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69-609: The format of group adult learning such as that in a Baháʼí study circle, the normal setting of a Ruhi Institute meeting, has occurred in previous contexts, such as in the United States Chautauqua developments in the 1870s, using "ideals of democracy, participation, and equality." Moreover, the Baháʼí community has used the term "institute" in various ways over time. A 1927 report in Baháʼí News refers to an "institute",

138-642: A Guaymí cultural center in Panama , a regional socio-economic development committee of Kivu, Zaire , and the specific original development of the Baháʼí Ruhi Institute in Colombia : "They demonstrate the importance of evolutionary guiding images, of the conceptual support of actions, evolutionary competence, the contribution of second-order actions and the purposeful design of the system of interactive dimensions that operate on individual and societal levels to

207-576: A "culture of learning" among its participants. By 2012 the Ruhiresources.org web site—operated by volunteers who are Ruhi tutors—allowed Ruhi tutor-created materials to be freely shared. The goal of the Ruhi Institute courses is to "evoke a transformative learning experience through a learner-centered, experiential, and collaborative approach facilitated by a tutor rather than an instructor, a teacher, or an expert." Academics have identified

276-475: A "humble posture of learning, dedication to the application of the teachings, a responsibility for one's own personal growth, and growth of the Baháʼí community." The progress of individuals in learning virtues like humility, patience and tact advanced amidst a feeling of empowerment. A kind of citizenship. The materials prepared by the Ruhi Institute focus on the Baháʼí writings by assisting participants to understand

345-866: A balanced program for the members of the assembly. For example, during the 1936 season at the Chautauqua Institution , in anticipation of that year's presidential election, visitors heard addresses by Franklin D. Roosevelt , Republican nominee Alf Landon , and two third-party candidates. A route taken by a troupe of Chautauqua entertainers, the May Valentine Opera Company, which presented Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Mikado during its 1925 "Summer Season", began on March 26 in Abbeville, Louisiana , and ended on September 6 in Sidney, Montana . The Chautauqua style of teaching

414-561: A big part of the Chautauqua experience. Although the movement was founded by Methodists , nondenominationalism was a Chautauqua principle from the beginning, and prominent Catholics like Catherine Doherty took part. In 1892, Lutheran theologian Theodore Emanuel Schmauk was one of the organizers of the Pennsylvania Chautauqua. Early religious expression in Chautauqua was usually of a general nature, comparable to

483-442: A great success in their adaptation of the concept. The program was presented in tents pitched "on a well-drained field near town". After several days, the Chautauqua would fold its tents and move on. The method of organizing a series of touring Chautauquas is attributed to Vawter. Among early Redpath comedians was Boob Brasfield . Reactions to tent Chautauquas were mixed. In We Called it Culture , Victoria and Robert Case write of

552-415: A legally independent non-profit organisation. Ruhi courses appeared in a wide range of study circles in various other countries. Early participants provided feedback to the authors and then over several years the first official release of books took place. As a result, materials include examples from several cultures which helps diverse participants relate to some of the cultural content of the materials. Since

621-661: A part of the Chautauqua experience in 1926, when the American Opera Company , an outgrowth of the Eastman School of Music , began touring the country. Under the direction of Russian tenor Vladimir Rosing , the AOC presented five operas in one week at the Chautauqua Amphitheater. By 1929, a permanent Chautauqua Opera company had been established. Chautauquas can be viewed in the context of

690-399: A railroad junction. "You're cheapening Chautauqua, breaking it down, replacing it with something what [ sic ] will have neither dignity nor permanence." In Vawter's scheme, each performer or group appeared on a particular day of the program. "First-day" talent would move on to other Chautauquas, followed by the "second-day" performers, and so on, throughout the touring season. By

759-624: A result of the Ruhi Institute. The Ruhi formula resulted in "nonhierarchical, self-initiated, self-organized small groups engaged in study, teaching, and action", which is transforming the broader Baháʼí culture to one of small group community building among natural networks of family and friends, a format that is politically viable in China and adaptable to space limits in Hong Kong. A published case study compared developments in three instances of Baháʼís fostering development among indigenous cultures -

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828-611: A series of courses. Over a 6-month period, the study started with participants in the Midwestern United States and in a later phase was expanded to areas in Canada, Iran, Ethiopia, South Korea, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. Mortensen included recommendations in his thesis. and hoped his results would be considered in adjusting the courses. He found a significant minority of participants took the course based on

