The Ruckers family (variants: Ruckaert, Ruckaerts, Rucqueer, Rueckers, Ruekaerts, Ruijkers, Rukkers, Rycardt ) were harpsichord and virginal makers from the Southern Netherlands based in Antwerp in the 16th and 17th century. Their influence stretched well into the 18th century, and to the harpsichord revival of the 20th.
101-605: The Ruckers family contributed immeasurably to the harpsichord's technical development, pioneering the addition of a second manual ; the quality of their instruments is such that the name of Ruckers is as important to early keyboard instruments as that of Stradivarius is to the violin family . In the 18th century, Ruckers instruments were often modified by French makers in a process known as ravalement , to allow for an extended range and other additions. The family probably originated in Germany. The earliest known member, Hans Ruckers,
202-504: A vibrating string produces very little sound in of itself. Therefore, most string instruments have a soundboard to amplify the sound. There are two main kinds of strings; plain and wound. "Plain" strings are simply one piece of long cylindrical material, commonly consisted of nylon or gut. "Wound" strings have a central core, with other material being tightly wound around the string . Prior to World War II , strings of many instruments (including violins and guitars ) were composed of
303-420: A " barber pole " appearance. This practice improves the acoustic performance of heavier gauge gut strings by adding mass and making the string thinner for its tension. Specimens of such open wound strings are known from the early 18th century, in a collection of artifacts from Antonio Stradivari . "Silk and steel" guitar strings are overwound steel strings with silk filaments under the winding. Phosphor bronze
404-429: A 14 1/2 PM gauge string has is .725 mm in diameter. Pirazzi (now known as Pirastro) continues to sell its Oliv, Eudoxa, and Passione brand premium gut core strings by PM gauge. Each string is available in 5 or more discrete gauges. Manufacturers of traditional plain gut strings, often used in historically informed performance, sell their products by light/medium/heavy, by PM, by mm or some combination. Steel forms
505-422: A 4th apart. Later two-manual harpsichords keyboards had the two sets of strings tuned together or antiphonally at the same pitch, for timbral contrasts. Variations of the standard models were sometimes produced for export to France or England; there are single manual harpsichords with chromatic basses (rather than the short octave) down to C, probably intended for England, and double manual harpsichords with
606-406: A U.S. patent on the apparatus and methods for modifying existing pianos to provide interchangeable keyboards of different sizes. Narrower keyboards are available from Steinway & Sons USA in new grand pianos or as a retrofit to existing pianos. There have been variations in the design of the keyboard to address technical and musical issues. The earliest designs of keyboards were based heavily on
707-636: A citizen of Antwerp in 1594; he lived very near the artist Rubens in the Jodenstraat. He signed his instruments by working his initials into the rose. Instruments by him in existence today are virginals from the 1580s and 1590s now in Berlin, Bruges, New York, Paris and Yale University. He was also an organ builder, though none by him remains; he is known to have worked on the organs of St. Jacobskerk and Antwerp Cathedral . Joannes Ruckers (variants: Ioannes, Hans, Jan ) (15 January 1578 – 29 September 1642)
808-404: A country. Some manufacturers may have slightly different gauge sequences; the sample data below comes from D'Addario string charts for regular, round-wound, nickel-plated strings. String gauge is subject to the personal preferences of the musician, but acoustic guitars are typically strung with a heavier gauge than electric guitars. The need for projection due to lack of amplification is one of
909-503: A different tension from another brand's medium. Based on available historical records, gut strings were sold before 1900 in a similar way. On the other hand, modern gut core strings with metal winding, typically have been sold either ungauged for less expensive brands, or by specific gauge. The Gustav Pirazzi company in Germany introduced the Pirazzi meter (PM) measurement early in the 20th century. One PM equals .05 mm. For example,
1010-404: A heavier gauge. Because of the extra manufacturing process involved, they are normally more expensive than roundwounds, but less than flatwounds. Hex wound strings are basically hexagon shaped versions of round wound strings in which they have a hex core with a round winding that is wrapped in the shape of a hexagon. This winding process solves the second problem: it secures the winding around
1111-411: A keyboard. The best electronic keyboards have dedicated circuits for each key, providing polyphonic aftertouch. Advanced electronic keyboards may provide hundreds of key touch levels and have 88 keys, as most pianos do. Despite their visual similarity, different keyboard instrument types require different techniques. The piano hammer mechanism produces a louder note the faster the key is pressed, while
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#17327723721991212-456: A lower-manual range of GG to c''' and an upper manual range of F to f''', produced for France, the lower manual being at standard pitch and the upper a 4th below, reversing the usual pitch arrangement. The lower manual range of these instruments suits the music of contemporary French harpsichord composers such as Chambonnières and Louis Couperin , while the upper manual range is close to early French organ design. When constructing an instrument,
