. The road network is still poor as tarmac is less than 5 kilometers. The prime minister being the member of parliament for

5096-497: The Songo Songo islands in Kilwa district, containing fifty-five trillion cubic feet of natural gas reserves. The region has issued around 2282 mineral licenses, of which only Kilwa district, with about 1260 licenses, has issued about 55.2% of them, and Lindi Municipal Council, with only 101 licenses. Of these 99 licenses are for small-scale mining, while the other two are for limestone exploration. The mining licenses awarded cover

5200-500: The Swahili era in the 9th and 10th centuries. There is a small but significant Christian population. As in most of Tanzania, many urban centers like Liwale town, Kilwa Masoko , and Lindi town have a mixture of people from all over the country including a small Indian and Arab immigrant community. The bulk of foreigners counted in the area were from Kenya, China, Mozambique, and India. Other nations with sizable populations of foreigners in

5304-535: The area were Germany and Lesotho. Lindi Region's population in 2012 was around 864,652, making Lindi the region with the lowest population densities in the country at 51 persons per square kilometer. The population of the Lindi Region increased by 0.9 percent between 2002 and 2012. While the population growth rate in urban regions was 2.5 percent, it was only 0.6 percent in rural areas. The Lindi Region's average yearly growth rate dropped from 1.4 percent between 1988 and 2002 to 0.9 percent between 2002 and 2012. Between

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5408-429: The area, rapid developments are expected as works on the road linking Ruangwa to Masasi are being constructed to tarmac level. The Ruangwa District is administratively divided into 21 wards: This Lindi Region location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Lindi Region The Lindi Region borders on Pwani Region , Morogoro Region , Ruvuma Region , and Mtwara Region . The name Lindi

5512-534: The back, a sacrum with five sacral vertebrae and both ilia , both femora and an ulna , and is included in the mounted skeleton at the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin , Germany . The type locality is Kindope, Tanzania , north of Tendaguru hill. Unaware that Hennig had already defined a lectotype, Peter Galton selected two dorsal vertebrae, specimens MB.R.1930 and MB.R.1931, from the material figured in Hennig's 1915 description, as 'holotypes'. This definition of

5616-409: The base of the triceps muscle. The coracoid is sub-circular. The fore limbs were much shorter than the stocky hind limbs, which resulted in an unusual posture. The humerus (upper arm bone), like other stegosaurs, has greatly expanded proximal and distal ends that were attachment points between the coracoid and ulna - radius (forearm bones) respectively. The radius was larger than the ulna and had

5720-460: The bottom side of the tail vertebrae, have the shape of an inverted T. The scapula (shoulder blade) is sub-rectangular, with a robust blade. Though it is not always perfectly preserved, the acromion ridge is slightly smaller than in Stegosaurus . The blade is relatively straight, although it curves towards the back. There is a small bump on the back of the blade, that would have served as

5824-594: The braincase is formed by the presphenoid composing the anterior end. The overall braincase morphology is very similar to those of Tuojiangosaurus , Huayangosaurus , and Stegosaurus . However, the occipital condyle is a closer distance to the basisphenoid tubera (bone at the front of the braincase) in Kentrosaurus and Huayangosaurus than in Tuojiangosaurus and some specimens of Stegosaurus . Due to dinosaurs having more molding in their braincases, endocasts of Kentrosaurus can be reconstructed using

5928-420: The carnivorous theropods Elaphrosaurus and Veterupristisaurus , giant herbivorous sauropods Giraffatitan and Tornieria , and the dryosaurid Dysalotosaurus . Kentrosaurus generally measured around 4–4.5 metres (13–15 ft) in length as an adult, and weighed about 700–1,600 kilograms (1,500–3,500 lb). It walked on all fours with straight hindlimbs. It had a small, elongated head with

6032-589: The caudal vertebrae. This is confirmed by modern cladistic analyses, although in 1915 Stegosauridae was a far more inclusive concept that included some taxa now classified as ankylosaurs. A consecutive narrowing down of this concept caused Kentrosaurus , until the 1980s to be seen as a typical "primitive" stegosaurian, to be placed in a more derived, higher, position in the stegosaur evolutionary tree. However, recent analyses have consistently found Kentrosaurus to be in Stegosauridae, though typically as one of

6136-573: The central east coast of the Lindi Region with the majority being found in Kilwa District . Most of western Lindi is home to the Ngindo people , with the majority in Liwale District . The Matumbi people are mostly found in the northern Lindi Region bordering Pwani Region. Machinga people are a small minority with Kilwa District in eastern Lindi Region. Lastly the Makonde people are found on