897-519: A short distance outside an established town with good rail service . At the Chautauqua movement's height in the 1920s, several hundred of these existed, but their numbers have since dwindled. "Circuit Chautauquas" (or colloquially, "Tent Chautauquas") were an itinerant manifestation of the Chautauqua movement founded by Keith Vawter (a Redpath Lyceum Bureau manager) and Roy Ellison in 1904. Vawter and Ellison were unsuccessful in their initial attempts to commercialize Chautauqua, but by 1907 they had found

966-513: A similar manner. The educational summer camp format proved popular for families and was widely copied by several Chautauquas. Within a decade, "Chautauqua assemblies" (or simply "Chautauquas"), named for the location in New York, sprang up in various North American locations. The Chautauqua movement beginning in the 1870s may be regarded as a successor to the Lyceum movement from the 1840s. As

1035-482: A systemic, global world-view"; "ensuring the right to learn and the right to know"; "nurturing the development of diversity"; "providing the competencies to make interdependence a social reality"; (and) "providing for social and cultural evolution." Any group that goes through a course would be encouraged to pursue a service project as a means of putting their learning into action Such projects typtically comprise organizing devotional meetings, developing skills in raising

1104-583: Is a recurring motif in Robert M. Pirsig 's Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance . The Trouble with Girls , a 1969 film starring Elvis Presley, was based on the 1960 novel Chautauqua by Day Keene and Dwight Vincent Babcock. Praxeology In philosophy , praxeology or praxiology ( / ˌ p r æ k s i ˈ ɒ l ə dʒ i / ; from Ancient Greek πρᾶξις (praxis)  'deed, action' and -λογία (-logia)  'study of')

1173-479: Is an adult education and social movement in the United States that peaked in popularity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Chautauqua assemblies expanded and spread throughout rural America until the mid-1920s. The Chautauqua brought entertainment and culture for the whole community, with speakers, teachers, musicians, showmen, preachers, and specialists of the day. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt

1242-461: Is insufficient to describe economics; that consequently empirical data cannot falsify economic theory; that logical positivism cannot predict or explain human action; and that the methodological requirements of logical positivism are impossible to obtain for economic questions. Ludwig von Mises in particular argued against empiricist approaches to the social sciences in general, because human events are unique and non-repeatable, whereas experiments in

1311-402: Is not a position of authority but a service to the community - an explicit factor in training of tutors, seeking to foster “beautiful behaviors” to function as "friends teaching friends". The course "applies the concept of 'being and doing' and incorporates 'action and reflection' as a key learning strategy." Priorities folded into the process of the courses and their refinement include "Projecting

1380-676: Is often quoted as saying that Chautauqua is "the most American thing in America". What he actually said was: "it is a source of positive strength and refreshment of mind and body to come to meet a typical American gathering like this—a gathering that is typically American in that it is typical of America at its best." Several Chautauqua assemblies continue to gather to this day, including the original Chautauqua Institution in Chautauqua, New York . In 1874, Methodist Episcopal minister John Heyl Vincent and businessman Lewis Miller organized

1449-670: Is privately owned but affiliated with the United Methodist Church . In contrast, the Colorado Chautauqua is entirely nondenominational and mostly secular. In the 1890s, both Chautauqua and vaudeville were gaining popularity and establishing themselves as important forms of entertainment. While Chautauqua had its roots in Sunday school and valued morality and education highly, vaudeville grew out of minstrel shows , variety acts , and crude humor , and so

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1518-536: Is the theory of human action , based on the notion that humans engage in purposeful behavior, contrary to reflexive behavior and other unintentional behavior. French social philosopher Alfred Espinas gave the term its modern meaning, and praxeology was developed independently by two principal groups: the Austrian school , led by Ludwig von Mises , and the Polish school, led by Tadeusz Kotarbiński . Coinage of

1587-651: The New York Chautauqua Assembly at a campsite on the shores of Chautauqua Lake in the state of New York . Two years earlier, Vincent, editor of the Sunday School Journal , had begun to train Sunday school teachers in an outdoor summer school format. The gatherings grew in popularity. The organization Vincent and Miller founded later became known as the Chautauqua Institution . Many other independent Chautauquas were developed in

