FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting that uses frequency modulation ( FM ) of the radio broadcast carrier wave. Invented in 1933 by American engineer Edwin Armstrong , wide-band FM is used worldwide to transmit high-fidelity sound over broadcast radio . FM broadcasting offers higher fidelity—more accurate reproduction of the original program sound—than other broadcasting techniques, such as AM broadcasting . It is also less susceptible to common forms of interference , having less static and popping sounds than are often heard on AM. Therefore, FM is used for most broadcasts of music and general audio (in the audio spectrum). FM radio stations use the very high frequency range of radio frequencies .
186-662: WCLV (90.3 FM ) is a non-commercial educational radio station licensed to Cleveland, Ohio , carrying a fine art / classical music format. Owned by Ideastream Public Media , the station serves both Greater Cleveland and Northeast Ohio as the home station for the Cleveland Orchestra and an affiliate of the BBC World Service . This station traditionally has dated its start to September 8, 1984, when regular operations began under its current broadcast license. However, other accounts trace its history to
372-516: A 67 kHz Subsidiary Communications Authorization (SCA) subchannel of WBOE, the CRRS had to contract with WXEN until WBOE's SCA subchannel was activated in July 1977. Cleveland lawyer William Bradford "Brad" Norris founded Cleveland Public Radio (CPR) in 1976 with the intent to finally bring NPR programming to Cleveland, which at the time was the largest U.S. city without a local fulltime NPR station,
558-519: A bargaining chip against Conrad. The continued infighting between CPL and CPR prompted Edward Howard chairman John T. Bailey to call the absence of NPR from Cleveland "an embarrassment and a disgrace" in a Plain Dealer op-ed , including mailing addresses for both Norris and Carl S. Asseff (Howley's successor as CPL chairman); Bailey stated, "it is time to halt this embarrassing and costly dispute. Cleveland needs public radio. We need it now." To weigh
744-493: A construction permit for WBOE's replacement. This new license was assigned the WCPN call letters on June 20, 1983, standing for "Cleveland Public Network". Former WERE operations manager Leonard Will was hired as general manager, promising extensive local news coverage to augment NPR offerings. CPR initially planned for WCPN to sign on by the summer of 1983, but multiple issues, including securing studio facilities, interference from
930-411: A high school or senior high school for students ninth grade through twelfth grade. There is some debate over the optimum age of transfer, and variation in some states; also, middle school often includes grades that are almost always considered primary school . Today " Academy " is a general term referring to post-secondary education, especially the most elite or liberal arts part of it. However, in
1116-483: A keynote speech at the NAEB's 1953 Lincoln Lodge Seminar, Levenson reflected on WBOE's effectiveness as a learning tool, seeing television as a step forward and a way for students to learn by being emotionally involved in the course material. Levenson also noted that television courses need to be presented not as supplementary to a course, but intrinsic to it, a process that had been successful at WBOE. While many teachers in
1302-482: A pejorative ." Levenson's hope in 1941 of "a steady, if not rapid growth" in FM educational stations throughout the U.S. largely occurred by the early 1950s, but the FM band itself remained obscure overall; by 1958, WBOE was the only Cleveland FM station in operation that also had full coverage in neighboring Akron. Existing educational stations eventually moved away from in-school programming and focused on educational fare for
1488-725: A "sincere thank you" in return. WBOE and WERE-FM also collaborated for an experimental stereophonic sound broadcast over two Sunday nights in April 1959. Starting in 1960 and running through 1967, the station aired Healthlines , a weekly series aimed at physicians by the Academy of Medicine of Cleveland & Northeast Ohio that WGAR originated. The NAEB Tape Network was reorganized into the National Educational Radio Network in 1963, then sold to National Public Radio (NPR) as part of that network's 1971 launch;
1674-399: A 500 kHz frequency separation even when closer frequency spacing is technically permitted. The ITU publishes Protection Ratio graphs, which give the minimum spacing between frequencies based on their relative strengths. Only broadcast stations with large enough geographic separations between their coverage areas can operate on the same or close frequencies. Frequency modulation or FM
1860-445: A better grade. If a student does not have the total required credits needed to graduate at the end of their senior year of high school , the student will stay for another year or until they meet the required amount of credits. On the contrary, if a student earns enough credits required to graduate before the end of their senior year (usually at the end of 11th grade or the middle of 12th grade ) they can graduate early. Depending on
2046-490: A blues program. Dick Feagler co-hosted a bi-weekly interview program at launch. WCPN added an evening news program Evening Edition , hosted by reporter Zina Vishnevsky, in November 1986 and mid-morning news program After Nine the following October. As a likely reflection of WCPN's growth, WMJI began airing a Sunday evening jazz program of their own in 1986, while Akron's WONE-FM started a daily late-morning segment playing
