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115-786: The Rupununi River is one of the main tributaries of the Essequibo River and is located in southern Guyana . The river originates in the Kanuku Mountains , which are located in the Upper Takutu-Essequibo region. The Rupununi River flows near the Guyana-Brazil border, and eventually leads into the Essequibo River. Throughout the flood season, the river shares a watershed with the Amazon. During

230-466: A diet of fish , particularly characins and catfish , but may also eat crabs , turtles , snakes and small caimans . It has no serious natural predators other than humans , although it must compete with other predators, such as the Neotropical otters and various crocodilian species, for food resources. The giant otter has a handful of other names. In Brazil it is known as ariranha , from

345-494: A fish poisoning legend where they assist a man who has wasted his sexual energy, creating the anacondas of the world from his distressed and extended genitals. The Bororó people have a legend on the origin of tobacco smoking : those who used the leaf improperly by swallowing it were punished by being transformed into giant otters; the Bororo also associate the giant otter with fish and with fire. A Ticuna legend has it that

460-518: A gestation period of 65 to 70 days, giving birth to one to five pups, with an average of two. Research over five years on a breeding pair at the Cali Zoo in Colombia found the average interval between litters was six to seven months, but as short as 77 days when the previous litter did not survive. Other sources have found greater intervals, with as long as 21 to 33 months suggested for otters in

575-474: A body of research. The giant otter is an especially noisy animal, with a complex repertoire of vocalizations . All otters produce vocalizations, but by frequency and volume, the giant otter may be the most vocal. Duplaix identified nine distinct sounds, with further subdivisions possible, depending on context. Quick hah barks or explosive snorts suggest immediate interest and possible danger. A wavering scream may be used in bluff charges against intruders, while

690-491: A cave in the Brazilian Mato Grosso . Phylogenetic analysis by Koepfli and Wayne in 1998 found the giant otter has the highest divergence sequences within the otter subfamily, forming a distinct clade that split away 10 to 14 million years ago. They noted that the species may be the basal divergence among the otters or fall outside of them altogether, having split even before other mustelids, such as

805-497: A decline in their population numbers. Another large mammal that lives in the Rupununi is the giant otter , which is the largest otter in the world. Various species of primates and smaller terrestrial herbivores and insectivores such as the tapirs , also live and forage along the Rupununi river. Notable species include: The Rupununi has one of the most diverse aquatic ecosystems on the planet. A total of 410 species of fish inhabit

920-562: A distance of at least 80 km north. This could be caused by calculation errors or other mistakes. Possibly he followed a different branch of the river more in the South of Guyana. To further investigate this, additional research is necessary, preferably in the original reports of Robert Hermann Schomburgk from his expedition in 1837/38. For the accurate determination of the headwaters and their proper classification, further extensive geological and hydrological studies are necessary. In 2018, with

1035-684: A force inland along the banks of the Essequibo River, reaching what he wrongly believed to be Lake Parime . The next year Kemys, in command of the Darling , continued the exploration of the Guiana coast and the Essequibo River. The first European settlement in Guyana was built by the Dutch along the lower part of the Essequibo in 1615. The Dutch colony of Essequibo was founded in 1616 and located in

1150-593: A great diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that harbor many species extirpated from other areas of South America. The Rupununi's freshwater eco-regions are areas of exceptional species richness, comparable to that of the Amazonia. Flora and fauna flourish in the Rupununi river because of the Rupununi's isolation from human activity. During an expedition, the South Rupununi Biodiversity Assessment Team (BAT), described

1265-790: A high of 1.2/km (3.1/sq mi) reported in Suriname and with a low of 0.154/km (0.40/sq mi) found in Guyana. In 2021, conservationists at Fundación Rewilding spotted a wild giant otter swimming in the Bermejo River in Impenetrable National Park , located in the Chaco province of northeast Argentina. Adult giant otters living in family groups have no known serious natural predators ; however, there are some accounts of black caimans in Peru and yacare caimans in

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1380-456: A low growl is used for aggressive warning. Hums and coos are more reassuring within the group. Whistles may be used as advance warning of nonhostile intent between groups, although evidence is limited. Newborn pups squeak to elicit attention, while older young whine and wail when they begin to participate in group activities. An analysis published in 2014 cataloged 22 distinct types of vocalization in adults and 11 in neonates. Each family of otters

1495-465: A minimum safe distance of 50 metres (164 ft) are proposed to offer further protection. The giant otter has lost as much as 80% of its South American range. While still present in a number of north-central countries, giant otter populations are under considerable stress. The IUCN lists Bolivia , Brazil, Colombia , Ecuador , French Guiana , Guyana , Paraguay , Peru , Suriname, and Venezuela as current range countries. Given local extinctions,

1610-409: A stereoscope to interpret the physical features and the geology of the region prior to making four expeditions into the field to check their observations. On Expedition III they explored the entire Essequibo basin. They travelled separately in two outboard-powered canoes, each team comprising a geologist and five Amerindians. Starting at Kanashen, they canoed up all the major eastward flowing tributaries:

1725-559: A third this size. Giant otters adopt communal latrines beside campsites, and dig dens with a handful of entrances, typically under root systems or fallen trees. One report found between three and eight campsites, clustered around feeding areas. In seasonally flooded areas, the giant otter may abandon campsites during the wet season, dispersing to flooded forests in search of prey. Giant otters may adopt preferred locations perennially, often on high ground. These can become quite extensive, including "backdoor" exits into forests and swamps, away from