6240-447: The defensive behaviour of Kentrosaurus included the suggestion that the animal might have charged to the rear, to run through attackers with its spines, in the way of modern porcupines . Though Kentrosaurus likely stood with forelimbs erect like in other dinosaurs, it is hypothesised that the animal adopted a sprawling posture when defending itself. Its neck was flexible enough to allow it to keep sight of predators, as it could reach

6344-532: The districts with literacy rates above 70 percent (72.7 percent). Adult literacy rates in Ruangwa District increased from 58.1 percent in 2002 to 67 percent in 2012 and in Lindi Municipal from 69.9 percent to 72.7 percent in 2012. The percentage change in these districts ranges from 2.8 percent in Lindi Municipal to 13.1 percent in Kilwa District, indicating an increase in literacy rates between

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6448-418: The dorsal parts of the sacral ribs into a solid sacral plate. The ribs also fuse to the ilium (the upper part of the pelvis) creating a fully ankylosed and solid sacrum. The ilium is notable in that the preacetabular process, front blade, of the ilium widens laterally, to the front outer side, and does not taper unlike in all other stegosaurs. Another characteristic is that the length of the ilium equals, or

6552-507: The entire body, in fifteen pairs. Because each type of osteoderm was found in mirrored left and right versions, it seems probable that all types of osteoderms were distributed in two rows along the back of the animal, a marked contrast to the better-known North American Stegosaurus , which had one row of plates on the neck, trunk and tail, and two rows of spikes on the tail tip. There is one type of spike that differs from all others in being strongly, and not only slightly, asymmetrical, and having

6656-432: The female staying still in a lordosis posture as the male maneuvers his penis into her cloaca . The shoulder spikes would have made the female unable to lie on her side during mating as is proposed for Stegosaurus . In 2013, a study by Ragna Redelstorff e.a. concluded that the bone histology of Kentrosaurus indicated that it had a higher growth rate than reported for Stegosaurus and Scutellosaurus , in view of

6760-509: The femurs (thighbones) led Holly Barden and Susannah Maidment to realize that Kentrosaurus probably showed sexual dimorphism . This dimorphism of the femurs consisted in them being either more or less robust than the other. The occurrence ratio of the robust morph to the gracile one was 2:1, and it is likely that the higher percentage of animals were females. Because of this ratio, it was considered reasonable to assume that in their society, Kentrosaurus males mated with more than one female,

6864-448: The forests are managed under village forest reserves. Sustainable honey production is an area the government is exploring commercial interests in the forest reserves. Lindi engages in salt mining on a local scale especially in Kilwa district. Additionally, the district has deposits of high quality gypsum near Kiranjeranje ward. Ruangwa district is known for its graphite deposits. As of 2019, 60 exploration wells have been drilled in

6968-478: The fusion of the processes of the sacral vertebrae. Kentrosaurus can be distinguished from other members of the Stegosauria by a number of processes of the vertebrae, which in the tail do not run sub-parallel, as in most dinosaurs. In the front third of the tail, they point backwards, the usual direction. In the middle tail, however, they are almost vertical, and further back they are hook-shaped and point obliquely forward. The chevrons , bones pointing to below from

7072-454: The genus Doryphorosaurus , "lance-bearing lizard", the same year. If a renaming had been necessary, Hennig's would have had priority. However, because the spelling is different, both Doryphorosaurus and Kentrurosaurus are unneeded replacement names; Kentrosaurus remains the valid name for the genus with Kentrurosaurus and Doryphorosaurus being its junior objective synonyms . Although no complete individuals were found, some material

7176-403: The ground; thus it could have provided additional support, though precisely because of this flexibility it is not certain whether much support was actually provided: it was not stiff enough to function as a "third leg" as had been suggested by Robert Thomas Bakker . In this pose, Kentrosaurus could have fed at heights of 3.3 m (11 ft). Differences in the proportions, not the size, of

7280-412: The highest population proportion, accounting for 22.5 percent of the region's total population (194,143 people), was Lindi District Council, while the district with the lowest, accounting for 9.1 percent (78,841 persons). There were 92 men for every 100 women in the Lindi Region overall. (99 for rural areas and 90 for urban areas show that there are more women than men living there. The sex ratio, however,

7384-464: The highest rates of illiteracy (37 percent). The district councils with the lowest rates of illiteracy were Nachingwea District Council and Lindi Municipal Council, both at 29.7%. Compared to the urban population, where the percentage was just 21%, 33% of rural residents had never attended school. Similarly, the percentage of dropouts was marginally greater in rural (9.0%) than in urban (8.4%) areas. However, compared to rural areas, metropolitan areas had