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#17328009968302232-665: A certain age. It was believed that every American student had the opportunity to participate regardless of their ability. In 1892, in response to many competing academic philosophies being promoted at the time, a working group of educators, known as the " Committee of Ten " was established by the National Education Association . It recommended twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of elementary education followed by four years of high school. Rejecting suggestions that high schools should divide students into college-bound and working-trades groups from
2418-506: A classroom teacher, and for her ability to sense the reaction of the unseen hundreds she now instructs, is speaking. Marie M. Powell, for Every Week Magazine From its 1938 sign on and in the 39 years that followed, WBOE operated as an adjunct of the Cleveland Public Schools, with broadcasts limited to school days and going dark during weekends, holidays and summer vacations . Additional "preview" programming
2604-582: A college. It never included a preparatory unit. The religious revival known as the Second Great Awakening stimulated Protestant denominations to open academies and colleges. In the small town of Amherst, Massachusetts in 1812, funds were raised for a secondary school, Amherst Academy; it opened December 1814. The academy incorporated in 1816, and eventually counted among its students Emily Dickinson , Sylvester Graham , and Mary Lyon (founder of Mount Holyoke College ). By 1821 it added
2790-593: A different jazz song every day. So far we've been able to meet the payroll, but it depends on what's in tomorrow's mail. Our cash flow is like that of a small business: we live month to month. Kit Jensen, WCPN general manager FM broadcasting Throughout the world, the FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum . Usually 87.5 to 108.0 MHz is used, or some portion of it, with few exceptions: The frequency of an FM broadcast station (more strictly its assigned nominal center frequency)
2976-402: A fax program. The original subcarrier frequency used at KE2XCC was 27.5 kHz. The IF bandwidth was ±5 kHz, as the only goal at the time was to relay AM radio-quality audio. This transmission system used 75 μs audio pre-emphasis like the main monaural audio and subsequently the multiplexed stereo audio. In the late 1950s, several systems to add stereo to FM radio were considered by
3162-488: A financial bailout plan that included a provision for the school board to suspend all operations at WBOE and sell off the station. The teachers union defied a back-to-work court order by Judge Harry A. Hanna on October 5, 1978, while the station's $ 280,000 annual budget (equivalent to $ 1.31 million in 2023) made the station expendable. WBOE ended regular programming at midnight on October 7, with station manager Jay Robert Klein and Cleveland journalist Dick Feagler providing
3348-711: A foreign language or advanced math and science classes in middle school. Typically schools will offer Spanish and French ; and, often German ; and, sometimes Latin ; Chinese , Japanese , and/or Greek . In addition to Pre-Algebra and other high school mathematics prep courses, Algebra I and Geometry are both commonly taught. Schools also offer Earth Science, Life Science, or Physical Science classes. Physical education classes (also called "PE", "phys ed", Kinesiology, or "gym") are usually mandatory for various periods. For social studies, some schools offer U.S. History , Geography , and World History classes. Many also have honors classes for motivated and gifted students, where
3534-414: A free education to any student who chose to stay in school for 12 years to get a diploma with a minimal grade point average. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court case, Brown v. Board of Education , made desegregation of elementary and high schools mandatory, although private Christian schools expanded rapidly following this ruling to accommodate white families attempting to avoid desegregation. By 1955,
3720-541: A general audience, seen as a developmental influence for public radio in the present day. Owing to educational radio's effectiveness being reduced by television, work slowly began in the early 1970s to revamp WBOE. The June 28, 1973, Cleveland Board of Education meeting authorized contracts to move WBOE's studios from the Board of Education Building to the Woodhill-Quincy Administration building on
3906-582: A half-day instruction/approved work program in senior year as the purpose of the program is to prepare students for gainful employment without a college degree. The level of specialization allowed varies depending on both the state and district the school is located in. Many states require courses in the "core" areas of English (or Language Arts), Science , Social Studies (or History), and Mathematics every year although others allow more choice after 10th grade. Three science courses, biology , chemistry , and physics are usually offered. Many schools follow
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#17328009968304092-514: A higher education with Amherst College . Besides religion, the academy movement arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the western states. Thousands of academies were started using local funds and tuition; most closed after a few years and others were established. In 1860 there were 6,415 academies in operation. When the Civil War erupted in 1861 they generally closed down temporarily; most in
4278-431: A history broadcast for elementary classes may be scheduled. Classroom teachers have tuned in at the proper hour and from the loudspeaker their pupils might hear: "Good morning, children. In my visit with you, today, I shall talk about the three-cornered trade route which was so important to our country's early development." The clear, distinct voice of a teacher, carefully selected for her radio personality, for her success as
4464-500: A jazz music format after studies commissioned by the board of trustees found that no station in the market programmed contemporary jazz, along with a need for increased local news coverage after the Cleveland Press folded in 1982. WGAR ( 1220 AM ) , by then a country outlet, donated its entire jazz record collection to the station. A kick-off party/fundraiser billed "Cleveland's Big Turn-On" with 1,200 people in attendance