1840-674: A total distance of about 1,000 miles (1,600 km). A Guyanese-German expedition in Guyana in April and May 2013 followed the course of the Sipu River to detect the still unknown headwaters of the Essequibo. It was sponsored by the French-German TV Company ARTE and was organized by Duane De Freitas (Rupununi Trails) and the film production team of Marion Pöllmann and Rainer Bergomaz (Blue Paw Artists). The responsible scientist for remote sensing , geodesy and mapping

1955-706: A total of 306 bird species living along the river. Another avian-survey of the North Rupununi river, conducted by David C. Morimoto, Gajendra Nauth Narine, Michael D. Schindlinger and Asaph Wilson (DCM, MDS), showed that "4243 individuals, 292 species, and 58 families" of birds inhabited the Northern Rupununi river. Rare bird species that were found in the survey were the Crested Doradito and the Sun Parakeet . The Harpy Eagle also inhabits

2070-410: A traditional prey species for human hunters, which affords some protection. (One researcher has suggested the giant otter is hunted only in desperation due to its horrible taste.) The animal sometimes drowns in nets set across rivers and machete attacks by fishermen have been noted, according to Duplaix, but "tolerance is the rule" in Suriname. One difference in behavior was seen in the country in 2002:

2185-449: Is a South American carnivorous mammal. It is the longest member of the weasel family, Mustelidae , a globally successful group of predators, reaching up to 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in). Atypical of mustelids, the giant otter is a social species, with family groups typically supporting three to eight members. The groups are centered on a dominant breeding pair and are extremely cohesive and cooperative. Although generally peaceful,

2300-406: Is acute and its sense of smell is excellent. The species possesses 2n = 38 chromosomes. The giant otter is large, gregarious, and diurnal . Early travelers' reports describe noisy groups surrounding explorers' boats, but little scientific information was available on the species until Duplaix's groundbreaking work in the late 1970s. Concern over this endangered species has since generated

2415-492: Is divided into four main zones. Furthest south are areas of Rhyacian meta-sediments, meta-volcanics (Kwitaro Group) and associated granites, all intruded by Orosirian rocks of the Southern Guyana Granite Complex. The Kanuku Mountains consist of high grade gneisses in a NE-SW belt. The Takutu Graben is a NE-SW fault bounded basin initially filled by basaltic lava, then Mesozoic sediments, including

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2530-514: Is one of the best habitat patches for this species in Brazil. Suriname still has significant forest cover and an extensive system of protected areas, much of which protects the giant otter. Duplaix returned to the country in 2000 and found the giant otter still present on the Kaburi Creek , a "jewel" of biodiversity , although increased human presence and land use suggests, sooner or later,

2645-425: Is prohibited. The animal faces a variety of critical threats. Poaching has long been a problem. Statistics show between 1959 and 1969 Amazonian Brazil alone accounted for 1,000 to 3,000 pelts annually. The species was so thoroughly decimated, the number dropped to just 12 in 1971. The implementation of CITES in 1973 finally brought about significant hunting reductions, although demand did not disappear entirely: in

2760-417: Is supposedly smaller and more gregarious, with different dentition and skull morphology . Carter and Rosas, however, rejected the subspecific division in 1997, noting the classification had only been validated once, in 1968, and the P. b. paraguensis type specimen was very similar to P. b. brasiliensis . Biologist Nicole Duplaix calls the division of "doubtful value". The earliest fossil evidence of

2875-405: Is territorial, with groups marking their ranges with latrines , gland secretions, and vocalizations. At least one case of a change in alpha relationship has been reported, with a new male taking over the role; the mechanics of the transition were not determined. Duplaix suggests a division between "residents", who are established within groups and territories, and nomadic and solitary "transients";

2990-467: Is the only member of the genus Pteronura . Two subspecies are currently recognized by the canonical Mammal Species of the World , P. b. brasiliensis and P. b. paraguensis . Incorrect descriptions of the species have led to multiple synonyms (the latter subspecies is often P. b. paranensis in the literature). P. b. brasiliensis is distributed across the north of the giant otter range, including

3105-469: Is the ecolodge Caiman House, a social enterprise that drives revenue to a public library, raising the pass rate into secondary school from near-zero in 2005 to 86% in 2019. Conservation International host a website on the Rupununi that includes details of ecotourism accommodation. Some tourists travel overland from Georgetown to Lethem via the Rupununi and on to Brazil, but the travel is very slow in

3220-734: Is the largest river in Guyana , and the largest river between the Orinoco and Amazon . Rising in the Acarai Mountains near the Brazil–Guyana border , the Essequibo flows to the north for 1,014 km (630 mi) through forest and savanna into the Atlantic Ocean. It has a total drainage basin of 156,828 km (60,552 sq mi) and an average discharge of 5,650 m /s (200,000 cu ft/s). Territory near

3335-416: Is uncommon among otter species; Ribas and Mourão suggest a correlation to the animal's sociability, which is also rare among other otters. A capacity for aggressive behavior should not be overstated with the giant otter. Researchers emphasize that even between groups, conflict avoidance is generally adopted. Within groups, the animals are extremely peaceful and cooperative. Group hierarchies are not rigid and

3450-620: The Achuar people , they are known as wankanim , among the Sanumá as hadami , and among the Makushi as turara . The genus name, Pteronura , is derived from the Ancient Greek words πτερόν ( pteron , feather or wing) and οὐρά ( oura , tail), a reference to its distinctive, wing-like tail. The otters form the subfamily Lutrinae within the mustelids and the giant otter