1313-406: A material known as catgut , a type of cord made from refined natural fibers of animal intestines . During the mid-twentieth century however, steel and nylon strings became more favored in string making. Although catgut is still prized by many musicians today, due to its unique sound. The invention of wound strings (particularly steel) was a crucial step in string instrument technology, because
1414-421: A metal-wound string can produce a lower pitch than a plain gut string of similar thickness. This enabled stringed instruments to be made with thinner bass strings. On string instruments that the player plucks or bows directly (e.g., double bass ), this enabled instrument makers to use thinner strings for the lowest-pitched strings, which made the lower-pitch strings easier to play. On stringed instruments in which
1515-518: A more mellow tone, and the responsiveness of it can be enjoyed typically for folk but other styles of music use it as well (for example, Willie Nelson performs on a nylon strung guitar). Nylon strings are made of a softer, less dense material and are under less tension than steel strings (about 50% less). This means they can be used on older guitars that can't support the tension of modern steel strings. Nylon strings do not work with magnetic pickups , which require ferrous strings that can interact with
1616-717: A musical keyboard layout used for non-musical devices. For example, some of the earliest printing telegraph machines used a layout similar to a piano keyboard. There are some rare variations of keyboards with more or fewer than 12 keys per octave, mostly used in microtonal music , after the discoveries and theoretical developments of musician and inventor Julián Carrillo (1875–1965). Some free-reed instrument keyboards such as accordions and Indian harmoniums include microtones. Electronic music pioneer Pauline Oliveros played one of these. Egyptian belly-dance musicians like Hassam Ramzy use custom-tuned accordions so they can play traditional scales. The small Garmon accordion played in
1717-449: A number was written on the case and many of the parts of the action, along with a serial number depending on the model. This has let researchers learn much more about undated instruments and helped them estimate the rate of production—calculated at up to 35 to 40 instruments per year. Decoration of an instrument was as careful and elaborate as its construction; repeating Renaissance patterns were block-printed onto paper and placed inside
1818-440: A piano technician's "voicing" of a piano by modifying the hardness of the hammers). Keyboardists speak of playing harder and softer, or with more or less force. This may accurately describe the player's experience—but in the mechanics of the keyboard, velocity controls musical dynamics. The faster the player depresses the key, the louder the note. Players must learn to coordinate two hands and use them independently. Most music
1919-444: A process called ravalement or grand ravalement , with re-alignment of two-manual keyboards at the unison, replacement of the action and redecoration of the case. The characteristic Ruckers tone was ensured by keeping the soundboard unaltered; some makers used only the original soundboard, advertising the final instrument as a 'Ruckers'. Such was the lasting influence of Ruckers that their methods of construction had been absorbed by
2020-594: A resistant alloy such as hydronalium . Classical guitar strings are typically nylon, with the basses being wound with either silver or bronze. Electric guitar strings are usually wound with nickel-plated steel; pure nickel and stainless steel are also used. Bass guitar strings are most commonly wound with stainless steel or nickel . Copper , gold , silver , and tungsten are used for some instruments. Silver and gold are more expensive and are used for their resistance to corrosion and hypoallergenicity . Some "historically-informed" strings use an open metal winding with
2121-447: A round or hex core first, then polishing, grinding (thus the name, ground wound ) or pressing the exterior part of the winding until it is practically flat. This results in the flat, comfortable playing feel of flatwounds, along with less squeaking, with a brightness generally between roundwounds and flatwounds. The polishing process removes almost half of the winding wire's mass; thus, to compensate for it, manufacturers use winding wire of
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#17327723721992222-532: A set of jacks for each set of strings. The standard compass of the Ruckers keyboard is from short octave C/E to c''' or d'''. Double manual harpsichords had their keyboards uncoupled and aligned to sound a 4th (occasionally a 5th) apart, with the upper manual at standard pitch and the lower pitched below it; when each manual was being used the jacks of the other manual were disengaged. The Ruckers double manual harpsichord thus worked as two instruments in one, pitched
2323-413: A shallower profile (in cross-section) when tightly wound. This makes for more comfortable playing, and decreased wear for frets and fretboards (this makes them a popular choice for fretless instruments). Squeaking sounds due to fingers sliding along the strings are also decreased significantly. Flatwound strings also have a longer playable life because of smaller grooves for dirt and oil to build up in. On
2424-476: A source for this material) is one of the first materials used to make musical strings. In fact, the Ancient Greek word for string, "khordḗ," has "gut" as its original meaning. Animal intestines are composed largely of elastomers , making them very flexible. But they are also extremely hygroscopic, which makes them susceptible to pitch fluctuation as a result of changing humidity. Exposure to moisture from