4650-806: A lack of funding on May 1, 1982, with WBOE going silent completely. Lee C. Howley, Jr., board president of the Cleveland Public Library (CPL), revealed at the end of 1978 that the system had been negotiating with the school board over the past several months to buy WBOE, prompting WVIZ to withdraw their interest in the station. A library operating a radio station was not without precedent, as WPLN-FM in Nashville, Tennessee , and WFPL in Louisville, Kentucky , were both established by their city's respective public libraries. CPL's interest in WBOE
4836-454: A live appearance of Garrison Keillor as both stations carried Keillor's A Prairie Home Companion ; Perry acknowledged that it was the only way Keillor's Akron broadcast could be booked. WCPN additionally became a sponsor for Cuyahoga Community College's annual JazzFest starting in 1985. Local air personalities during the jazz programming included Jennifer Stephens, Harvey Zay and Dan Polletta; Polletta also did part-time work for WKSU hosting
5022-529: A method likened to affiliate stations contributing to a radio network . In the spring of 1939, WBOE experimented with facsimile transmissions sent outside of regular programming hours for distributing printed materials such as lesson instructions, announcements and maps; this was demonstrated during the American Association of School Administrators ' annual conference held in Cleveland. At
5208-553: A mixed legacy: even with WBOE's relative success, the concept failed to materialize on a national level. School districts that did not operate stations often did not have radio sets in their schools, while those that did either had issues with picking up stations, coordinating their classes with programs offered, or finding said programs to vary significantly in quality; Catholic University of America professor Josh Sheppard would later explain, "if you talk to old practitioners in public broadcasting , they actually use 'educational radio' as
5394-427: A modified diploma. Usually, to graduate, students need to take and pass four years of English (or Language Arts) classes, four years of Social Studies (or History) classes, three years of Math classes, (but four are recommended), Three years of Science classes, (but four are recommended), two years of Foreign language classes, one year of a Health education class, one year of a Physical education class, and
5580-526: A nationally distributed television program originating from WVIZ, hosted similar radio shows over both WBOE and WCLV ( 95.5 FM ) . John Basalla, involved with Baldwin Wallace College 's radio station WBWC since 1972, began working at WBOE as a part-timer in 1976 and also began archiving recordings and transcriptions used by the station throughout its history, many of which came from 16-inch electrical transcription discs, which he has continued to
5766-723: A new board with all 30 CPR trustees and all seven CPL trustees, giving CPR a 30–7 majority but also allowing for the WBOE license to be taken over as soon as possible and returned to air; Howley rejected this proposal, calling CPR's finances into question even with funding from the Gund Foundation. The Cleveland Board of Education filed to renew WBOE's license on July 11, 1979, which the FCC turned down on June 16, 1981, designating for hearing CPR and CPL's applications as mutually exclusive. Pleadings with an FCC-assigned administrative law judge had both groups spar over which would best "serve
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5952-682: A new requirement in 2006. This requirement has been an object of controversy when states have started to withhold diplomas, and the right to attend commencement exercises, if a student does not meet the standards set by the state. Pressure to allow people and organizations to create new Charter schools developed during the 1980s and were embraced by the American Federation of Teachers in 1988. These would be legally and financially autonomous public school free from many state laws and district regulations, and accountable more for student outcomes rather than for processes or inputs. Minnesota
6138-481: A part of President Lyndon B. Johnson 's War on Poverty , provided funds for primary and secondary education known as Title I funding while explicitly forbidding the establishment of a national curriculum . It emphasized equal access to education and established high standards and accountability. The bill also aimed to shorten the achievement gaps between students by providing every child with fair and equal opportunities to achieve an exceptional education. After 1980,
6324-595: A plan financing the construction of six educational UHF stations throughout Northeast Ohio, including one in Cleveland. Similar to radio 30 years earlier, the Cleveland schools forged arrangements with the city's three existing television stations— KYW-TV , WEWS-TV and WJW-TV —at the end of 1961, with each station providing a daily 15-minute block to air shows developed by WBOE staff; the schools were also furnished with up to $ 30,000 (equivalent to $ 305,880 in 2023) worth of television sets. Levenson had been elevated to Cleveland schools superintendent earlier in 1961 and held
6510-541: A policy of easy and open enrollment. The shift from theoretical to a more practical approach in curriculum also resulted in an increase of skilled blue-collar workers. The open enrollment nature and relatively relaxed standards, such as ease of repeating a grade, also contributed to the boom in secondary schooling. There was an increase in educational attainment, primarily from the grass-roots movement of building and staffing public high schools. By mid-century, comprehensive high schools became common, which were designed to give