3565-806: The Amazon River is joined by the Rio Negro. They followed the Negro upstream to where it is joined by the Rio Ireng that forms the border between Brazil and Guyana . After following the Ireng for a few tens of kilometers they hovered about 40 miles across the North Savannas of Guyana to the Rupununi River, which they followed to its confluence with the Essequibo River at Apoteri. The Essequibo

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3680-576: The Orinoco , Amazon , and Guianas river systems; to the south, P. b. paraguensis has been suggested in Paraguay , Uruguay , southern Brazil , and northern Argentina , although it may be extinct in the last three of these four. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) considers the species' presence in Argentina and Uruguay uncertain. In the former, investigation has shown thinly distributed population remnants. P. b. paraguensis

3795-467: The Pantanal preying on giant otters. In addition, solitary animals and young may be vulnerable to attacks by the jaguar , cougar , and anaconda , but this is based on historical reports, not direct observation. Pups are more vulnerable, and may be taken by caiman and other large predators, although adults are constantly mindful of stray young, and will harass and fight off possible predators. When in

3910-442: The Pantanal . Its distribution has been greatly reduced and is now discontinuous. Decades of poaching for its velvety pelt, peaking in the 1950s and 1960s, considerably diminished population numbers. The species was listed as endangered in 1999 and wild population estimates are typically below 5,000. The Guianas are one of the last real strongholds for the species, which also enjoys modest numbers – and significant protection – in

4025-612: The Potaro River ) along the route of the Essequibo, and its 20-kilometre (12 mi) wide estuary is dotted with numerous small islands. It enters the Atlantic 21 kilometres (13 mi) from Georgetown , the capital city of Guyana. The river features Murrays Fall , Pot Falls, Kumaka Falls, and Waraputa Falls. Its many tributaries include the Rupununi , Potaro, Mazaruni , Siparuni , Kuyuwini , Konawaruk and Cuyuni rivers. For over 30 kilometres (19 mi) from its mouth,

4140-666: The Takutu Formation . To the north of the Takutu Graben almost flat lying Statherian sandstones and conglomerates of the Roraima Group sediments overly Iwokrama Formation felsic volcanics and associated Orosirian granites. Relict Hadean zircons (xenocrysts) in the Iwokrama Formation suggest that older crust must occur at depth. The areas both in and surrounding the Rupununi river are home to

4255-726: The Tupi word arerãîa , or onça-d'água, meaning water jaguar. In Spanish, river wolf ( Spanish : lobo de río ) and water dog ( Spanish : perro de agua ) are used occasionally (though the latter also refers to several different animals ) and may have been more common in the reports of explorers in the 19th and early 20th centuries. All four names are in use in South America, with a number of regional variations. "Giant otter" translates literally as nutria gigante and lontra-gigante in Spanish and Portuguese, respectively. Among

4370-527: The ermine , polecat , and mink . Later gene sequencing research on the mustelids, from 2004, places the divergence of the giant otter somewhat later, between five and 11 million years ago; the corresponding phylogenetic tree locates the Lontra divergence first among otter genera, and Pteronura second, although divergence ranges overlap. The giant otter is clearly distinguished from other otters by morphological and behavioural characteristics. It has

4485-529: The order Perciformes , particularly cichlids and perch, were seen in 97% of scats, and Characiformes , such as characins, in 86%. Fish remains were of medium-sized species that seem to prefer relatively shallow water, to the advantage of the visually oriented giant otter. Prey species found were also sedentary, generally swimming only short distances, which may aid the giant otter in predation. Hunting in shallow water has also been found to be more rewarding, with water depth less than 0.6 metres (2.0 ft) having

4600-424: The tucuxi and Amazon river dolphin , might potentially compete with the giant otter, but different spatial use and dietary preferences suggest minimal overlap. Furthermore, Defler observed associations between giant otters and the Amazon river dolphins, and suggested that dolphins may benefit by fish fleeing from the otters. The spectacled caiman is another potential competitor, but Duplaix found no conflict with

4715-435: The 1930s - 1970s. Notable species include: The Rupununi is home to relatively healthy populations of the South America's giant mammals, including the largest feline terrestrial predators, the jaguar and the puma. Both the jaguar and the puma are extremely elusive cats, adept at hunting anything from turtles to domesticated dogs. However they are seen as threats to livestock, and are hunted, which has ultimately resulted in

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4830-494: The 1980s, pelt prices were as high as US$ 250 on the European market. The threat has been exacerbated by the otters' relative fearlessness and tendency to approach human beings. They are extremely easy to hunt, being active through the day and highly inquisitive. The animal's relatively late sexual maturity and complex social life makes hunting especially disastrous. More recently, habitat destruction and degradation have become

4945-618: The 19th century ended the missionary settlements. At this time, Britain needed to have a colony, besides Trinidad, to serve the large trade sailboats on their large travel trading route around South America. Venezuela claims that the Essequibo is the true border between it and Guyana, claiming all territory west of it. The boundary was set between Venezuela and Guyana's then colonial power, Great Britain in 1899 through an arbitration proceeding. A letter written by Venezuela's legal counsel, named partner Severo Mallet-Prevost of New York City law firm Curtis, Mallet-Prevost, Colt & Mosle alleged that

5060-468: The Dutch colonial era. Sloth Island is an eco-tourism island in the river. The main tributaries from the mouth: tributary tributary (km) (km ) (m /s) The river has a very rich fauna. More than 300 fish species are known from the Essequibo basin , including almost 60 endemics . This may be an underestimate of the true diversity, as parts of the basin are poorly known. For example, surveys of