7488-424: The island nation of Sri Lanka which has a total land area of 62,732 square kilometers. Lindi Bay , located in the region, is one of the largest bays in the country. The highest peak in Lindi Region, Kongowele (830m) is located in Nachingwea District . Lindi has 23 islands in its territory with the largest being Songo Mnara Island, followed by Kilwa Kisiwani Island and Songo Songo Island. Lindi Region has

7592-538: The low-keeled osteoderms characteristic of basal thyreophorans. Galton (2019) interpreted plates of an armored dinosaur from the Lower Jurassic ( Sinemurian - Pliensbachian ) Lower Kota Formation of India as fossils of a member of Ankylosauria ; the author argued that this finding indicates a probable early Early Jurassic origin for both Ankylosauria and its sister group Stegosauria. The vast majority of stegosaurian dinosaurs thus far recovered belong to

7696-429: The lowest attendance rates, respectively. Between the 2002 and 2012 Censuses, there was an improvement in educational attainment levels. The percentage of the population with a secondary education climbed from 5.12 percent to 7.7 percent, and the percentage with a university degree or an equivalent level increased from 0.09 percent to 0.7 percent. The growth of secondary schools and rise in secondary school enrollment are

7800-459: The most basal genera in the family. Kentrosaurus has many traits not seen in other stegosaurids but seen in basal stegosaurians, such as the presence of a parascapular spine and maxillary teeth with only seven denticles at the margin. The type and sole accepted species of Kentrosaurus is Kentrosaurus aethiopicus , named by Hennig in 1915. Fragmentary fossil material from Wyoming, named Stegosaurus longispinus by Charles Gilmore in 1914,

7904-616: The north of Kilwa, Lindi Region has the longest coastline in the country at 287 kilometers long. Lindi also has some of the most productive fish stocks in Tanzania, but only a paltry 876 out of 224,316 households (0.4 percent) engaged in fish farming activities. Fish farming is primarily done in rural areas, with some urban areas as well. In addition, it was noted that 22.1 percent of households engaged in fish farming were urban and 77.9 percent were rural. The region has more than 2,430 registered fishing vessels (most are dugout canoes and dhow ) and over 11,523 registered fishermen. The fishing done

8008-463: The olecranon process in development. The long tail of Kentrosaurus results in a position of the center of mass that is unusually far back for a quadrupedal animal. It rests just in front of the hip, a position usually seen in bipedal dinosaurs. However, the femora are straight in Kentrosaurus , as opposed to typical bipeds, indicating a straight and vertical limb position. Thus, the hindlimbs, though powered by massive thigh muscles attached to

8112-420: The original description, Hennig did not designate a holotype specimen. However, in a detailed monography on the osteology, systematic position and palaeobiology of Kentrosaurus in 1925, Hennig picked the most complete partial skeleton, today inventorised as MB.R.4800.1 through MB.R.4800.37 , as a lectotype (see syntype ). This material includes a nearly complete series of tail vertebrae, several vertebrae of

8216-409: The preserved fossils. The brain is relatively short, deep, and small, with a strong cerebral and pontine flexures and a steeply inclined posterodorsal edge when compared to those of other ornithischians. There is a small dorsal projection in the endocast where an unossified (lacking bone) region between the top of the supraoccipital (bone at the top-back of the braincase) and overlying parietal that

8320-550: The reason for the startling rise in the percentage of students in secondary schools compared to primary schools. In the 267,844 people who attained any level of education, according to the 2012 census, 134,987 (50.4%) were men and 132,857 (49.6%) were women. 90.6 percent of people completed primary school, which was followed by secondary education (7.7 percent), university, and other levels (0.7 percent). The findings also indicate that compared to men, more women (92.3 percent) have completed their primary school (88.9 percent). The situation

8424-401: The region's natural water sources, which all support fishing. People who live near the water produce seaweed, hence the ocean's presence encourages seaweed cultivation as a source of income in the Lindi district, Lindi municipality, and Kilwa. Spinosum (red sea weed) and cotonii are the two forms of sea weed that are generated in greater quantities in the Lindi region (green sea weed). However,

8528-403: The relatively rapid deposition of highly vascularised fibrolamellar bone. As Stegosaurus was larger than Kentrosaurus , this contradicts the general rule that larger dinosaurs grew quicker than smaller ones. Because the tail had at least forty caudal vertebrae, it was highly mobile. It could possibly swing at an arc of 180 degrees, covering the entire half circle behind it. Swing speeds at