1656-684: The Second International Congress of History of Science and Technology in London (in 1931), and Polish scholar Oscar Lange (1904–1965) in 1959, and later. The Sicilian philosopher Carmelo Ottaviano was using the Italianised version, prassiologia , in his treatises starting from 1935, but in his own way, as a theory of politics. After the Second World War the use of the term praxeology spread widely. After

1725-426: The action axiom as the starting point, it is possible to draw conclusions about human behavior that are both objective and universal. For example, the notion that humans engage in acts of choice implies that they have preferences, and this must be true for anyone who exhibits intentional behavior. Advocates of praxeology also say that it provides insights for the field of ethics. In 1951, Murray Rothbard divided

1794-537: The subjective theory of value . Philosopher of science Mario Bunge published works of systematic philosophy that included contributions to praxeology. Austrian economics in the tradition of Ludwig von Mises relies heavily on praxeology in the development of its economic theories. Mises considered economics to be a sub-discipline of praxeology. Austrian School economists, following Mises, use praxeology and deduction, rather than empirical studies, to determine economic principles. According to these theorists, with

1863-470: The "Institute of World Unity" held at Green Acre. A 1935 letter of Leroy Ioas noted a reason to promote small group meetings, "firesides", as a central method to promote the religion was to overcome the community's relative introversion that he believed came from thinking that only special Baháʼís could "teach". A 1950 reference to "Conference Institutes" was reported at the US Baháʼí national convention. There

1932-567: The Chautauqua included groups like the Jubilee Singers , who sang a mix of spirituals and popular tunes, and singers and instrumental groups like American Quartette , who played popular music, ballads, and songs from the "old country". Entertainers on the Chautauqua circuit such as Charles Ross Taggart , billed as "The Man From Vermont" and "The Old Country Fiddler", played violin, sang, performed ventriloquism and comedy, and told tall tales about life in rural New England . Opera became

2001-453: The Chautauqua program. Contemporary publications regarded the magazine highly, and Mott writes, "its range of topics was indeed remarkable, and its list of contributors impressive". Flood stopped editing the magazine in 1899, and journalist Frank Chapin Bay, schooled by Chautauqua, took over; the magazine became less a general magazine and more the official organ of the organization. Lectures were

2070-726: The Chautauquas began to compete for the best performers and lecturers, lyceum bureaus assisted with bookings. Today, Lakeside Chautauqua and the Chautauqua Institution, the two largest Chautauquas, still draw thousands each summer season. Independent Chautauquas (or "daughter Chautauquas") operated at permanent facilities, usually fashioned after the Chautauqua Institute in New York, or at rented venues such as in an amusement park . Such Chautauquas were generally built in an attractive semirural location

2139-590: The Faith has remained elusive. Although membership in the religion has been growing, not everyone has actively participated in social activities. Researchers have reviewed the limitations of traditional pedagogies in the West, but some contend similar problems exist world-wide. Since 2008, various academics have reviewed the Ruhi program. In the words of one researcher it is "…becoming the core of Baháʼí community life worldwide as

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2208-666: The Ruhi Foundation (named after Farzam Arbab 's father) evolved as part of a wider process of community building among the Baháʼís in Colombia centered first in the town of Puerto Tejada, near Cali in the department of Cauca . The Ruhi Institute eventually fell under the guidance of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼí Faith in Colombia . Since 1992 it has been registered as the “Ruhí Foundation,”

2277-437: The activities essential to man” and "the education of all members of society." Arbab , Correa, and de Valcarcel first established FUNDAEC in Colombia to express such goals in a new curriculum in the 1970s. A key component of their work was founded on the basic tenet that the essence of humankind is spiritual and that helping individuals acquire spiritual attributes would lead to the advancement of civilization. From these roots

2346-401: The design of human systems.… (by those) who are so often considered marginal, irrelevant, and ignorant of the challenges of an interdependent world society." The reviewers saw two implications - "The motivating force which empowered participants, provided a vision, and nurtured evolutionary competence was in every case a powerfully felt commitment to Baháʼí religious beliefs" and each of the three

2415-583: The emigration of Mises to the US his pupil Murray Rothbard defended the praxeological approach. A revival of Espinas's approach in France was revealed in the works of Pierre Massé (1946), the cybernetician, Georges Théodule Guilbaud (1953), the Belgian logician, Leo Apostel (1957), the cybernetician, Anatol Rapoport (1962), Henry Pierron, psychologist and lexicographer (1957), François Perroux , economist (1957),