5175-483: The Essequibo' followed the main channel and investigated tributaries until they reached the watershed. There, 20 metres away from the Brazilian border, they logged what is now acknowledged to be the furthest source of the Essequibo River. GPS co-ordinates: N1° 24.5243' , W59° 16.5107' The team then began their world-first descent of the Essequibo River. The team of nine paddled back to Kanashan, aka Gunns Strip, where

5290-649: The Kuyuwini, Kassikaityu, Kamoa and Sipu rivers, as well as the Chadikar River which on the basis of its north-south trend and a larger flow of water is considered to be the source of the Essiquibo rather than the eastward flowing Sipu River. In his memoirs Richard Johnson records how he had a line cut through the forest to a small hill near the Chodikar headwaters so that he could stand on the border defined by

5405-498: The Neotropical otter. While the two species are sympatric (with overlapping ranges) during certain seasons, there appeared to be no serious conflict. The smaller neotropical otter is far more shy, less noisy, and less social; at about a third the weight of the giant otter, it is more vulnerable to predation, hence, a lack of conspicuousness is to its advantage. The neotropical otter is active during twilight and darkness, reducing

5520-582: The Neotropical river otter, the southern river otter , and the marine otter . (The North American river otter ( Lontra canadensis ) is the fourth Lontra member.) The giant otter seems to have evolved independently of Lontra in South America, despite the overlap. The smooth-coated otter ( Lutrogale perspicillata ) of Asia may be its closest extant relative; similar behaviour, vocalizations, and skull morphology have been noted. Both species also show strong pair bonding and paternal engagement in rearing cubs. Giant otter fossil remains have been recovered from

5635-806: The Peruvian Amazonian basin. It is one of the most endangered mammal species in the Neotropics . Habitat degradation and loss is the greatest current threat. They are also rare in captivity; in 2003, only 60 giant otters were being held. The giant otter shows a variety of adaptations suitable to an amphibious lifestyle, including exceptionally dense fur, a wing-like tail, and webbed feet. The species prefers freshwater rivers and streams, which are usually seasonally flooded, and may also take to freshwater lakes and springs. It constructs extensive campsites close to feeding areas, clearing large amounts of vegetation. The giant otter subsists almost exclusively on

5750-430: The Rupununi and is the largest aerial predator in South America. The critically endangered Red Siskin is one of the many species of bird that was rediscovered in the Rupununi river region. A 253,800 ha site in the south central Rupununi catchment has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports a population of red siskins. Notable species include: Reptiles thrive in

5865-432: The Rupununi river as being "very diverse"."The Northern Rupununi has more than fourteen hundred species of vertebrates, more than twenty-eight hundred species of plants, and countless species of invertebrates" (Rupununi, Rediscovering a Lost World ). The largely undisturbed forest along the Rupununi river, is a haven for birdlife. A biodiversity study conducted by BAT (South Rupununi Biodiversity Assessment Team), discovered

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5980-456: The Rupununi river, preying off of small fish and crustaceans. In another study conducted by the BAT (South Rupununi Biodiversity Assessment Team), it was discovered that 34 different species of reptiles were living along the river. The black caiman is the largest predator in the Rupununi, measuring up to 5 m in length, however it has become endangered due to hunting for their belly skins throughout

6095-546: The Rupununi, surpassing that of French Guiana (298 species) and Suriname (309 species). However, since there is a lack of freshwater fish taxonomists and researchers studying the area, it is estimated that there are at least 600 different species of fish in the Rupununi. Giants also lurk in the waters of the Rupununi. The arapaima (Arapaima) and the Lau-Lau (B. filamentosum) each measuring approximately 2, and in some exceptional cases 4 meters in length, have been found in

6210-660: The Russian and British judges on the tribunal had acted improperly and granted the lion's share of the disputed territory to Britain due to a political deal between Russia and the United Kingdom. As a result, Venezuela has revived its claim to the disputed territory. In August 1995, at Omai mine there was an acid spill in the river by the Canadian gold mining company Cambior . An estimated 4 million cubic metres (140,000,000 cu ft) of waste laced with cyanide

6325-740: The Wai Wai members returned home and Romel Shoni and Anthony Shushu joined the expedition. This team, accompanied later further downriver by Fay James ( Macushi people), then paddled the remaining distance to the mouth of the Essequibo where it meets the Atlantic Ocean. This expedition lasted a total of 10 weeks. Team members: Laura Bingham (expedition leader), Ness Knight, Pip Stewart, Peiman Zekavat (film director), Jon Williams (cameraman), Nereus Chekema, Nigel Isaacs, Jackson (Elijah) Marawanaru, Aron Marawanaru, James Suse, Fay James, Romel Shoni, and Anthony Shushu. Giant otter The giant otter or giant river otter ( Pteronura brasiliensis )

6440-478: The abundance of fish, wildlife and forest resources of the area. Sir Walter Raleigh claimed that the Rupununi was where the famed El Dorado was situated, however he never explored the river. Other early explorers such as Charles Waterton and Robert Schomburgk attempted to locate El Dorado , and successfully managed to visit the supposed location of the South-American myth, which is in fact part of

6555-415: The affection held for the animals, the seizure was a profound blow to the breeding pair, which went on to lose their territory to competitors. The species has also appeared in the folklore of the region. It plays an important role in the mythology of the Achuar people , where giant otters are seen as a form of the tsunki , or water spirits: they are a sort of "water people" who feed on fish. They appear in

6670-403: The animal are a threat: the otters are often viewed as a nuisance that interferes with fishing, and are sometimes killed. Even when told of the importance of the species to ecosystems and the danger of extinction, interviewees showed little interest in continuing to coexist with the species. Schoolchildren, however, had a more positive impression of the animal. In Suriname, the giant otter is not