2525-427: A space beside the keyboard of the larger. The actions combined when the octave instrument was fitted on top of the regular one, enabling the musician to play both at once. They occasionally built other compound instruments, fitting a virginal into the empty space left by the harpsichord's bentside. Both single and double manual harpsichords made by the Ruckers family had the disposition 8' 4', with each keyboard having
2626-470: A stress vs. strain curve, there is a linear region where stress and strain are related called Young's modulus . A newer set of strings will often be in a region on the stress vs. strain curve past the Young's modulus called the plastic region. In the plastic region, plastic deformation occurs—deformation the material cannot recover from. Thus, in the plastic region, the relationship is not linear (Young's modulus
2727-572: A tight (usually round) winding. Round core is the traditional "vintage" way of manufacturing and results in a greater contact between the winding and the core of the string. Octagonal Core Strings (made by Mapes) have an Octagonal Core w/ a tight Round winding. The Octagonal Core String design combines the Flexibility of a Round Core string w/ the Tuning Stability of a Hex Core string all in 1. Bowed instrument strings, such as for
2828-399: A typical high-E nylon string, the maximum transverse force is roughly 40 times greater than the maximum longitudinal force amplitude. However, the longitudinal force increases with the square of the pulse amplitude, so the differences diminish with increasing amplitude. The elastic (Young's) modulus for steel is about 40 times greater than for nylon, and string tensions are about 50% greater, so
2929-425: Is acceptable). Modern bowed strings are plain (typically the higher-pitched, thinner strings) or flatwound, to allow smooth playing and reduce bow hair breakage. There is a niche market for roundwound fiddle strings. Halfround (also referred to as halfwound, ground wound, or pressure wound strings) are string that are cross between roundwound and flatwound. Such strings are usually made by winding round wire around
3030-413: Is also adjusted to suit the string gauge or material, as well as the intended playing style. Steel strings for six-string guitar usually come in sets of matched strings. Sets are usually referenced either by the gauge of the first string (e.g., 9), or by pair of first and last (e.g., 9–42); measurements in thousands of an inch are the de facto standard, regardless of whether Imperial units are used in
3131-423: Is equivalent to a sub contrabass in the range name. Some modern pianos have even more notes (a Bösendorfer 290 "Imperial" has 97 keys, and a Stuart & Sons model has 108 keys ). While modern synthesizer keyboards commonly have either 61, 76 or 88 keys, small MIDI controllers are available with 25 keys (digital systems allow shifting octaves, pitch, and "splitting" ranges dynamically, which, in some cases, reduce
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3232-579: Is often seen as an undesirable phenomenon with an acoustic guitar that is plugged into the PA system , because it causes a loud howling sound. However, with electric guitar , some guitarists in heavy metal music and psychedelic rock purposely create feedback by holding an electric guitar close to a powerful, loud guitar amplifier speaker cabinet , with the distortion turned up loud, creating unique high-pitched, sustained sounds. Jimi Hendrix and Brian May were notable users of electric guitar feedback. For
3333-427: Is six-sided) with the keyboard positioned either to the left ( spinet ) or right ( muselar ) of centre and a single set of strings running parallel to the long side. Spinetten had their plucking point near the end of the string, while muselaars had a plucking point close to the middle of the string; the difference in sound between the two is easily audible. The pitch of the instrument varied according to its size;
3434-531: Is the lowest, and it is determined by the density , length and tension of the string. This is the frequency we identify as the pitch of the string. Above that frequency, overtones (or harmonics) are heard, each one getting quieter the higher it is. For example, if the fundamental pitch is 440 Hz ( A above middle C ), the overtones for an ideal string tuned to that pitch are 880 Hz, 1320 Hz, 1760 Hz, 2200 Hz, etc. The note names for those pitches would be A, A, E, A, C ♯ , etc. Due to
3535-403: Is the same material used for monofilament fishing lines , and a typical chemical used is PVDF . These strings are usually traded under descriptions like fluorocarbon , carbon fiber , or carbon , which is scientifically incorrect. The so-called Carbon material has a higher density than nylon, so that a nylon string can be replaced by a carbon string of smaller diameter. This improves
3636-400: Is usually plain. Depending on the instrument, the string's other, fixed end may have either a plain, loop, or ball end (a short brass cylinder) that attaches the string at the end opposite the tuning mechanism. When a ball or loop is used with a guitar , this ensures that the string stays fixed in the bridge of the guitar. When a ball or loop is used with a violin-family instrument, this keeps
3737-460: Is written for two hands; typically the right hand plays the melody in the treble range, while the left plays an accompaniment of bass notes and chords in the bass range. Examples of music written for the left hand alone include several of Leopold Godowsky 's 53 Studies on Chopin's Etudes , Maurice Ravel 's Piano Concerto for the Left Hand and Sergei Prokofiev 's Piano Concerto No. 4 for
3838-458: The Jankó keyboard and the chromatic keyboard systems on the chromatic button accordion and bandoneón . Simpler electronic keyboards have switches under each key. Depressing a key connects a circuit, which triggers tone generation. Most keyboards use a keyboard matrix circuit , in which 8 rows and 8 columns of wires cross — thus, 16 wires can provide 8 × 8 = 64 crossings, which
