66-688: Ruso is an incorporated tiny hamlet in McLean County , North Dakota , in the USA. The population was 1 at the 2020 census , making Ruso the least populous incorporated place in North Dakota. It is tied with Monowi, Nebraska at being the least populated community in the United States that is currently inhabited. There are no longer any businesses or services in Ruso; but said to be present
132-550: A "neutral judge", acting to protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it. While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued for inviolate freedom under law in his Second Treatise of Government . Locke argued that a government's legitimacy comes from the citizens' delegation to the government of their absolute right of violence (reserving the inalienable right of self-defense or "self-preservation"), along with elements of other rights (e.g. property will be liable to taxation) as necessary to achieve
198-409: A different version of social-contract theory, as the foundations of society based on the sovereignty of the " general will ". Rousseau's political theory differs in important ways from that of Locke and Hobbes. Rousseau's collectivist conception is most evident in his development of the "luminous conception" (which he credited to Denis Diderot ) of the " general will ". Summarised, the " general will "
264-496: A fair sentence. Judge John Geoffrey Jones called it "an aspect of the instinct for self-preservation." He saw the committer of bad deeds as the impervious person: that "rare person whose intuition is stunted and who misses out on instruction grows up uninhibited, so continues bad deeds." Jones argued that the legitimancy of the judiciary is not absolute. Rather than the court, it is the psychiatrist's job to diagnose mental health. My own present, unresolved thoughts are that 'evil'
330-426: A government because it has the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority—a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists. The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short",
396-472: A sense, three "constitutions" are involved: first, the constitution of nature that includes all of what the Founders called " natural law "; second, the constitution of society , an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a constitution of government . To consent, a necessary condition
462-471: A social covenant or contract, and all of these arguments began with proto-"state of nature" arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government. These arguments, however, relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman law, according to which "a populus" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Thus, these arguments held that a group of people can join
528-484: A state in which self-interest and the absence of rights and contracts prevented the "social", or society. Life was "anarchic" (without leadership or the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract. The social contract was seen as an "occurrence" during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs. This resulted in
594-550: Is a FLDS compound that has been of concern to the Attorney General of the State. Ruso was founded and named on July 17, 1906 and named either after a Russian word meaning "south of us" or from the first two letters in both of the words " South Russia " by an agent who brought in immigrants from Russia. Ruso was incorporated as a city on July 7, 1909. The hamlet lost its last business in 1956. Three tornadoes struck
660-550: Is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district . The English word is derived from French municipalité , which in turn derives from the Latin municipalis , based on the word for social contract ( municipium ), referring originally to the Latin communities that supplied Rome with troops in exchange for their own incorporation into the Roman state (granting Roman citizenship to
726-492: Is a mean or compromise, between the best of all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worst of all, which is to suffer injustice without the power of retaliation; and justice, being at a middle point between the two, is tolerated not as a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of the inability of men to do injustice. For no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist; he would be mad if he did. Such
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#1732802496303792-471: Is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness. David Gauthier 's "neo-Hobbesian" theory argues that cooperation between two independent and self-interested parties is indeed possible, especially when it comes to understanding morality and politics. Gauthier notably points out the advantages of cooperation between two parties when it comes to the challenge of the prisoner's dilemma . He proposes that, if two parties were to stick to
858-437: Is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists , libertarians , and anarchists that do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract that did not involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him,
924-458: Is the power of all the citizens' collective interest—not to be confused with their individual interests. Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government, nor any form of representative government. Rousseau believed that society was only legitimate when the sovereign (i.e. the " general will ") were
990-526: Is the received account, Socrates, of the nature and origin of justice. The social contract theory also appears in Crito , another dialogue from Plato. Over time, the social contract theory became more widespread after Epicurus (341–270 BC), the first philosopher who saw justice as a social contract, and not as existing in Nature due to divine intervention (see below and also Epicurean ethics ), decided to bring
1056-411: Is within the realm of theologians and moral philosophers. Doctors, judges and lawyers would do well to concern themselves with bad deeds and bad health, that is deeds, which society has determined as criminal. If the perpetrators of bad deeds are not sick, they should be punished according to law. If they are sick, they should be treated. An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau 's friend,
1122-418: The consent of the governed , should be modified. Instead of arguing for explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against it is a contract's only legitimacy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that societal laws are upheld up the collective will of the citizens whom they represent. Thus, in obeying laws, the citizen "remains free." Within elections,