6696-459: A pre-recorded eulogy; in his syndicated newspaper column, Feagler wrote, "cause of death—a stroke of the pen". The school board retained former NPR president Lee Frischknecht to help find ways to keep WBOE functional; Frischknecht made inquiries to both CPR and WVIZ as potential interim operators and continued to study options when the station was ordered closed. Further musing over WBOE's demise, Feagler wrote: ...despite what you may have read in
6882-557: A program feed for AM transmitters of AM/FM stations. SCA subcarriers are typically 67 kHz and 92 kHz. Initially the users of SCA services were private analog audio channels which could be used internally or leased, for example Muzak -type services. There were experiments with quadraphonic sound. If a station does not broadcast in stereo, everything from 23 kHz on up can be used for other services. The guard band around 19 kHz (±4 kHz) must still be maintained, so as not to trigger stereo decoders on receivers. If there
7068-439: A public radio outlet with all in-school programming moved to a second SCA subchannel, but the board was not interested. At the end of December 1976, WBOE added NPR's flagship program All Things Considered to the lineup, extending the broadcast day to 6:30 p.m; as 1977 started, WBOE operated for 18 hours daily, officially as an NPR member. WBOE's NPR addition was regarded as "half-hearted, poorly conceived and badly funded" as
7254-403: A public radio station, the Cleveland school district entered a cataclysmic period. The NAACP 's Cleveland branch sued the district in what became Reed vs. Rhodes on December 12, 1973, alleging the fostering of segregation and demanded the institution of desegregation busing. Arnold R. Pinkney, the school board's Black president, expressed worry that the lawsuit would heighten racial tensions in
7440-432: A ratings-dominated marketplace. Thus WCPN is unlikely to degenerate into the frothy small-talk shows and quick-hit news segments that characterize so much of Cleveland's commercial news-talk stations. James Ewinger, The Plain Dealer , for CSU Gamut A settlement was finally reached between CPL and CPR on June 24, 1982. Brokered over a cod dinner Norris hosted, the deal was borne out of Asseff's wishes to end
7626-475: A situation the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) was also reportedly embarrassed by. Norris garnered attention acting as Cleveland's pro bono legal counsel during the city's antitrust litigation against Cleveland Electric Illuminating (CEI) and envisioned WBOE becoming a radio equivalent to WVIZ. Norris' initial proposal to the Board of Education had CPR assume control of WBOE and convert it to
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7812-417: A stereo/mono switch to allow listening in mono when reception conditions are less than ideal, and most car radios are arranged to reduce the separation as the signal-to-noise ratio worsens, eventually going to mono while still indicating a stereo signal is received. As with monaural transmission, it is normal practice to apply pre-emphasis to the left and right channels before encoding and to apply de-emphasis at
7998-447: A test given later in the school year, they are given college credit at participating universities . Public high schools offer a wide variety of elective courses, which are classes that don't fall under any of the 'core' categories. Students usually choose to take elective classes tailored to their personality, interests, and after school activities. The availability of such courses depends upon each particular school, varying based on what
8184-460: A varying number of elective classes. Grades in American schools range from A (90% to 100%) to F (59% and below), excluding E. To pass a class and receive a credit for it, students usually need to receive a grade between A to D, or 100% to 60%. F, or 59% and below would be failing and students wouldn't receive credit for the class. An A grade is for greatly exceeding the expected standard, a B grade
8370-509: A year-long course. Additional study options can include classes in Sociology , and Psychology . Many states require a health or wellness course in order to graduate. The class typically covers basic anatomy , nutrition , first aid , sexual education , and how to make responsible decisions regarding illegal drugs , tobacco , and alcohol . In some places, contraception is not allowed to be taught for religious reasons. In some places,
8556-408: Is a form of modulation which conveys information by varying the frequency of a carrier wave ; the older amplitude modulation or AM varies the amplitude of the carrier, with its frequency remaining constant. With FM, frequency deviation from the assigned carrier frequency at any instant is directly proportional to the amplitude of the (audio) input signal, determining the instantaneous frequency of
8742-520: Is a sharp transition from the primary or elementary school model in which students remain with a single teacher in a single classroom.) The classes are usually a set of four or five (if foreign language is included in the curriculum) core academic classes ( English or " language arts ," science , mathematics , history or " social studies ," and in some schools, foreign language ) with two to four other classes, either electives, supplementary, or remedial academic classes. Some students also start taking
8928-525: Is added. VHF radio waves usually do not travel far beyond the visual horizon , so reception distances for FM stations are typically limited to 30–40 miles (50–60 km). They can also be blocked by hills and to a lesser extent by buildings. Individuals with more-sensitive receivers or specialized antenna systems, or who are located in areas with more favorable topography, may be able to receive useful FM broadcast signals at considerably greater distances. The knife edge effect can permit reception where there