3939-538: The Music of Azerbaijan sometimes has keys that can play microtones when a "shift" key is pressed. Strings (music) In music, strings are long flexible structures on string instruments that produce sound through vibration . Strings are held under tension so that they can vibrate freely, but with control. This is to make the string vibrate at the desired pitch , with looser strings producing lower pitches, and tighter strings producing higher pitches. However,
4040-408: The black notes or black keys . Black keys form a pentatonic scale . The entire pattern repeats at the interval of an octave . The arrangement of longer keys for C major with intervening, shorter keys for the intermediate semitones date to the 15th century. Many keyboard instruments dating from before the nineteenth century, such as harpsichords and pipe organs, have a keyboard with the colours of
4141-539: The harmonium , the split occurring at E4 /F4. The reverse-colored keys on Hammond organs such as the B3, C3 and A100 are latch-style radio buttons for selecting pre-set sounds. The chromatic range (also called compass ) of keyboard instruments has tended to increase. Harpsichords often extended over five octaves (>60 keys) in the 18th century, while most pianos manufactured since about 1870 have 88 keys. The lowest pitch (frequency: 27.5 Hz) of an 88-key piano
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4242-400: The white notes or white keys . The keys for the remaining five notes—which are not part of the C major scale—(i.e., C ♯ /D ♭ , D ♯ /E ♭ , F ♯ /G ♭ , G ♯ /A ♭ , A ♯ /B ♭ ) (see Sharp and Flat ) are raised and shorter. Because these keys receive less wear, they are often made of black colored wood and called
4343-404: The "seven and five" system was adopted, in the form of the short octave : the eight aforementioned notes were arranged at the leftmost side of the keyboard, compressed in the keys between E and C (at the time, accidentals that low were very uncommon and thus not needed). During the sixteenth century, when instruments were often tuned in meantone temperament , some harpsichords were constructed with
4444-614: The 17th and 18th centuries, Ruckers instruments were more highly valued than those of any other maker, and the tone was regarded as an ideal in most of Northern Europe. This led to the inevitable production of counterfeits by unscrupulous makers, of which some survive today and have been firmly identified as such, but also an updating and rebuilding of true Ruckers instruments to suit modern tastes. Particularly in Paris, Ruckers harpsichords were extended in range and sometimes completely rebuilt (by makers such as Blanchet , Taskin and Goermans ) in
4545-586: The 1950s. Only purely silk strings used for the guqin are still produced, while some silver-wound silk strings are still available for classical guitars and ukuleles. The quality in ancient times was high enough that one brand was praised as 'ice strings' for their smoothness and translucent appearance. Aluminum , silver , and chrome steel are common windings for bowed instruments like violin and viola, whereas acoustic guitar strings are usually wound with bronze and piano strings are usually wound with copper . To resist corrosion from sweat, aluminium may be used as
4646-407: The G ♯ and E ♭ keys split into two. One portion of the G ♯ key operated a string tuned to G ♯ and the other operated a string tuned to A ♭ , similarly one portion of the E ♭ key operated a string tuned to E ♭ , the other portion operating a string tuned to D ♯ . This type of keyboard layout, known as the enharmonic keyboard , extended
4747-404: The Ruckers family show an angel playing a harp, with the initials of the builder on each side of it; the date was found either on the soundboard or the wrest plank. Ruckers instruments have always been valued for the beauty of their resonant, balanced tone, which they achieved through thoroughly masterful design and excellent craftsmanship, still studied as a model by harpsichord makers today. In
4848-580: The aging process. With additional string coating, they are preserved even more. Although, If some of the coating is applied poorly, the strings can lose their tone in just a matter of hours, and if left in high humidity can turn a hint of green because of the copper and corrode with time. The name "80/20 bronze" is a misnomer since bronze is by definition an alloy of copper and tin . "80/20 bronze" strings would be more correctly referred to as brass . Some acoustic players use strings, wound with nickel-plated-steel, meant for electric guitar. The properties of
4949-429: The air, to help slow the oxidation process. Some common types of metal plating on strings include tin, nickel, gold, and silver. Some metals such as gold and silver give the strings a different sound. Among strings coated with a polymer , (polytetrafluoroethylene) Teflon is the most commonly used. Teflon is resistant to many corrosive agents such as: chlorine, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid . On
5050-656: The archdukes of the Netherlands in Brussels from 1616. His nephew Joannes Couchet joined his workshop around 1627, taking it over after his death. Around 35 of his instruments are in existence today. Andreas Ruckers I (or Andries ) (30 August 1579 – after 1645) was the second son of Hans Ruckers, and likewise became a harpsichord maker based in Antwerp. In 1605 he married; three of his children survived to adulthood. Details of his life are scarce after he sold his share in
5151-417: The boiling water helps free the strings of oil, salt, and grime from the player's hands. When a string is played, very small metal shavings from fret wear may break off and lodge between the windings of the strings. Heating the strings can expand these particles and separate them from the windings. Some players use deionized water to boil strings, believing that mineral deposits in tap water may aid corrosion of