6785-413: The animals easily share roles. Giant otters build dens, which are holes dug into riverbanks, usually with multiple entrances and multiple chambers inside. They give birth within these dens during the dry season. In Cantão State Park , otters dig their reproductive dens on the shores of oxbow lakes starting around July, when waters are already quite low. They give birth between August and September, and

6900-514: The categories do not seem rigid, and both may be a normal part of the giant otter life cycle. One tentative theory for the development of sociality in mustelids is that locally abundant but unpredictably dispersed prey causes groups to form. Aggression within the species ("intraspecific" conflict) has been documented. Defence against intruding animals appears to be cooperative: while adult males typically lead in aggressive encounters, cases of alpha females guarding groups have been reported. One fight

7015-616: The course of the Rupununi river. Before the colonization of Guyana and the Rupununi region, the Makushi Amerindians, Wai-Wai and the Wapishana all inhabited the area. The Makushi migrated from what is now known as modern Brazil and Venezuela, to the northern areas of the Rupununi river, over four-hundred years ago. The Makushi Amerindians continue to live in the Rio Branco savannahs and northern Rupununi, surviving off of

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7130-714: The creek itself. Duplaix identified two critical factors in habitat selection: food abundance, which appears to positively correlate to shallow water, and low sloping banks with good cover and easy access to preferred water types. The giant otter seems to choose clear, black waters with rocky or sandy bottoms over silty, saline, and white waters. Giant otters use areas beside rivers for building dens, campsites, and latrines. They clear significant amounts of vegetation while building their campsites. One report suggests maximum areas 28 m (92 ft) long and 15 m (49 ft) wide, well-marked by scent glands , urine, and feces to signal territory. Carter and Rosas found average areas

7245-478: The environment and wildlife in the Rupununi. Ecotourism in the Rupununi is an important part of Guyana's economy, especially for the local Amerindian people. There are many ranches and lodges such as the Karanambu Ranch, a protected area for giant otters and other endangered species in the Rupununi, started by Tiny McTurk (1927), that generate revenue from tourists visiting the Rupununi. Near to Karanambu

7360-460: The field. A number of restrictions on land use and human intrusion are required to properly maintain wild populations. Schenck et al. , who undertook extensive fieldwork in Peru in the 1990s, suggest specific "no-go" zones where the species is most frequently observed, offset by observation towers and platforms to allow viewing. Limits on the number of tourists at any one time, fishing prohibitions, and

7475-416: The giant otter exchanged places with the jaguar: the story says jaguar formerly lived in the water and the giant otter came to the land only to eat. The indigenous Kichwa peoples from Amazonian Peru believed in a world of water where Yaku runa reigned as mother of the water and was charged with caring for fish and animals. Giant otters served as Yaku runa's canoes. A Maxacali creation story suggests that

7590-461: The giant otter populations in the Guianas is essential to the survival of this endangered species in South America. Other countries have taken a lead in designating protected areas in South America. In 2004, Peru created one of the largest conservation areas in the world, Alto Purús National Park , with an area similar in size to Belgium. The park harbors many endangered plants and animals, including

7705-446: The giant otter range, and concentrations of mercury in its diet of fish, a byproduct of gold mining. Other threats to the giant otter include conflict with fishermen, who often view the species as a nuisance ( see below ). Ecotourism also presents challenges: while it raises money and awareness for the animals, by its nature it also increases human effect on the species, both through associated development and direct disturbances in

7820-424: The giant otter, and holds the world record for mammal diversity. Bolivia designated wetlands larger than the size of Switzerland as a freshwater protected area in 2001; these are also home to the giant otter. Throughout its range, the giant otter interacts with indigenous groups , who often practice traditional hunting and fishing. A study of five indigenous communities in Colombia suggests native attitudes toward

7935-521: The giant otter. Other causes of death include accidents, gastroenteritis , infanticide, and epileptic seizures. The giant otter is an apex predator , and its population status reflects the overall health of riverine ecosystems. It feeds mainly on fish, including cichlids , perch , characins (such as piranha ), and catfish . One full-year study of giant otter scats in Amazonian Brazil found fish present in all fecal samples. Fish from

8050-655: The giant river otter dates to the Late Pleistocene of Argentina, and it was slightly larger than known modern specimens. An extinct genus, Satherium , is believed to be ancestral to the present species, having migrated to the New World during the Pliocene or early Pleistocene . The giant otter shares the South American continent with three of the four members of the New World otter genus Lontra :

8165-597: The greatest body length of any species in the mustelid family, although the sea otter may be heavier. Males are between 1.5 and 1.7 m (4 ft 11 in and 5 ft 7 in) in length from head to tail and females between 1 and 1.5 m (3 ft 3 + 1 ⁄ 2  in and 4 ft 11 in). The animal's well-muscled tail can add a further 70 cm (28 in) to the total body length. Early reports of skins and living animals suggested exceptionally large males of up to 2.4 m (7 ft 10 + 1 ⁄ 2  in); intensive hunting likely reduced

8280-494: The group permanently after two to three years. They then search for new territory to begin a family of their own. Studies of giant otters in captivity have given indications about the environment necessary to both maintain a physically and behaviorally healthy population and allow successful cub-rearing. These include providing at least the minimum recommended land-to-water area ratio, and that all enclosure land surfaces (both artificial and natural) are nearly entirely covered with

8395-497: The head a ball-shaped appearance. The ears are small and rounded. The nose (or rhinarium ) is completely covered in fur, with only the two slit-like nostrils visible. The giant otter's highly sensitive whiskers ( vibrissae ) allow the animal to track changes in water pressure and currents, which aids in detecting prey. The legs are short and stubby and end in large webbed feet tipped with sharp claws. Well suited for an aquatic life, it can close its ears and nose while underwater. At