2484-429: The end of the decade, the magazine was printing articles by well-known authors of the day ( John Pentland Mahaffy , John Burroughs , Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen ), and serial educational material (including courses by William Torrey Harris and Arthur Gilman ). Strongly allied with the main organization, it had easy access to popular authors ("the big fish in the intellectual sea", according to Frank Luther Mott ), but Flood

2553-460: The history of the one-person show." On a lighter note, author Opie Read's stories and homespun philosophy endeared him to audiences. Other well-known speakers and lecturers at Chautauqua events of various forms included U.S. Representative Champ Clark , Missouri Governor Herbert S. Hadley , and Wisconsin Governor "Fighting Bob" La Follette . Christian instruction, preaching, and worship were

2622-566: The late 1990s the Ruhi institute process has developed as an additional way to advance communities. The current head of the religion, the Universal House of Justice , has noted the progress of the work since the early 2000s. They mentioned that “the great majority of National Spiritual Assemblies have chosen to adopt the course materials devised by the Ruhi Institute.” Especially in recent years, its training programs have been adopted by an increasing number of localities worldwide, promoting

2691-612: The later Moral Re-Armament movement. In the first half of the 20th century, fundamentalism was the subject of an increasing number of Chautauqua sermons and lectures. But the great number of Chautauquas, as well as the absence of any central authority over them, meant that religious patterns varied greatly among them. Some were so religiously oriented that they were essentially church camps , while more secular Chautauquas resembled summer school and competed with vaudeville in theaters and circus tent shows with their animal acts and trapeze acrobats. One example, Lakeside Chautauqua ,

2760-407: The main subject, has always presented the greatest interest. Physiology, hygiene, medicine, psychology, animal history, human history, political economy, morality, etc. represent fragments of a science that we would like to establish, but as fragments scattered and uncoordinated have remained until now only parts of particular sciences. They should be joined together and made whole in order to highlight

2829-399: The mainstay of the Chautauqua. Until 1917, they dominated the circuit Chautauqua programs. The reform speech and the inspirational talk were the two main types of lecture until 1913. Later topics included current events, travel, and stories, often with a comedic twist. The most prolific speaker (often booked in the same venues with three-time presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan )

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2898-527: The mandate of the Universal House of Justice and small number were not Baháʼís and came as a result of being personally invited by friends or family. A majority liked that the curriculum was built around social or group learning, having a chance to learn from other people as well as bring their own experience to the study circle, and appreciated the natural laughter that arose. All the non-Baháʼís interviewed went on to take additional Ruhi classes, none of

2967-562: The materials for a special vocabulary edited by Professor Tadeusz Pszczolowski, the leading praxeologist of the younger generation. A sweeping survey of the praxeological approach is to be found in the paper by the French statistician Micheline Petruszewycz, "A propos de la praxéologie". Ludwig von Mises was influenced by several theories in forming his work on praxeology, including Immanuel Kant 's works, Max Weber 's work on methodological individualism , and Carl Menger 's development of

3036-603: The mid-1920s, when circuit Chautauquas were at their peak, they appeared in over 10,000 communities to audiences of more than 45 million; by about 1940 they had run their course. The Chautauquan was a magazine founded in 1880 by Theodore L. Flood. First printed in Jamestown, New York , the magazine soon found a home in Meadville, Pennsylvania , where Flood bought a printing shop. It printed articles about Christian history, Sunday school lessons, and lectures from Chautauqua. By

3105-501: The needs of the thousands who began entering the religion in areas where large-scale expansion was taking place. Such places needed a physical facility to which group after group of newly enrolled believers would be invited to attend courses that helped them deepen their knowledge of the principles of the Faith. Over the years, both in conjunction with and independent of these institutes, various courses —e.g., weekend institutes, five-day institutes, and nine-day institutes — were developed for

3174-480: The new itinerant Chautauqua: The credit–or blame–for devising the Frankenstein mechanism which was both to exalt and to destroy Chautauqua, the tent circuit, must be given to two youths of similar temperament, imagination, and a common purpose. That purpose, bluntly, was to "make a million". Frank Gunsaulus attacked Vawter: "You're ruining a splendid movement," Gunsaulus roared at Keith Vawter, whom he met at