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#17327723721995252-460: The core becomes weak and brittle, and eventually breaks. Furthermore, all gut strings are vulnerable to going out of tune due to changes in atmospheric humidity. However, even after the introduction of metal and synthetic core materials, many musicians still prefer to use gut strings, believing that they provide a superior tone. Players associated with the period performance movement use wound and unwound gut strings as part of an effort to recreate
5353-519: The core of most metal strings. Certain keyboard instruments (e.g., harpsichord) and the Gaelic harp use brass. Other natural materials, such as silk or gut —or synthetics such as nylon and kevlar are also used for string cores. (Steel used for strings, called music wire , is hardened and tempered.) Some violin E ;strings are gold-plated to improve tone quality. Steel or metal strings have become
5454-401: The core so it cannot rotate and slip under the fingers, and it improves tone due to closer bond between the core and the winding. The drawback that hex wound strings strings used to have was that relatively sharp hexagonal corners are less comfortable for fingers and wear down the fingerboard and fret wire even faster than regular round wound strings, but that drawback has been addressed by having
5555-587: The corners slightly rounded to make them more comfortable on the fingers and to protect the fingerboard and frets from scratches. There are 3 types, or shapes, of core wire typically used in wound strings. Hexcore strings are composed of hexagonal core wire and a tight (usually round) winding. Hexcore string design prevents the winding from slipping around the core – which can occur with round core strings. This may improve tuning stability, flexibility, and reduce string breakage, compared to round core strings. Round core strings are composed of regular round core and
5656-429: The diameter, the heavier the string. Heavier strings require more tension for the same pitch and are, as a consequence, harder to press down to the fingerboard . A fretted instrument that is restrung with different string gauges may require adjustment to the string height above the frets (the " action ") to maintain playing ease or keep the strings from buzzing against the frets. The action height of fretless instruments
5757-450: The electric guitar took the metal string to the next level adapting it for the use of pickups. Because of the higher tension of steel strings, steel-strung guitars are more robustly made than 'classical' guitars, which use synthetic strings. Most jazz and folk string players prefer steel-core strings for their faster response, low cost, and tuning stability. Nylon (typically 610 or 612) string, traditionally used for classical music , has
5858-477: The family business to his brother Joannes in 1608. He remained a harpsichord maker, was still alive in September 1645 and may have lived ten years or more after that date. His surviving instruments are dated from 1607 to 1644, and are in collections all over the world. Andreas Ruckers II (or Andries ) (31 March 1607 – before 1667) was the son of Andreas Ruckers I, from whom he learned his craft. A 1638 entry in
5959-485: The family. There may have been another Ruckers maker as yet unidentified: two virginals built in the 17th-century Ruckers tradition have similar roses with the initials 'CR'; they were once thought to have been the work of Christoffel Ruckers, a 16th-century organ player living in Dendermonde , but he is now generally excluded as a possible maker. Existing virginals made by the Ruckers family are rectangular (one
6060-438: The flexibility of the harpsichord, enabling composers to write keyboard music calling for harmonies containing the so-called wolf fifth (G-sharp to E-flat), but without producing aural discomfort in the listeners (see Split sharp ). The "broken octave", a variation of the aforementioned short octave, similarly used split keys to add accidentals left out of the short octave. Other examples of variations in keyboard design include
6161-467: The foundation of strings for the electric guitar and bass. They have a pleasingly bright tone when compared to nylon strung guitars. Their metal composition varies greatly, sometimes using many different alloys as plating. Much of the history of metal strings evolved through innovations with the piano. In fact, the first wound metal strings ever used were used in a piano. However, when it came to getting super small diameter strings with good elastic properties,
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#17327723721996262-665: The front of the keyboard. In the larger gaps between the black keys, the width of the natural notes C, D and E differ slightly from the width of keys F, G, A and B. This allows close to uniform spacing of 12 keys per octave while maintaining uniformity of seven "natural" keys per octave. Over the last three hundred years, the octave span distance found on historical keyboard instruments (organs, virginals , clavichords , harpsichords , and pianos ) has ranged from as little as 125 mm (4.9 in) to as much as 170 mm (6.7 in). Modern piano keyboards ordinarily have an octave span of 164–165 mm (6.46–6.50 in), resulting in
6363-489: The harpsichord's plectrum mechanism does not perceptibly vary the volume of the note with different touch on the keyboard. The pipe organ 's volume and timbre are controlled by the flow of air from the bellows and the stops preselected by the player. Players of these instruments therefore use different techniques to color the sound. An arranger keyboard may be preset to produce any of a range of voices as well as percussion and other accompaniments that respond to chords played by