9114-401: Is as follows: The normal stereo signal can be considered as switching between left and right channels at 38 kHz, appropriately band-limited. The quadraphonic signal can be considered as cycling through LF, LR, RF, RR, at 76 kHz. Early efforts to transmit discrete four-channel quadraphonic music required the use of two FM stations; one transmitting the front audio channels, the other
9300-422: Is authorized for "hybrid" mode operation, wherein both the conventional analog FM carrier and digital sideband subcarriers are transmitted. The output power of an FM broadcasting transmitter is one of the parameters that governs how far a transmission will cover. The other important parameters are the height of the transmitting antenna and the antenna gain . Transmitter powers should be carefully chosen so that
9486-584: Is available online. Organized radio broadcasting was introduced in the United States in the early 1920s, and by the mid-1930s, the standard amplitude modulation (AM) broadcast band was considered to be too full to allow any meaningful increase in the number of stations. Looking to expand the number of available frequencies, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) began to issue licenses to parties interested in testing
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#17328009968309672-466: Is claimed that no difference can be heard with most newer receivers. At present, the FCC rules do not allow this mode of stereo operation. In 1969, Louis Dorren invented the Quadraplex system of single station, discrete, compatible four-channel FM broadcasting. There are two additional subcarriers in the Quadraplex system, supplementing the single one used in standard stereo FM. The baseband layout
9858-508: Is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit. In most of the world a 50 μs time constant is used. In the Americas and South Korea , 75 μs is used. This applies to both mono and stereo transmissions. For stereo, pre-emphasis is applied to the left and right channels before multiplexing . The use of pre-emphasis becomes a problem because many forms of contemporary music contain more high-frequency energy than
10044-548: Is designed to be capable of use alongside ARI despite using identical subcarrier frequencies. In the United States and Canada , digital radio services are deployed within the FM band rather than using Eureka 147 or the Japanese standard ISDB . This in-band on-channel approach, as do all digital radio techniques, makes use of advanced compressed audio . The proprietary iBiquity system, branded as HD Radio ,
10230-982: Is for exceeding the expected standard, a C is the expected standard, a D is falling behind the expected standard, and an F (or fail) is greatly behind the expected standard. Sometimes a letter grade can have a + or a - next to it, related to what percentage was given. Instructors may choose to have the lowest possible grade be a 50%, and only grade 0% to assignments that have not been turned in. Middle schools and junior high schools are schools that which straddle elementary and high school education. "Middle" schools commonly serve sixth grade , seventh grade , and eighth grade , while "junior high" schools usually exclude sixth grade and can sometimes include ninth grade instead. Rarely, middle and junior high schools can also include fifth grade . Upon arrival in middle school or junior high school, students begin to enroll in class schedules in which they will take classes with several teachers in different classrooms on any given day. (This
10416-429: Is limited to 30 Hz to 15 kHz to protect a 19 kHz pilot signal. The (L−R) signal, which is also limited to 15 kHz, is amplitude modulated onto a 38 kHz double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSB-SC) signal, thus occupying 23 kHz to 53 kHz. A 19 kHz ± 2 Hz pilot tone , at exactly half the 38 kHz sub-carrier frequency and with a precise phase relationship to it, as defined by
10602-449: Is look it up. But I'm getting bitter and there is no place in an obit for bitterness. By the time you write the obit, bitterness is a day late and a dollar short. And I want to keep this an obit. So I'll end it the way they taught me to end obits. WBOE is dead. Friends may call, but it really won't do much good. Memorial services will be held in the memories of all of us who once were Cleveland school children. Interment ? Interment will be in
10788-480: Is mainly the preserve of talk radio, news, sports, religious programming, ethnic (minority language) broadcasting and some types of minority interest music. This shift has transformed AM into the "alternative band" that FM once was. (Some AM stations have begun to simulcast on, or switch to, FM signals to attract younger listeners and aid reception problems in buildings, during thunderstorms, and near high-voltage wires. Some of these stations now emphasize their presence on
10974-671: Is no direct line of sight between broadcaster and receiver. The reception can vary considerably depending on the position. One example is the Učka mountain range, which makes constant reception of Italian signals from Veneto and Marche possible in a good portion of Rijeka , Croatia, despite the distance being over 200 km (125 miles). Other radio propagation effects such as tropospheric ducting and Sporadic E can occasionally allow distant stations to be intermittently received over very large distances (hundreds of miles), but cannot be relied on for commercial broadcast purposes. Good reception across
11160-435: Is no obligation upon any state to accept these funds. The U.S. government may also propose, but cannot enforce national goals, objectives and standards, which generally lie beyond its jurisdiction. Many high schools in the United States offer a choice of vocational or college prep curriculum. Schools that offer vocational programs include a very high level of technical specialization, e.g., auto mechanics or carpentry, with