3243-408: The order of the whole and its unity. Now you have a science, so far unnamed, which we propose to call Praxeology (from πραξις, action), or by referring to the influence of the environment, Mesology (from μεσος, environment). However, the term was used at least once previously (with a slight spelling difference), in 1608, by Clemens Timpler in his Philosophiae practicae systema methodicum : There

3312-486: The outcome of a process that has sought to nurture the spiritual life of individuals and families and to establish social foundations for the vision and practice of religious world citizenship." Academic studies have measured different aspects of Ruhi. One doctoral thesis examined the Ruhi courses using a combination of academic approaches to reflective and critical learning, experiential learning, and moral/ethical contexts. Mortensen interviewed participants before and after

3381-497: The participants voiced disappointment or dissatisfaction with the Ruhi method of education itself; the majority underscored what was to them the unusual component that much of the work and learning of a study course was done in a community setting. In another review, workers in adult education "found harmony between the concepts developed in the Ruhi Institute and adult education principles." A review in China and neighboring communities investigated practices of "religious citizenship" as

3450-446: The physical sciences are necessarily reproducible. However, economist Antony Davies argues that because statistical tests are predicated on the independent development of theory, some form of praxeology is essential for model selection; conversely, praxeology can illustrate surprising philosophical consequences of economic models. Argentine-Canadian philosopher Mario Bunge dismissed von Mises's version of praxeology as "nothing but

3519-539: The populist ferment of the late 19th century. Manifestos such as the " Populist Party Platform" voiced disdain for political corruption and championed the plight of the common people in the face of the rich and powerful. Other favorite political reform topics in Chautauqua lectures included temperance (even prohibition ), women's suffrage , and child labor laws . But the Chautauqua movement usually avoided taking political stands as such, instead inviting public officials of all major political parties to lecture, assuring

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3588-742: The practice as an instance of praxeology . The tutor roles "refer to functions we perform at a given time and not to positions we (sic) hold in the community.'" Indeed Ruhi restructures societal norms, roles, and goals of education "…to re-vision societal images and systems of education as part of the design of new systems of learning and human development that are consonant with the emerging global world-view." The courses are designed to be run with organically developed groups of learners, using "critical reflection, interactive thinking, activities designed to transform theory into practical action". Tutors who facilitate courses are to reflect on their motives and encouraged to perform their role as virtuous service. Tutoring

3657-448: The purpose of promulgating the fundamental verities of the religion. Growth of the religion into viable communities has presented challenges to Baháʼí institutions. Baháʼí leadership envisioned a holistic process of education reflecting on "civilization and progress – that is to say, government, administration, charitable works, trades, arts and handicrafts, sciences, great inventions and discoveries and elaborate institutions, which are

3726-438: The quality of discourses on social concerns, and becoming a teacher of children. Community service is framed by the contexts the individuals bring to the group and their sense of purpose about it - and through several courses the suggested projects grow in complexity. Some have grown into their own local NGOs. The transcending goal is spiritual and moral empowerment to serve the society and the Faith by cultivating attributes such as

3795-478: The science of efficient action. The Austrian school of economics was based on a philosophical science of the same kind. With a different spelling, the word was used by the English psychologist Charles Arthur Mercier (in 1911), and proposed by Knight Dunlap to John B. Watson as a better name for his behaviorism , but Watson rejected it. The Chinese physiologist of behavior Zing-Yang Kuo (b. 1898) adopted

3864-713: The social psychologist, Robert Daval (1963), the well-known sociologist, Raymond Aron (1963) and the methodologists, Abraham Antoine Moles and Roland Caude (1965). Under the influence of Tadeusz Kotarbiński , praxeology flourished in Poland. A special "Centre of Praxeology" ( Zaklad Prakseologiczny ) was created under the organizational guidance of the Polish Academy of Sciences, with its own periodical (from 1962), called at first Materiały Prakseologiczne ( Praxeological Papers ), and then abbreviated to Prakseologia . It published hundreds of papers by different authors, and

3933-455: The subfields of praxeology as follows: At the time, topics C, D, and E were regarded by Rothbard as open research problems. Thomas Mayer has argued that, because praxeology rejects positivism and empiricism in the development of theories , it constitutes nothing less than a rejection of the scientific method . For Mayer, this invalidates the methodologies of the Austrian school of economics . Austrians argue that empirical data itself