6464-403: The interval of an octave . Pressing a key on the keyboard makes the instrument produce sounds—either by mechanically striking a string or tine ( acoustic and electric piano , clavichord ), plucking a string ( harpsichord ), causing air to flow through a pipe organ , striking a bell ( carillon ), or activating an electronic circuit ( synthesizer , digital piano , electronic keyboard ). Since
6565-424: The keyboard controller scans to determine which key was pressed. The problem with this system is that it provides only a crude binary on/off signal for each key. Better electronic keyboards employ two sets of slightly offset switches for each key. By determining the timing between the activation of the first and second switches, the velocity of a key press can be determined, greatly improving the performance dynamic of
6666-540: The keys reversed: the white notes are made of ebony and the black notes are covered with softer white bone. A few electric and electronic instruments from the 1960s and subsequent decades have also done this; Vox's electronic organs of the 1960s, Farfisa's FAST portable organs, Hohner's Clavinet L, one version of the Korg Poly-800 synthesizer and Roland's digital harpsichords. Some 1960s electronic organs used reverse colors or gray sharps or naturals to indicate
6767-487: The keywell and around the inside of the case above the soundboard . Large Latin mottoes were printed similarly on a wood-grained paper on the inside of the lid. Alternatively, the lid was painted by artists such as Rubens and Brueghel . The exterior was painted in imitation of marble or huge jewels held by iron strapwork . The rose in the soundboard is surrounded by a painted wreath of flowers and other flora and fauna in tempera . The roses used by all members of
6868-408: The lack of corrosion resistance. To help solve the corrosion problem strings are either metal plated or polymer coated. The polymer coating is claimed to reduce finger squeak and fret wear, and has better tuning capability. Some companies sell lubricating oils that slow down the oxidation process, increasing the string's life-span. These special lubricating oils are applied to the strings as a barrier to
6969-418: The largest sounded at the standard pitch of the time, something like a'=415 Hz , while smaller virginals were pitched a tone, 4th, 5th, 8ve or a 9th higher. Some virginals were built as double instrument, with a normal-pitch instrument combined with one pitched an octave higher; this was known as 'the mother with the child', marked 'M' ( Moeder ) and 'k' ( kind ) as the smaller instrument was normally stored in
7070-421: The left hand . In music that uses counterpoint technique, both hands play different melodies at the same time. A number of percussion instruments—such as the xylophone , marimba , vibraphone , or glockenspiel — have pitched elements arranged in the keyboard layout. Rather than pressing a key, the performer typically strikes each element (e.g., a metal or wood bar) with a mallet . There are some examples of
7171-889: The left hand. Even though the keyboard layout is simple and all notes are easily accessible, playing requires skill. A proficient player has undertaken much training to play accurately and in tempo . Beginners seldom produce a passable rendition of even a simple piece due to lack of technique . The sequences of movements of the player's hands can be very complicated. Problems include wide-spanned chords , which can be difficult for people with small hands, chords requiring unusual hand positions that can initially be uncomfortable, and fast scales , trills and arpeggios . Playing instruments with velocity sensitive (or dynamic ) keyboards (i.e., that respond to varying playing velocity) may require finger independence, so that some fingers play "harder" while others play more softly. Pianists call this control of touch velocity voicing (not to be confused with
7272-496: The longitude and transverse force amplitudes are nearly equal. Tuning a stringed instrument such as a guitar to pitch puts the strings under a large amount of strain, which indicates the amount of stress inside the string. Stress is relative to the stretch or elongation of the strings. As the string is tuned to a higher pitch, it gets longer and thinner. The instrument can go out of tune because if it has been stretched past its elastic limit, it will not recover its original tension. On
7373-511: The lower part (or parts) of a single keyboard divided into two parts, each controlling a different registration or sound. Such keyboards accommodate melody and contrasting accompaniment without the expense of a second manual , and were a regular feature in Spanish and some English organs of the renaissance and baroque eras. The break was between middle C and C-sharp , or outside of Iberia between B and C. Broken keyboards reappeared in 1842 with
7474-440: The magnetic field of the pickups to produce a signal. Currently, stranded nylon is one of the most popular materials for the cores of violin, viola, cello, and double bass strings. It is often sold under the trade name of Perlon . Nylon guitar strings were first developed by Albert Augustine Strings in 1947. The intestine , or gut, of sheep, cattle, and other animals (sometimes called catgut , though cats were never used as
7575-741: The main reasons for this. Bass guitar strings are sometimes made for a particular scale length and come in short, medium, long and extra long (sometimes called super long) scale. Almost all bass guitar strings are made wound. Typical bass guitar strings come in the following gauges: Since the 20th century, with the advent of steel and synthetic core strings, most bowed instrument string makers market their strings by tension rather than by diameter. They typically make string sets in three tension levels: heavy , medium , and light (German stark , mittel , and weich ). These tension levels are not standardized between manufacturers, and do not correlate to specific diameters. One brand's medium strings may have quite