11346-496: Is only suitable for text. A few proprietary systems are used for private communications. A variant of RDS is the North American RBDS or "smart radio" system. In Germany the analog ARI system was used prior to RDS to alert motorists that traffic announcements were broadcast (without disturbing other listeners). Plans to use ARI for other European countries led to the development of RDS as a more powerful system. RDS
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#173280099683011532-595: Is open to anyone who does not carry a prohibition and can put up the appropriate licensing and royalty fees. In 2010 around 450 such licences were issued. Secondary education in the United States Secondary education is the last six or seven years of statutory formal education in the United States . It culminates with twelfth grade (age 17–18) . Whether it begins with sixth grade (age 11–12) or seventh grade (age 12–13) varies by state and sometimes by school district. Secondary education in
11718-508: Is related to the transmitter 's RF power, the antenna gain , and antenna height . Interference from other stations is also a factor in some places. In the U.S, the FCC publishes curves that aid in calculation of this maximum distance as a function of signal strength at the receiving location. Computer modelling is more commonly used for this around the world. Many FM stations, especially those located in severe multipath areas, use extra audio compression /processing to keep essential sound above
11904-630: Is stereo, there will typically be a guard band between the upper limit of the DSBSC stereo signal (53 kHz) and the lower limit of any other subcarrier. Digital data services are also available. A 57 kHz subcarrier ( phase locked to the third harmonic of the stereo pilot tone) is used to carry a low-bandwidth digital Radio Data System signal, providing extra features such as station name, alternative frequency (AF), traffic data for satellite navigation systems and radio text (RT). This narrowband signal runs at only 1,187.5 bits per second , thus
12090-467: Is the largest U.S. association dedicated to promoting this type of education. High schools in the United States base if students are able to graduate based off how many credits they have earned. How many credits are required to graduate and how many credits students earn from classes vary state by state. As an example, in Oregon , students are required to obtain a total of 24 credits before they graduate. At
12276-402: Is the sum of twice the maximum deviation and twice the maximum modulating frequency. For a transmission that includes RDS this would be 2 × 75 kHz + 2 × 60 kHz = 270 kHz . This is also known as the necessary bandwidth . Random noise has a triangular spectral distribution in an FM system, with the effect that noise occurs predominantly at the higher audio frequencies within
12462-691: Is usually a multiple of 100 kHz. In most of South Korea , the Americas , the Philippines , and the Caribbean , only odd multiples are used. Some other countries follow this plan because of the import of vehicles, principally from the United States, with radios that can only tune to these frequencies. In some parts of Europe , Greenland , and Africa , only even multiples are used. In the United Kingdom , both odd and even are used. In Italy , multiples of 50 kHz are used. In most countries
12648-510: The 42–44 MHz non-commercial allotment. Judging by the interest of educators in the operation of the Cleveland School Station WBOE, it is quite probable that there will be a steady, if not rapid, growth of such FM transmitters throughout the country. William B. Levenson, supervisor of radio activities, Cleveland Board of Education Four years later, the FCC announced that, due to interference concerns, it
12834-618: The Cleveland Public School system in Cleveland, Ohio, had shown interest in utilizing radio broadcasts as an instructional aide as early as 1925, broadcasting a music appreciation class over WTAM twice each week. Contracting with WHK in 1929, the school system purchased 15-minute blocks of airtime at reduced rates, focusing on specific subjects like arithmetic , music and geography; two Cleveland schools were selected for this experiment, with their existing public address system connected to WHK's signal. By February 1932,
13020-831: The FCC . Included were systems from 14 proponents including Crosby, Halstead, Electrical and Musical Industries, Ltd ( EMI ), Zenith, and General Electric. The individual systems were evaluated for their strengths and weaknesses during field tests in Uniontown, Pennsylvania , using KDKA-FM in Pittsburgh as the originating station. The Crosby system was rejected by the FCC because it was incompatible with existing subsidiary communications authorization (SCA) services which used various subcarrier frequencies including 41 and 67 kHz. Many revenue-starved FM stations used SCAs for "storecasting" and other non-broadcast purposes. The Halstead system
13206-595: The Light Programme , Third Programme and Home Service . These three networks used the sub-band 88.0–94.6 MHz. The sub-band 94.6–97.6 MHz was later used for BBC and local commercial services. However, only when commercial broadcasting was introduced to the UK in 1973 did the use of FM pick up in Britain. With the gradual clearance of other users (notably Public Services such as police, fire and ambulance) and
13392-641: The Ohio Bell Building and NPR facing a financial crisis all delayed the relaunch until the spring of 1984, with both the Gund Foundation and Cleveland Foundation providing financial support. Transmissions resumed on May 7, 1984, again with a silent carrier after the CRRS successfully secured funding to reactivate the station's SCA subchannel. The Woodhill-Quincy Administration building remained under Cleveland Metropolitan School District ownership after WBOE's closure and dissolution, but gradually fell into disuse and neglect. The district agreed to demolish