8510-504: The highest success rate. The giant otter seems to be opportunistic , taking whatever species are most locally abundant. If fish are unavailable, it will also take crabs , snakes , and even small caimans and anacondas . The species can hunt singly, in pairs, and in groups, relying on sharp eyesight to locate prey. In some cases, supposed cooperative hunting may be incidental, a result of group members fishing individually in close proximity; truly coordinated hunting may only occur where

8625-487: The hovercraft were laid down at intervals ahead of the expedition, by boat on the Rio Negro, by plane in the North Savannas and by float-plane on the Essequibo. As there were no reliable maps of the route, navigation in Guyana was done by 1:60,000 scale aerial photographs and by scouting rapids in a motorised inflatable dinghy ahead of the CC7. This was the first expedition to travel by river, land, and sea from Manaus to Georgetown,

8740-438: The inner fur dry; the guard hairs are approximately 8 millimetres (one-third of an inch) in length, about twice as long as the fur of the inner coat. Its velvety feel makes the animal highly sought after by fur traders and has contributed to its decline. Unique markings of white or cream fur color the throat and under the chin, allow individuals to be identified from birth. Giant otter muzzles are short and sloping and give

8855-408: The likelihood of conflict with the diurnal giant otter. Its smaller prey, different denning habits, and different preferred water types also reduce interaction. Other species that prey upon similar food resources include the caimans and large fish that are themselves piscivores . Gymnotids , such as the electric eel, and the large silurid catfish are among aquatic competitors. Two river dolphins,

8970-465: The most remote corners of the Rupununi river. However, these river monsters are seldom seen and are rarely ever caught. Overexploitation and overfishing have forced these two species of fish to migrate deeper into unexplored territory in the Rupununi. Notable species include: Indigenous peoples have been part of the Rupununi landscape for millennia. Anthropologists have discovered Paleo-Indian petroglyphs, dated to be several thousands of years old along

9085-454: The normally inquisitive giant otters showed "active avoidance behavior with visible panic" when boats appeared. Logging, hunting, and pup seizure may have led groups to be far more wary of human activity. Local people sometimes take pups for the exotic pet trade or as pets for themselves, but the animal rapidly grows to become unmanageable. Duplaix relates the story of an Arawak Indian who took two pups from their parents. While revealing of

9200-427: The northern Rupununi. However they never found El Dorado . Guyana is a developing country that lacks sustainable economic, environmental and investment growth. Exploiting the Rupununi's resources through corporate agriculture, mining and petroleum extraction are potential pathways that Guyana could undertake. Extant roads such as the one connecting the Rupununi and the state of Roraima are being upgraded to travel all

9315-438: The occurrence of such massive specimens. Weights are between 26 and 32 kg (57 and 71 lb) for males and 22 and 26 kg (49 and 57 lb) for females. The giant otter has the shortest fur of all otter species; it is typically chocolate brown, but may be reddish or fawn , and appears nearly black when wet. The fur is extremely dense, so much so that water cannot penetrate to the skin. Guard hairs trap water and keep

9430-411: The parents during cub-rearing due to inappropriate enclosure conditions has been the primary reason for cub neglect, abuse and infanticide. In the wild, it has been suggested, although not systematically confirmed, that tourists cause similar stresses: disrupted lactation and denning, reduced hunting, and habitat abandonment are all risks. This sensitivity is matched by a strong protectiveness towards

9545-404: The prey cannot be taken by a single giant otter, such as with small anacondas and juvenile black caiman . The giant otter seems to prefer prey fish that are generally immobile on river bottoms in clear water. Prey chase is rapid and tumultuous, with lunges and twists through the shallows and few missed targets. The otter can attack from both above and below, swiveling at the last instant to clamp

9660-843: The prey in its jaws. Giant otters catch their own food and consume it immediately; they grasp the fish firmly between the forepaws and begin eating noisily at the head. Carter and Rosas have found captive adult animals consume around 10% of their body weight daily—about 3 kilograms (7 lb), in keeping with findings in the wild. The species is amphibious, although primarily terrestrial. It occurs in freshwater rivers and streams, which generally flood seasonally. Other water habitats include freshwater springs and permanent freshwater lakes. Four specific vegetation types occur on one important creek in Suriname: riverbank high forest, floodable mixed marsh and high swamp forest, floodable low marsh forest, and grass islands and floating meadows within open areas of

9775-588: The principal dangers, and a further reduction of 50% is expected in giant otter numbers within the 25 years after 2020 (about the span of three generations of giant otters). Typically, loggers first move into rainforest, clearing the vegetation along riverbanks. Farmers follow, creating depleted soil and disrupted habitats. As human activity expands, giant otter home ranges become increasingly isolated. Subadults leaving in search of new territory find it impossible to set up family groups. Specific threats from human industry include unsustainable mahogany logging in parts of

9890-661: The rainy season it is connected to the Takutu River by the flooded Pirara Creek, draining the vast swamps of the Parima or Amaku Lake. The region surrounding the Rupununi river is composed of mainly savannah, wetlands, forest, and low mountain ranges. The area of Region 9 is 57,750 square kilometers and has over 80 communities. Most people live within the Rupununi Savannah area, while the jungle covered areas are only populated near major rivers. The geology of this area