1188-561: The social contract is an idea, theory, or model that usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual . Conceptualized in the Age of Enlightenment , it is a core concept of constitutionalism , while not necessarily convened and written down in a constituent assembly and constitution . Social contract arguments typically are that individuals have consented , either explicitly or tacitly , to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to
1254-670: The state . Municipalities may have the right to tax individuals and corporations with income tax , property tax , and corporate income tax , but may also receive substantial funding from the state. In some European countries, such as Germany, municipalities have the constitutional right to supply public services through municipally-owned public utility companies . Terms cognate with "municipality", mostly referring to territory or political structure, are Spanish municipio (Spain) and municipalidad (Chile), Catalan municipi , Portuguese município . In many countries, terms cognate with "commune" are used, referring to
1320-473: The " state of nature " by Thomas Hobbes ). In this condition, individuals' actions are bound only by their personal power and conscience , assuming that 'nature' precludes mutually beneficial social relationships. From this shared starting point, social contract theorists seek to demonstrate why rational individuals would voluntarily consent to give up their natural freedom to obtain the benefits of political order. Prominent 17th- and 18th-century theorists of
1386-437: The "terrour of some Power" otherwise humans will not heed the law of reciprocity , "(in summe) doing to others, as wee would be done to". John Locke 's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several fundamental ways, retaining only the central notion that persons in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would be bound morally, by
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#17328024963031452-811: The Buddha tells his monks that they must stop and give way to social norms. Epicurus in the fourth century BC seemed to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his Principal Doctrines (see also Epicurean ethics ): 31. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another. 32. Those animals which are incapable of making binding agreements with one another not to inflict nor suffer harm are without either justice or injustice; and likewise for those peoples who either could not or would not form binding agreements not to inflict nor suffer harm. 33. There never
1518-472: The Law of Nature, in which man has the "power... to preserve his property; that is, his life, liberty and estate against the injuries and attempts of other men". Without government to defend them against those seeking to injure or enslave them, Locke further believed people would have no security in their rights and would live in fear. Individuals, to Locke, would only agree to form a state that would provide, in part,
1584-517: The Ruso area on August 15, 2022, flipping over farm equipment and anhydrous tanks. According to the United States Census Bureau , the hamlet has a total area of about 0.25 square miles (0.65 km), all of which is land. As of the 2020 census , there was one person, and zero families [sic] residing in the city. There were 4 housing units. As of the 2010 census , there were 4 people, 3 households, and 1 family residing in
1650-542: The Spanish term ayuntamiento , referring to a municipality's administration building, is extended via synecdoche to denote the municipality itself. In Moldova and Romania , both municipalities ( municipiu ; urban administrative units) and communes ( comună ; rural units) exist, and a commune may be part of a municipality. In many countries, comparable entities may exist with various names. Social contract In moral and political philosophy ,
1716-518: The absence of political order and law, everyone would have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to plunder, rape and murder; there would be an endless "war of all against all" ( bellum omnium contra omnes ). To avoid this, free men contract with each other to establish political community ( civil society ) through a social contract in which they all gain security in return for subjecting themselves to an absolute sovereign, one man or an assembly of men. Though
1782-584: The absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (more powerful) capable of imposing some system such as social-contract laws on everyone by force. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations, advanced by E. H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau . Hobbes wrote in Leviathan that humans ("we") need
1848-403: The agreement. Hobbes argued that government is not a party to the original contract and citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism and civil unrest. There is a general form of social contract theories, which is: I chooses R in M and this gives I* reason to endorse and comply with R in the real world insofar as
1914-451: The antecedents of social contract theory are found in antiquity, in Greek and Stoic philosophy and Roman and Canon Law , the heyday of the social contract was the mid-17th to early 19th centuries, when it emerged as the leading doctrine of political legitimacy. The starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent any political order (termed
1980-442: The authority (of the ruler, or to the decision of a majority) in exchange for protection of their remaining rights or maintenance of the social order . The relation between natural and legal rights is often a topic of social contract theory. The term takes its name from The Social Contract (French: Du contrat social ou Principes du droit politique ), a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept. Although
2046-408: The average family size was two. In the city, the population was spread out, with 33.3% from 25 to 44, 33.3% from 45 to 64, and 33.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 58 years. There were three males and three females. The median income for a household in the city was $ 41,250, and the median income for a family was $ 41,250. The per capita income for the city was $ 21,050. None of
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2112-484: The choice not depending on any human will, there is no particular application to alter the universality of the law. According to other social contract theorists, when the government fails to secure their natural rights ( Locke ) or satisfy the best interests of society, citizens can withdraw their obligation to obey or change the leadership through elections or other means including, when necessary, violence. Locke believed that natural rights were inalienable, and therefore