13578-440: The baseband . This can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high audio frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis , respectively. The amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used
13764-475: The $ 105,000 raised came outside of NPR's offerings, speaking to WKSU's health and strength; Perry was optimistic of both stations co-existing as WCPN focused more on ethnic programming and jazz. Perry also estimated that one-third of WKSU's listener support now came from Cleveland proper. In 1987, WKSU relied on listener support for 60% of their annual budget, compared to WCPN relying on support for 40% of their budget. WKSU and WCPN notably teamed up to help co-sponsor
13950-469: The 18th and 19th century, an "academy" was what later became known as a high school. In most towns there were no public schools above the primary level. The typical college at first included a preparatory unit, which it dropped by 1900. In the nineteenth century an academy was what later became known as a high school; in most places in the U.S. there were no public schools above the primary level. Some older high schools, such as Corning Free Academy , retained
14136-490: The 50 states and the national capital of Washington, D.C. , and 59% of these had waiting lists. Authority to regulate education resides constitutionally with the individual states, with direct authority of the U.S. Congress and the federal U.S. Department of Education being limited to regulation and enforcement of federal constitutional rights. Great indirect authority is, however, exercised through federal funding of national programs and block grants although there
14322-623: The 85th floor of the Empire State Building in New York City . These FM multiplex transmissions started in November 1934 and consisted of the main channel audio program and three subcarriers : a fax program, a synchronizing signal for the fax program and a telegraph order channel. These original FM multiplex subcarriers were amplitude modulated. Two musical programs, consisting of both the Red and Blue Network program feeds of
14508-456: The Apex band, WBOE did not have any discernable audience otherwise; as educator Paul C. Reed summarized the station, "WBOE, as originally set up, could reach its schools but could not reach an adult audience at home." At launch, WBOE only operated on school days for seven hours from 8:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. with instructional material for students from kindergarten to high school. Because of
14694-506: The Cleveland school board would donate their old equipment. The school board approved the proposal on September 9, 1982, also allowing CPR to assume a 1972 CPB grant awarded to WBOE for any technical upgrades. Due to the way this arrangement was handled, the FCC dismissed the Cleveland Board of Education's license renewal application on October 18, 1982, officially deleting WBOE's license and concurrently issued Cleveland Public Radio
14880-615: The Commission that they needed to either go silent or convert to FM transmission, effectively eliminating the Apex band. WBOE was one of only three educational Apex stations to have ever signed on, the other two being WNYE in New York City and WBKY in Beattyville, Kentucky . WBOE applied on August 5, 1940, to change to FM operation with 1,000 watts on 42.5 MHz and new FM radio receivers were purchased for placement in
15066-665: The FCC announced the reassignment of the FM band to 90 channels from 88–106 MHz (which was soon expanded to 100 channels from 88–108 MHz). This shift, which the AM-broadcaster RCA had pushed for, made all the Armstrong-era FM receivers useless and delayed the expansion of FM. In 1961 WEFM (in the Chicago area) and WGFM (in Schenectady, New York ) were reported as the first stereo stations. By
15252-597: The FCC mandated WKSU's signal had to be directional aimed away from Cleveland to protect WBOE as both were third-adjacent signals; this resulted in WKSU having coverage issues throughout Cuyahoga County. WBOE's carrier signal was still active and continued broadcasting the CRRS over their SCA subchannel but continuous dead air over conventional FM receivers; the reading service paid WBOE $ 73,000 annually to keep two engineers employed, thus WBOE never filed an STA request to remain off-air. The CRRS broadcasts were suspended due to
15438-496: The FCC that the system was compatible with existing two-channel stereo transmission and reception and that it did not interfere with adjacent stations. There were several variations on this system submitted by GE, Zenith, RCA, and Denon for testing and consideration during the National Quadraphonic Radio Committee field trials for the FCC. The original Dorren Quadraplex System outperformed all
15624-520: The FM band.) The medium wave band (known as the AM band because most stations using it employ amplitude modulation) was overcrowded in western Europe, leading to interference problems and, as a result, many MW frequencies are suitable only for speech broadcasting. Belgium , the Netherlands , Denmark and particularly Germany were among the first countries to adopt FM on a widespread scale. Among
15810-979: The FM radio band from 87.5-108.0 MHz to 76.1-108.0 MHz to enable the migration of AM radio stations in Brazilian capitals and large cities. FM broadcasting began in the late 1930s, when it was initiated by a handful of early pioneer experimental stations, including W1XOJ/W43B/WGTR (shut down in 1953) and W1XTG/ WSRS , both transmitting from Paxton, Massachusetts (now listed as Worcester, Massachusetts ); W1XSL/W1XPW/W65H/WDRC-FM/WFMQ/WHCN , Meriden, Connecticut; and W2XMN , KE2XCC , and WFMN , Alpine, New Jersey (owned by Edwin Armstrong himself, closed down upon Armstrong's death in 1954). Also of note were General Electric stations W2XDA Schenectady and W2XOY New Scotland, New York—two experimental FM transmitters on 48.5 MHz—which signed on in 1939. The two began regular programming, as W2XOY, on November 20, 1940. Over