10005-573: The rainy season when the dirt roads degrade, and may be impossible. Rock View Lodge and The Pakaraima Mountain Inn are both near Annai 3–5 hours from Lethem. The Rupununi / Lethem Rodeo is a tourist attraction at Easter (during the dry season). 7°N 2°E  /  7°N 02°E  / 7; 02 Essequibo River (Period: 1971–2000)5,043.9 m /s (178,120 cu ft/s) The Essequibo River ( Spanish : Río Esequibo ; originally called by Alonso de Ojeda ; Río Dulce )

10120-445: The rainy season: estimating range sizes of 1.98 to as much as 19.55 square kilometres (0.76 to 7.55 sq miles) for the groups. Other researchers suggest approximately 7 square kilometres (2.7 sq mi) and note a strong inverse correlation between sociality and home range size; the highly social giant otter has smaller home range sizes than would be expected for a species of its mass. Population densities varied with

10235-521: The recommended substrate conditions (e.g. tree-bark mulch and soft pebble-free sand/soil). Ensuring that the animals have sufficient privacy from human disturbances (visual and acoustic, from zoo staff or visitors) at parturition and during cub-rearing is also essential, but not sufficient. Insufficient land area proportions and unsuitable substrate conditions in zoos have historically been the primary cause of high cub mortality and physical and behavioral health problems among giant otters. For example, stress to

10350-573: The region of the Essequibo River that later became part of British Guiana . The Dutch colonists remained on friendly terms with the Native American peoples of the area, establishing riverside sugarcane and tobacco plantations . The Dutch deterred many attacks from the British, French and Spanish for nearly two centuries, though they would later cede their territory to the British in 1814. The Independence war of Venezuela beginning in

10465-577: The river is argued over by Venezuela and Guyana. The river is administered by Guyana after being previously colonized by the British . Historically, Venezuela has claimed the Essequibo River as their most eastern border, though in practice it was under Dutch control . The river runs through the Guianan moist forests ecoregion. The average annual rainfall in the catchment area is 2,174 mm. There are many rapids and waterfalls (e.g., Kaieteur Falls on

10580-411: The river's channel is divided by the large flat and fertile islands of Leguan , about 28 square kilometres (11 sq mi), Wakenaam , about 44 square kilometres (17 sq mi), and Hogg Island , about 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi). Fort Island is off the eastern side of Hogg Island . Fort Zeelandia is located on the island, and was the seat of government of the country during

10695-581: The source at 0°41`northern latitude, while not giving a longitude. In 1908 the German-American ichthyologist Carl H. Eigenmann traveled on river Essequibo and confluent Potaro. He described 336 fish species in these rivers. As part of a British Technical Assistance project "Operation El Dorado", geologists Dr. Jevan P. Berrangé and Dr. Richard L. Johnson made the first topographic and geological maps of Guyana south of latitude 4 degrees north. They examined 1:60,000 scale panchromatic aerial photos with

10810-611: The species in Suriname . The IUCN listed the giant otter as "endangered" in 1999; it had been considered " vulnerable " under all previous listings from 1982 when sufficient data had first become available. It is regulated internationally under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) meaning commercial trade in specimens (including parts and derivatives)

10925-404: The species is territorial, and aggression has been observed between groups. The giant otter is diurnal , being active exclusively during daylight hours. It is the noisiest otter species, and distinct vocalizations have been documented that indicate alarm, aggression, and reassurance. The giant otter ranges across north-central South America; it lives mostly in and along the Amazon River and in

11040-404: The species may not be able to find suitable habitat for campsites. In a report for World Wildlife Fund in 2002, Duplaix was emphatic about the importance of Suriname and the other Guianas: The three Guianas remain the last stronghold of giant otters in South America, with pristine giant otter habitat on some rivers and good giant otter densities overall—still, but for how long? The survival of

11155-464: The species' range has become discontinuous. Total population numbers are difficult to estimate. Populations in Bolivia were once widespread but the country became a "black spot" on distribution maps after poaching between the 1940s and 1970s; a relatively healthy, but still small, population of 350 was estimated in the country in 2002. The species has likely been extirpated from southern Brazil, but in

11270-480: The support of the First Lady, Sandra Granger , a group consisting of five Wai-wai , two English, one Iranian, and one South African located the furthest source of the Essequibo River. They built upon information and experience from the above 2013 Guyanese German expedition alongside topographical maps, local Wai Wai knowledge, GPS, and machetes to follow the Sipu River to its source. The multinational team 'Running

11385-481: The time of Carter and Rosas's writing, vision had not been directly studied, but field observations show the animal primarily hunts by sight; above water, it is able to recognize observers at great distances. The fact that it is exclusively active during the day further suggests its eyesight should be strong, to aid in hunting and predator avoidance. In other otter species, vision is generally normal or slightly myopic , both on land and in water. The giant otter's hearing

11500-660: The two systems. The first European discovery was by the ships of Juan de Esquivel , deputy of Don Diego Columbus , son of Christopher Columbus in 1498. The Essequibo River is named after Esquivel. In 1499, Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda explored the mouths of the Orinoco and allegedly were the first Europeans to explore the Essequibo. Alonso de Ojeda called it "Rio Dulce" which means Sweet River in Spanish . In 1596 Lawrence Kemys , serving as second-in-command of Walter Raleigh 's British expedition to Guiana, led

11615-513: The upper Mazaruni River found 36–39 species (variation in number due to taxonomy ), of which 13–25% still were undescribed in 2013. At least 24 fish species are restricted to Mazaruni River alone. During floods the headwaters of the Branco River (a part of the Amazon basin ) and those of the Essequibo are connected, allowing a level of exchange in the aquatic fauna such as fish between