7676-478: The major harpsichord-making traditions of England, France, Germany, Flanders and Scandinavia by the mid-18th century. Keyboard (music) A musical keyboard is the set of adjacent depressible levers or keys on a musical instrument . Keyboards typically contain keys for playing the twelve notes of the Western musical scale , with a combination of larger, longer keys and smaller, shorter keys that repeats at
7777-507: The microscopic level Teflon has very tightly packed polymeric chains, and these tightly packed chains create a slippery surface that not only helps keep the oil from the player's hands off the strings but makes them smooth to play as well. Ethylene tetrafluorothylene (ETFE) is another polymer that is sometimes used to coat strings. It is abrasion and cut resistant and has many characteristics similar to Teflon. Some musicians boil guitar or bass strings to rejuvenate them. The high temperature of
7878-441: The most commonly encountered keyboard instrument is the piano , the keyboard layout is often referred to as the piano keyboard or simply piano keys . The twelve notes of the Western musical scale are laid out with the lowest note on the left. The longer keys (for the seven "natural" notes of the C major scale : C, D, E, F, G, A, B) jut forward. Because these keys were traditionally covered in ivory they are often called
7979-510: The need for dedicated keys. However, smaller keyboards will typically limit which musical scores can be played). Organs normally have 61 keys per manual, though some spinet models have 44 or 49. An organ pedalboard is a keyboard with long pedals played by the organist's feet. Pedalboards vary in size from 12 to 32 notes or 42 on a touring organ used by Cameron Carpenter. In a typical keyboard layout, black note keys have uniform width, and white note keys have uniform width and uniform spacing at
8080-422: The nickel-plated strings make it a good choice for flattop guitars with sound hole-mounted magnetic pickups. All metal strings are susceptible to oxidation and corrosion . Wound strings commonly use metals such as brass or bronze in their winding. These two metals are very vulnerable to corrosion. The sebaceous gland in the player's skin produces oils that can be acidic. The oils, salts, and moisture from
8181-473: The notes used in Gregorian chant (the seven diatonic notes plus B-flat) and as such would often include B ♭ and B ♮ both as diatonic "white notes", with the B ♮ at the leftmost side of the keyboard and the B ♭ at the rightmost. Thus, an octave would have eight "white keys" and only four "black keys". The emphasis on these eight notes would continue for a few centuries after
8282-406: The other hand, flatwound strings sound less bright than roundwounds and tend to be harder to bend, thus produce vibrato . Flatwounds also are more expensive than roundwounds because of less demand, less production, and higher overhead costs. Manufacturing is also more difficult, as precise alignment of the flat sides of the winding must be maintained (some rotation of the winding on roundwound strings
8383-426: The physical nature of the strings, however, the higher up the overtones go, the more out of tune (or "false") they are to the fundamental. This is an important consideration for piano tuners , who try to stretch the tuning across the piano to keep overtones more in tune as they go up the keyboard. In a phenomenon called sympathetic vibration , a string seems to vibrate by itself. This happens when sound waves strike
8484-442: The player presses a keyboard , causing a mechanism to strike the strings, such as a piano , this enabled piano builders to use shorter, thicker strings to produce the lowest-pitched bass notes, enabling the building of smaller upright pianos designed for small rooms and practice rooms. The end of the string that mounts to the instrument's tuning mechanism (the part of the instrument that turns to tighten or loosen string tension)
8585-490: The player's fingers are the largest source of corrosion. The composition of the oil and the oxygen in the air also helps to oxidize and corrode the strings. In steel strings the oxygen reacts with the iron in the steel and it creates rust. As a result, the string loses its brilliance over time. Water, another by-product of oxidation, increases the potential for acid corrosion in oils. Wound strings, such as bronze acoustic strings, are very difficult to keep fresh sounding due to
8686-564: The precision of higher fretted notes, and the resulting vibrational behaviour leads to a more brilliant sound with improved harmonics . In particular, classical guitarists who feel that a nylon G string sounds too dull can use strings that include a carbon G string. Other polymers, including polyetheretherketone and polybutylene terephthalate , have also been used. Silk was extensively used in China for traditional Chinese musical instruments until replaced by metal and nylon strings in
8787-455: The records of the Guild of St Luke that reads, "Rickart, claversingelmaker, wijnmeester" may refer to him. He married Joanna Hechts that year; they had six children, and she died of the plague in 1653. Seven of his instruments, built in the 1640s and 1650s, are known to exist in collections around the world. He was the last of the Ruckers family under that name. See Couchet for another branch of
8888-430: The simplest and most basic wound strings, they have round wire wrapped in a tight spiral around either a round or hexagonal core. Such strings are usually simple to manufacture, are the least expensive, and are convenient. Despite these advantages, they have several drawbacks, however: Flatwound strings are strings that have either a round or hex core, and have winding wire that has a rounded square cross-section that has