2178-432: The city. The population density was 16.0 inhabitants per square mile (6.2/km). There were 3 housing units at an average density of 12.0 per square mile (4.6/km). The racial makeup of the city was 100.0% White . There were 3 households, of which one was a married couples living together and the other two single people living alone. 66.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 33.3% had someone living alone who
2244-399: The city. The population density was 23.9 people per square mile (9.3/km). There were three housing units at an average density of 11.9 per square mile (4.6/km). The racial makeup of the city was 100% White . There were three households, out of which none had children under the age of 18 living with them, and 100% were married couples living together. The average household size was two and
2310-534: The community living in the area and the common interest. These include terms: The same terms "Gemeente" (Dutch) or "Gemeinde" (German) may be used for church congregations or parishes, for example, in the German and Dutch Protestant churches. In Greece, the word Δήμος ( demos ) is used, also meaning 'community'; the word is known in English from the compound democracy (rule of the people). In some countries,
2376-430: The establishment of the state, a sovereign entity like the individuals now under its rule used to be, which would create laws to regulate social interactions. Human life was thus no longer "a war of all against all". The state system, which grew out of the social contract, was, however, also anarchic (without leadership). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereigns and thus guided by self-interest and
2442-421: The evil is greater than the good. And so when men have both done and suffered injustice and have had experience of both, not being able to avoid the one and obtain the other, they think that they had better agree among themselves to have neither; hence there arise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained by law is termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm to be the origin and nature of justice;—it
2508-484: The factions into which this nation is divided has reared up a fabric of the former kind, in order to protect and cover that scheme of actions which it pursues. ... The one party [defenders of the absolute and divine right of kings, or Tories], by tracing up government to the DEITY, endeavor to render it so sacred and inviolate that it must be little less than sacrilege, however tyrannical it may become, to touch or invade it in
2574-411: The goal of security through granting the state a monopoly of violence, whereby the government, as an impartial judge, may use the collective force of the populace to administer and enforce the law, rather than each man acting as his own judge, jury, and executioner—the condition in the state of nature. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract , outlined
2640-556: The governed was the ideal foundation on which a government should rest, but that it had not actually occurred this way in general. My intention here is not to exclude the consent of the people from being one just foundation of government where it has place. It is surely the best and most sacred of any. I only contend that it has very seldom had place in any degree and never almost in its full extent. And that therefore some other foundation of government must also be admitted. Legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued that, while presence in
2706-501: The inhabitants) while permitting the communities to retain their own local governments (a limited autonomy). A municipality can be any political jurisdiction , from a sovereign state such as the Principality of Monaco , to a small village such as West Hampton Dunes, New York . The territory over which a municipality has jurisdiction may encompass: Powers of municipalities range from virtual autonomy to complete subordination to
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2772-440: The law, he will be forced to listen to what was decided when the people acted as a collective (as citizens ). Thus the law, inasmuch as it is created by the people acting as a body, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but rather its expression. The individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will. Because laws represent
2838-426: The need of food and shelter. As men lost their primeval glory, distinctions of class arose, and they entered into agreements with one another, accepting the institution of private property and the family. With this theft, murder, adultery, and other crime began, and so the people met together and decided to appoint one man from among them to maintain order in return for a share of the produce of their fields and herds. He
2904-471: The notion of commutative justice, first brought forward by the primitive fact of exchange, ... is substituted for that of distributive justice ... Translating these words, contract, commutative justice, which are the language of the law, into the language of business, and you have commerce, that is to say, in its highest significance, the act by which man and man declare themselves essentially producers, and abdicate all pretension to govern each other. Building on
2970-422: The obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so. The central assertion that social contract theory approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but human creations. The social contract and the political order it creates are simply the means towards an end—the benefit of the individuals involved—and legitimate only to the extent that they fulfill their part of
3036-505: The original agreed-upon arrangement and morals outlined by the contract, they would both experience an optimal result. In his model for the social contract, factors including trust, rationality, and self-interest keep each party honest and dissuade them from breaking the rules. Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on
3102-488: The philosopher David Hume , who in 1742 published an essay "Of Civil Liberty". The second part of this essay, entitled "Of the Original Contract", stresses that the concept of a "social contract" is a convenient fiction: As no party, in the present age can well support itself without a philosophical or speculative system of principles annexed to its political or practical one; we accordingly find that each of
3168-413: The population and none of the families were below the poverty line . Incorporated community A municipality is usually a single administrative division having corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate. The term municipality may also mean the governing body of a given municipality. A municipality
3234-453: The reasons I has for choosing R in M are (or can be) shared by I*. With M being the deliberative setting; R rules, principles or institutions; I the (hypothetical) people in original position or state of nature making the social contract; and I* being the individuals in the real world following the social contract. Social contract formulations are preserved in many of the world's oldest records. The Indian Buddhist text of