11730-421: The water, the giant otter faces danger from animals not strictly preying upon it: the electric eel and stingray are potentially deadly if stumbled upon, and piranha may be capable of at least taking bites out of a giant otter, as evidenced by scarring on individuals. Even if without direct predation, the giant otter must still compete with other predators for food resources. Duplaix documented interaction with

11845-553: The water. Otters do not visit or mark every site daily, but usually patrol all of them, often by a pair of otters in the morning. Research generally takes place in the dry season and an understanding of the species' overall habitat use remains partial. An analysis of dry season range size for three otter groups in Ecuador found areas between 0.45 and 2.79 square kilometres (0.17 and 1.08 sq mi). Utreras presumed habitat requirements and availability would differ dramatically in

11960-489: The watershed, and when he told his line-cutting team that they were looking south across the forest into Brazil his foreman disagreed on the basis that "there are lots of nightclubs in Brazil." After mapping the tributaries the two teams joined forces and travelled down the Essequibo to its confluence with the Rupununi river at Apoteri. On February 26, 1971, an expedition set off by hovercraft from Manaus in Brazil where

12075-534: The way to Georgetown . A bridge has also been constructed on the Guyana-Brazil border, that links Lethem (Guyana) to Bonfim (Brazil). This infrastructure will facilitate the transportation of goods throughout the area, however it poses a threat to the Rupununi's fragile eco-system. In order to formally protect the Rupununi's eco-system, NGO's and the Guyanese government have partnered up to attempt to enforce legislation to ban any prejudicial human activity towards

12190-587: The west of the country, decreased hunting pressure in the critical Pantanal has led to very successful recolonization; an estimate suggests 1,000 or more animals in the region. As of 2020, the IUCN estimates that there may be 4,569 otters living in Brazil. A significant population lives in the wetlands of the central Araguaia River , and in particular within Cantão State Park, which, with its 843 oxbow lakes and extensive flooded forests and marshlands,

12305-644: The wild. Mothers give birth to furred and blind cubs in an underground den near the river shore and fishing sites. Males actively participate in rearing cubs and family cohesion is strong; older, juvenile siblings also participate in rearing, although in the weeks immediately after birth, they may temporarily leave the group. Pups open their eyes in their fourth week, begin walking in their fifth, and are able to swim confidently between 12 and 14 weeks old. They are weaned by nine months and begin hunting successfully soon after. The animal reaches sexual maturity at about two years of age and both male and female pups leave

12420-506: The young pups emerge for the first time in October and November, which are the months of lowest water when fish concentrations in the dwindling lakes and channels are at their peak. This makes it easier for the adults to catch enough fish for the growing young, and for the pups to learn how to catch fish. The entire group, including nonreproductive adults, which are usually older siblings to that year's pups, collaborates to catch enough fish for

12535-641: The young. Details of giant otter reproduction and life cycle are scarce, and captive animals have provided much of the information. Females appear to give birth year round, although in the wild, births may peak during the dry season. The estrous cycle is 21 days, with females receptive to sexual advances between three and 10 days. Study of captive specimens has found only males initiate copulation . At Tierpark Hagenbeck in Germany, long-term pair bonding and individualized mate selection were seen, with copulation most frequently taking place in water. Females have

12650-418: The young. All group members may aggressively charge intruders, including boats with humans in them. The longest documented giant otter lifespan in the wild is eight years. In captivity, this may increase to 17, with an unconfirmed record of 19. The animal is susceptible to a variety of diseases, including canine parvovirus . Parasites, such as the larvae of flies and a variety of intestinal worms, also afflict

12765-667: Was Prof. Dr. Martin Oczipka from the University of Applied Sciences Dresden (HTW Dresden). The expedition was only realizable with the support of the Guyanese government and the indigenous tribe of Wai-Wai-Amerindian settling in the very south of Guyana. With the support of the Wai-Wai, satellite maps, topographic maps, GPS and a small drone, the source valley was discovered in 2013. The coordinate determined by expedition teams in 2013 deviates by approximately 40`, which corresponds to

12880-495: Was directly observed in the Brazilian Pantanal in which three animals violently engaged a single individual near a range boundary. In another instance in Brazil, a carcass was found with clear indications of violent assault by other otters, including bites to the snout and genitals, an attack pattern similar to that exhibited by captive animals. While not rare among large predators in general, intraspecific aggression

12995-593: Was released into the river causing much destruction. The spill was preceded by a smaller sodium cyanide spill in May that killed hundreds of fish. Sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society the German researcher Robert Hermann Schomburgk (1804-1865) investigated the river Essequibo and followed its course to the south-west, while Sipu River flows to a westerly direction. He specified the coordinates of

13110-399: Was shown to have its own unique audio signature. The giant otter is a highly social animal and lives in extended family groups. Group sizes are anywhere from two to 20 members, but likely average between three and eight. (Larger figures may reflect two or three family groups temporarily feeding together.) Group members share roles, structured around the dominant breeding pair. The species

13225-824: Was then traversed down to its mouth near Georgetown . The primary purpose of the expedition was filming for the BBC series " The World About Us " with the episode "The Forbidden Route" broadcast in November 1971. The secondary purpose was to demonstrate the abilities of a new type of small hovercraft, the Cushioncraft CC7 , thereby promoting sales of this British invention. The expedition team comprised Bob Saunders (BBC producer and team leader), Tommy Tomlinson (CC7 pilot), Jevan Berrangé (navigator and logistics consultant), Len Chrisophers (hovercraft engineer), Peter Smith (sound recordist), and Tony Morrison (cameraman). Fuel dumps for

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