8989-511: The sound of music of the Classical, Baroque, and Renaissance periods, as listeners would have heard it at the time of composition. For players of plucked instruments, Nylgut strings are a recently developed alternative to gut strings. They are made from a specialty nylon and purport to offer the same acoustic properties as gut strings without the tuning problems. Fluoropolymer strings are available for classical guitar, harp, and ukulele. This
9090-445: The string at a frequency close to the string's fundamental pitch or one of its overtones . When an outside source applies forced vibration that matches a string's natural frequency, the string vibrates. Resonance can cause audio feedback . For example, in a setup with an acoustic guitar and a PA system, the speaker vibrates at the same natural frequency of a string on the guitar and can force it into vibrational motion. Audio feedback
9191-414: The string core. After boiling, strings may have less elasticity and be more brittle, depending on the quality of the alloys involved. Putting the strings through a cycle in the dishwasher has also been known to work. A string vibrates in a complex harmonic pattern. Every time the player sets a string in motion, a specific set of frequencies resonate based on the harmonic series . The fundamental frequency
9292-407: The string end fixed in the tailpiece . Fender Bullet strings have a larger cylinder for more stable tuning on guitars equipped with synchronized tremolo systems. Strings for some instruments may be wrapped with silk at the ends to protect the string. The color and pattern of the silk often identify attributes of the string, such as manufacturer, size, intended pitch, etc. Roundwound strings are
9393-419: The sweat of a musician's hands can cause plain (unwound) gut strings to fray and eventually break. This is not as much of a problem with wound gut strings, in which the gut core, being protected from contact with perspiration by the metal winding (and underlayer, if there is one), lasts a much longer time. Nonetheless, as such a gut string ages and continually responds to cyclic changes in temperature and humidity,
9494-567: The two alternative DS6.0 and DS5.5 sizes through an agreement with the DS Standard Foundation. Since 2013, a global network of pianists, teachers and performing arts health professionals has been increasingly advocating for change to the 'one size fits all' approach to piano keyboard manufacturing by major companies. This network is known as PASK ( Pianists for Alternatively Sized Keyboards ). U.S. pianist Hannah Reimann has promoted piano keyboards with narrower octave spans and has
9595-437: The violin or cello, are usually described by tension rather than gauge. Fretted instruments (guitar, banjo, etc.) strings are usually described by gauge —the diameter of the string. The tone of a string depends partly on weight, and, therefore, on its diameter—its gauge. Usually, string manufacturers that do not describe strings by tension list string diameter in thousandths of an inch (0.001 in = 0.0254 mm). The larger
9696-416: The width of black keys averaging 13.7 mm (0.54 in) and white keys about 23.5 mm (0.93 in) at the base, disregarding space between keys. In recent years, there has been evidence of a correlation between pianists with smaller hand spans and hand or arm injuries. Several reduced-size standards have been proposed for these pianists. A 7/8 size (140 mm (5.5 in) octave span) keyboard
9797-453: Was a Catholic and had 11 children, two of whom became harpsichord makers, and his daughter Catharina (to whom harpsichord maker Willem Gompaerts (c.1534 – after 1600) was godfather) married into the instrument-making Couchet family, ensuring a strong continuation of both dynasties; his son Joannes continued in the family craft. Hans Ruckers became a member of the Guild of St Luke in 1579, and
9898-513: Was developed by Canadian Christopher Donison in the 1970s. This size, along with the 15/16 size (152 mm (6.0 in) octave span) and a smaller size (130 mm (5.1 in) octave span) have since been developed and marketed by Steinbuhler & Company in Pennsylvania. These three sizes are registered as DS6.0, DS5.5 and DS5.1. The company was converted to the non-profit DS Standard Foundation in 2018. Hailun USA manufactures pianos in
9999-462: Was from Weissenburg , according to documents from 1530 in the Antwerp city archives, and the similarly named Arnold Rucker was a German organ builder in the city in 1520. Hans Ruckers (1540s–1598) was born in Mechelen . In 1575 he married Adriana Cnaeps; harpsichord maker Marten van der Biest was a witness at the wedding, though it is not known what their working relationship was. Hans Ruckers
10100-420: Was introduced by D'Addario in the early 1970s. Phosphor bronze is said to keep its "new" sound longer than other strings. Small amounts of phosphorus and zinc are added to the bronze mixture. This makes the phosphor bronze slightly more corrosion resistant than 80/20 bronze. 80/20 bronze strings are 80 percent copper and 20 percent zinc. The zinc also gives it a brighter tone, additional hardness and slows down
10201-434: Was the first son of Hans Ruckers, and also became a harpsichord and organ maker. He lived his life in Antwerp. He and brother Andreas became partners in their father's business upon his death, Joannes becoming sole owner in 1608. He joined the Guild of St Luke in 1611; his entry reads 'Hans Rukers, sone, claversigmaker'; following this he engraved 'IR' into the rose of his instruments, rather than his father's 'HR'. He worked for
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