8632-509: The ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara Lindi offers attractions for cultural/historic tourism, sun and sand tourism, and also wildlife safari tourism. There is also an unexplored cave system called the Nangoma caves near Matumbi Highlands in Kilwa District. Lindi Region despite its size is home to only 5 indigenous ethnic groups. It is the ancestral home to the Mwera people located on

8736-401: The sides of its body with its snout and look over the back. In addition, the posterior position of the center of mass may not have been advantageous for rapid locomotion, but meant that the animal could quickly rotate around the hips by pushing sideways with the arms, keeping the tail pointed at the attacker. Kentrosaurus was nevertheless not invulnerable. A quick predator could have made it to

8840-561: The skull, mandible, and teeth have been collected and described from the Tendaguru Formation, most of them being isolated elements. Two quadrates (bones from the jaw joint) were referred to Kentrosaurus , but they instead belong to a juvenile brachiosaurid . The long and narrow skull was small in proportion to the body. It had a small antorbital fenestra , the hole between the nose and eye common to most archosaurs , including modern birds, though lost in extant crocodylians. The skull's low position suggests that Kentrosaurus may have been

8944-419: The south-eastern corner of Lindi Region. The life expectancy of Lindi residents is 63.8 years. In terms of regional cuisine, "Chipwenye," a traditional dish made of a blend of Bambara beans and maize, is a popular choice (njugu mawe). The majority of Lindi Region residents practice Sunni Islam with elements of African traditional faiths since the introduction of Islam to the Lindi coast through trade during

9048-415: The tail base (where the impact speed would be much lower) when the tail passed and the neck and upper-part of the body would have been unprotected by the tail swings. A successful predation of Kentrosaurus may have required group hunting. Compared to the more robust spikes of Stegosaurus , the thinner spikes of Kentrosaurus were at greater risk of bending. Kentrosaurus lived in what is now Tanzania in

9152-482: The tail end may have been as high as 50 km/h. Continuous rapid swings would have allowed the spikes to slash open the skin of its attacker or to stab the soft tissues and break the ribs or facial bones. More directed blows would have resulted in the sides of the spikes fracturing even sturdy longbones of the legs by blunt trauma. These attacks would have crippled small and medium-sized theropods and may even have done some damage to large ones. Earlier interpretations of

9256-674: The tooth is a typical stegosaurian tooth, small with a widened base and vertical grooves creating five ridges. The dentary has 13 preserved alveoli on the dorsomedial side and they are slightly convex in lateral and dorsal views. On the surface adjacent to the alveoli, there is a shallow groove bearing small foramina (small openings in bone) that is similar to grooves on the dentary of the Cretaceous neornithischian Hypsilophodon , with one foramina per tooth position. Stegosaurian teeth were small, triangular, and flat; wear facets show that they did grind their food. A single complete cheek tooth

9360-531: The total Lindi soil at roughly 18,000 square kilometers, equivalent to the size of the nation of Kuwait . Lindi Region hosts both native African savanna wildlife and also Indian Ocean fauna. The regional bird is the Malachite Kingfisher is found in more numbers in Lindi, especially at the Selous game reserve and Nyerere National Park. In terms of flora the tamarind tree is found in abundance as it

9464-455: The total workforce in the area. In the Lindi region, farming was the most prevalent occupation, employing around 79.5 percent of the working population. Livestock keepers, on the other hand, made up about 0.2 percent of the working population. Agriculture is the main employer in the Lindi Region. Out of the 224,316 households in the region, 180,877 (or 81 percent) were involved in agriculture in some capacity. These homes were primarily located in

9568-768: The years 2000 to 2013, the Coast area, Singida, or both trailed Lindi region in terms of regional GDP annual contribution, coming in at 19 or 20. Agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining and quarrying, trade and commerce, public administration, and education are the main economic sectors in which the working population in the Lindi region is employed. According to the Lindi 2016 socioeconomic profile, commercial agriculture and farming of food crops employed more people than any other industry by an astounding 80 percent, followed by "Trade and Commerce" at 4.3 percent and "Mining and Quarrying" at 2.2 percent. Electricity, Gas, and Water as well as Communication and Transport each employed 0.1 percent of

9672-423: Was above 100 for the population in the age categories of 5 to 19 years, 50 to 54 years, and 75 to 79 years in the Lindi region, while it was above 100 for the population in the age groups of 5 to 19 years and 75 to 79 years in the Lindi rural area. In contrast, Lindi's urban sex ratio was greater than 100 for people aged 50 to 64 and 75 to 79, and it was equal for children aged 0 to 4 years. The 2012 Census showed that