4002-438: The term around 1935. It was also used by William McDougall (in 1928 and later). Previously the word praxiology , with the meaning Espinas gave to it, was used by Tadeusz Kotarbiński (in 1923). The Ukrainian economist Eugene Slutsky (1926) used it in his attempt to base economics on a theory of action. It was also used by Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises (1933), Russian Marxist Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938) during

4071-428: The texts on three different levels. The first level is that of basic comprehension — understanding the meanings of the words and sentences. The second level relates to the application of the texts to various real-world situations. Finally, the third level deals with the implications of the various quotations on other aspects of Baháʼí belief and action. The goal of a universal sense of active and observable citizenship in

4140-466: The turn of the 20th century, vaudeville managers began a push for more "refinement", as well as a loosening of Victorian-era morals from the Chautauqua side. Over time, as vaudeville became more respectable, Chautauqua became more permissive in what it considered acceptable acts. The boundaries between the two began to blur. Music was important to Chautauqua, with band music in particular demand. John Philip Sousa protégé Bohumir Kryl 's Bohemian Band

4209-429: The two movements found themselves at odds. Chautauqua was considered wholesome family entertainment and appealed to middle classes and people who considered themselves respectable or aspired to respectability. Vaudeville, on the other hand, was widely considered vulgar babbitry , and appealed to working-class men. There was a stark distinction between the two, and they generally did not share performers or audiences. At

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4278-448: The word praxeology ( praxéologie ) is often credited to Louis Bourdeau, the French author of a classification of the sciences, which he published in his Théorie des sciences: Plan de Science intégrale in 1882: On account of their dual natures of specialty and generality, these functions should be the subject of a separate science. Some of its parts have been studied for a long time, because this kind of research, in which man could be

4347-624: Was Russell Conwell , who delivered his famous " Acres of Diamonds " speech 5,000 times to audiences on the Chautauqua and Lyceum circuits, which had this theme: Get rich, young man, for money is power and power ought to be in the hands of good people. I say you have no right to be poor. Maud Ballington Booth , the "Little Mother of the Prisons", was another popular circuit performer. Her descriptions of prison life moved her audiences to tears and roused them to reform. Jane Addams spoke on social problems and her work at Hull House . Helen Potter

4416-501: Was "designed and carried forward by the efforts of a small group of highly motivated individuals whose leadership style is characterized by such evolutionary values as cooperation, service, interdependence, humility, and the like." The following is a list of titles of the available materials for age 15 and above. More titles are under development. The following titles are used for youth aged 12 to 15. Chautauqua Chautauqua ( / ʃ ə ˈ t ɔː k w ə / shə- TAW -kwə )

4485-472: Was Aretology: Following that Praxiology: which is the second part of the Ethics, in general, commenting on the actions of the moral virtues. It was later mentioned by Robert Flint in 1904 in a review of Bourdeau's Théorie des sciences . The modern definition of the word was first given by Alfred V. Espinas (1844–1922), the French philosopher and sociologist; he was the forerunner of the Polish school of

4554-585: Was also a 1958 reference to institutes being held on college campuses. In 1961 a conference in American Samoa was called a "training institute" and another in Korea in 1963. The term was adopted with the beginning of the Nine Year Plan (starting in 1964) designated by the Universal House of Justice , the international governing institution of the Faith. The institute or training institute served

4623-421: Was another notable Chautauqua performer. She performed a variety of roles, including men and women. Gentile writes: "Potter's choice of subjects is noteworthy for its variety and for the fact that she was credible in her impersonations of men as well as of women. In retrospect, Potter's impersonations are of special interest as examples of the kind of recycling or refertilization of inspiration that occurs throughout

4692-418: Was frequently seen on the circuit. One of the numbers Kryl featured was the " Anvil Chorus " from Il Trovatore , with four husky timpanists in leather aprons hammering on anvils shooting sparks (enhanced through special effects ) across the darkened stage. Spirituals were also popular. White audiences appreciated seeing African-Americans performing something other than minstrelsy . Other musical features of

4761-483: Was wary of making his magazine too dry for popular taste, and sought variety. By 1889 the magazine changed course radically and dropped the serials that were Chautauqua's required reading, expanding with articles on history, biography, travel, politics, and literature. One section had editorial articles from national newspapers; another was the "Woman's Council Table", which excerpted articles often by famous women writers, though all this material remained required reading for

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