3300-446: The restraint of "natural liberty", they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force. Therefore Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people help to mould their character. Rousseau also analyses the social contract in terms of risk management, thus suggesting the origins of the state as a form of mutual insurance . While Rousseau's social contract
3366-488: The rule of God superseded government authority, while Rousseau believed that democracy (majority-rule) was the best way to ensure welfare while maintaining individual freedom under the rule of law. The Lockean concept of the social contract was invoked in the United States Declaration of Independence . In court, the social contract is used to diagnose mental health, with the ultimate aim of delivering
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#17328024963033432-412: The second century BC Mahāvastu recounts the legend of Mahasammata. The story goes as follows: In the early days of the cosmic cycle mankind lived on an immaterial plane, dancing on air in a sort of fairyland, where there was no need of food or clothing, and no private property, family, government or laws. Then gradually the process of cosmic decay began its work, and mankind became earthbound, and felt
3498-552: The smallest article. The other party [the Whigs, or believers in constitutional monarchy], by founding government altogether on the consent of the PEOPLE suppose that there is a kind of original contract by which the subjects have tacitly reserved the power of resisting their sovereign, whenever they find themselves aggrieved by that authority with which they have for certain purposes voluntarily entrusted him. Hume argued that consent of
3564-459: The social contract and natural rights included Hugo de Groot (1625), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Samuel von Pufendorf (1673), John Locke (1689), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) and Immanuel Kant (1797), each approaching the concept of political authority differently. Grotius posited that individual humans had natural rights . Thomas Hobbes famously said that in a "state of nature", human life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". In
3630-541: The social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather among individuals who refrain from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon him- or herself: What really is the Social Contract? An agreement of the citizen with the government? No, that would mean but the continuation of [Rousseau's] idea. The social contract is an agreement of man with man; an agreement from which must result what we call society. In this,
3696-455: The sole legislators . He also stated that the individual must accept "the total alienation to the whole community of each associate with all his rights". In short, Rousseau meant that in order for the social contract to work, individuals must forfeit their rights to the whole so that such conditions were "equal for all". [The social contract] can be reduced to the following terms: Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under
3762-406: The sovereign's edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the absolute authority of government (whether monarchical or parliamentary). Alternatively, Locke and Rousseau argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting
3828-419: The supreme direction of the general will; and in a body, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole. Rousseau's striking phrase that man must "be forced to be free" should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, if an individual rejects this "civil liberty" in place of "natural liberty" and self interest, disobeying
3894-458: The territory of a society may be necessary for consent, this does not constitute consent to all rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O. A. Brownson, who argued that, in
3960-491: The theory to the forefront of his society. As time went on, philosophers of traditional political and social thought, such as Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau put forward their opinions on social contract, which then caused the topic to become much more mainstream. Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn
4026-408: The will of the establishment is the will of the collective. Barring corruption, the legitimacy of the democractic government is absolute. In every real democracy, magistracy is not an advantage, but a burdensome charge which cannot justly be imposed on one individual rather than another. The law alone can lay the charge on him on whom the lot falls. For, the conditions being then the same for all, and
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#17328024963034092-405: The work of Immanuel Kant with its presumption of limits on the state, John Rawls (1921–2002), in A Theory of Justice (1971), proposed a contractarian approach whereby rational people in a hypothetical " original position " would set aside their individual preferences and capacities under a " veil of ignorance " and agree to certain general principles of justice and legal organization. This idea
4158-473: Was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.33 and the average family size was 2.00. The median age in the city was 58.5 years. 0.0% of residents were under the age of 18; 0.0% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 0.0% were from 25 to 44; 75% were from 45 to 64; and 25% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 75.0% male and 25.0% female. As of the 2000 census , there were 6 people, 3 households, and 3 families residing in
4224-547: Was called "the Great Chosen One" (Mahasammata), and he received the title of raja because he pleased the people. In his rock edicts , the Indian Buddhist king Asoka was said to have argued for a broad and far-reaching social contract. The Buddhist vinaya also reflects social contracts expected of the monks; one such instance is when the people of a certain town complained about monks felling saka trees,
4290-605: Was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England. Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca , might be considered an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy . All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of
4356-463: Was such a thing as absolute justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm. The concept of the social contract was originally posed by Glaucon , as described by Plato in The Republic , Book II. They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suffer injustice, evil; but that
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