9776-516: Was capable of eating at heights of up to 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) when on all fours. It may also have been possible for it to rear up on its hindlegs to reach vegetation higher in trees. With its centre of mass close to the hind-limbs, the animal could potentially support itself as it stood up. The hips were likely capable of allowing a vertical trunk rotation of about 60 degrees and the tail probably would either have been fully lifted, not blocking this movement or have enough curvature to rest on

9880-520: Was discovered by German colonizers during their occupation of the territory in the early 20th century. Other fossils that were found there are the Kentrosaurus , Janenschia , Tornieria , Tendaguria , Dysalotosaurus , Australodocus , Elaphrosaurus , Veterupristisaurus and Dicraeosaurus species of dinosaurs. Much of the western part of the Lindi Region is in the Nyerere National Park and Selous Game Reserve covering 27% of

9984-457: Was discovered in association, including a nearly complete tail, hip, several dorsal vertebrae and some limb elements of one individual. These form the core of a mount in the Museum für Naturkunde by Janensch. The mount was dismantled during the museum renovation in 2006/2007, and re-mounted in an improved pose by Research Casting International. Some other material, including a braincase and spine,

10088-463: Was in 1993 classified as a North American species of Kentrosaurus , as K. longispinus . However, this action was not accepted by the paleontological community, and S. longispinus has been assigned to its own genus, Alcovasaurus , differing from Kentrosaurus in having more elongated tail spikes and the structure of the pelvis and vertebrae. Cladogram of the phylogenetic analysis of Stegosauridae conducted by Maidment et al (2019), which recovers

10192-634: Was larger and more stout than the other. The first fossils of Kentrosaurus were discovered by the German Tendaguru Expedition in 1909, recognised as belonging to a stegosaur by expedition leader Werner Janensch on 24 July 1910, and described by German palaeontologist Edwin Hennig in 1915. The name Kentrosaurus was coined by Hennig and comes from the Greek kentron / κέντρον , meaning "sharp point" or "prickle", and sauros / σαῦρος meaning "lizard", Hennig added

10296-408: Was likely covered in cartilage . This characteristic is seen in other ornithischians. Because of the prominent flexures, many of the aspects of the brain can only be interpreted by the present structures. In the mandible (lower jaw), only an incomplete right dentary is known from Kentrosaurus . The deep dentary is almost identical in shape to that of Stegosaurus , albeit much smaller. Similarly,

10400-494: Was reversed at the secondary level and above, when 7.7% of people had a secondary education and 0.4% had a university degree or an equivalent level. Kentrosaurus Kentrosaurus ( / ˌ k ɛ n t r oʊ ˈ s ɔːr ə s / KEN -troh- SOR -əs ; lit.   ' prickle lizard ' ) is a genus of stegosaurid dinosaur from the Late Jurassic in Lindi Region of Tanzania . The type species

10504-434: Was skinny and thin without a greatly expanded distal end. The pes (foot) terminated in 3 toes, all of which had hoof-like unguals (claws). Typically for a stegosaur, Kentrosaurus had extensive osteoderm (bony structures in the skin) covering, including small plates (probably located on the neck and anterior trunk), and spikes of various shapes. The spikes of Kentrosaurus are very elongated, with one specimen having

10608-425: Was suggested that individual difference in the sacral rib count of both Kentrosaurus and Dacentrurus might be an indication of dimorphism: females would have had an extra pair of sacral ribs, having also the first sacral vertebra connected to the ilium, in addition to the subsequent four sacrals. As the plates and spikes would have been obstacles during copulation, it is possible that pairs mated back-to-back with

10712-410: Was the 29th highest in the country. It was also the least densely populated region with 13 people per square kilometer. Lindi Region is the third largest region in Tanzania with a total area of 66,040 km (25,500 sq mi), after Morogoro Region at 70,624 km (27,268 sq mi). Lindi 's size is around 7.1% of the entire Tanzanian territory. In comparison, Lindi is larger than

10816-556: Was thought to have been misplaced or destroyed during World War II . However, all the supposedly lost cranial material was later found in a drawer of a basement cupboard. From 1909 onwards, Kentrosaurus remains were uncovered in four quarries in the Mittlere Saurierschichten (Middle Saurian Beds) and one quarry in the Obere Saurierschichten (Upper Saurian Beds). During four field seasons,

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