15996-399: The FM transmitter. The terms composite , multiplex and even MPX are used interchangeably to describe this signal. The instantaneous deviation of the transmitter carrier frequency due to the stereo audio and pilot tone (at 10% modulation) is where A and B are the pre-emphasized left and right audio signals and f p {\displaystyle f_{p}} =19 kHz is
16182-473: The NAEB Tape Network, which functioned through mail order reel-to-reel tapes instead of dedicated phone lines. WNYE had already been supplying recordings of their weekly Assignment: U.N. to WBOE, which was utilized for high school students. By 1954, WBOE was one of approximately 90 stations that participated in the service, and one of nine in the state. WBOE occasionally did broadcast outside of
16368-590: The NBC Radio Network, were simultaneously transmitted using the same system of subcarrier modulation as part of a studio-to-transmitter link system. In April 1935, the AM subcarriers were replaced by FM subcarriers, with much improved results. The first FM subcarrier transmissions emanating from Major Armstrong's experimental station KE2XCC at Alpine, New Jersey occurred in 1948. These transmissions consisted of two-channel audio programs, binaural audio programs and
16554-535: The Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the college and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. It evolved into the University of Pennsylvania . By 1840 3,204 academies and similar secondary schools were in operation. Most lasted only a few years but others were created and by 1860 6,415 were in operation nationwide. The first public secondary schools started around the 1830s and 40s within
16740-667: The South never reopened. Like Amherst, a number of colleges began as (high school) academies, then became a college by adding post-secondary unit, and then finally dropped the pre-collegiate academy. Several colleges were indirectly influenced by the academy model, including Brown University in Rhode Island and Dartmouth College in New Hampshire.In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the academy and Charitable School of
16926-573: The United States occurs in two phases. The first. as classified by the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), is the lower secondary phase, either called a middle school or junior high school. A middle school is for students sixth grade , seventh grade and eighth grade and a junior high school is only for students in seventh and eighth grade. The second is the ISCED upper secondary phase,
17112-439: The WBOE call sign , the station became fully licensed on November 21, 1938, as the first authorized educational broadcasting station with facilities and transmitter located at Lafayette School on Abell Avenue. 150 custom-built crystal radio sets were purchased by the district and distributed to all the schools, tuned to pick up WBOE and the respective school's public address system. Because conventional radio sets could not pick up
17298-515: The arts. Some schools have been set up for students who do not succeed with normal academic standards; while others, like Harvey Milk High School , have even been created for special social groups such as LGBT students. Most states operate special residential schools for the blind and deaf , although a substantial number of such students are mainstreamed into standard schools. Several operate residential high schools for highly gifted students in specialized areas such as science, mathematics, or
17484-518: The background noise for listeners, often at the expense of overall perceived sound quality. In such instances, however, this technique is often surprisingly effective in increasing the station's useful range. The first radio station to broadcast in FM in Brazil was Rádio Imprensa, which began broadcasting in Rio de Janeiro in 1955, on the 102.1 MHz frequency, founded by businesswoman Anna Khoury. Due to
17670-465: The building can support and if the school can afford to hold them. Electives may be taken over the course of a full year or over the course of an academic term . Students are usually required to take several elective classes over the course of high school to graduate. This can include physical education and foreign language classes, but sometimes these are separate. Common types of electives include: The Association for Career and Technical Education
17856-420: The building in 2010 as part of a larger slate of 25 demolitions throughout the city. That's the only way we were able to get him here... (WKSU and WCPN) are walking arm in arm, each with a hand grenade that has the pin pulled, clasped in our teeth, and our hands on the trigger. John Perry, WKSU general manager, on teaming up with WCPN to book a 1985 Garrison Keillor appearance WCPN decided to adopt
18042-533: The circumstances, students may receive a diploma different from the standard. Students that take a certain number of honors classes or college credit classes can receive an advanced diploma. The highest-performing student in the grade usually receives the valedictorian title, along with a special diploma. On the contrary, students with extenuating circumstances (for example, the COVID-19 pandemic ) that negatively impacted or interrupted their learning may receive
18228-580: The city's east side originally built for the National Castings Company in 1921. The studio move was completed on December 16, 1974; additionally, the station's transmitter was moved from Lafayette School to a new tower in Parma, Ohio , along with a power upgrade to 50,000 watts. A multimedia slideshow prepared by WBOE in early January 1975 touted the station's planned conversion into a public radio outlet and planned link with NPR but progress
18414-428: The city; the district later claimed fears of white flight precluded them from implementing a plan of their own volition. Presiding over the case, U.S. District Judge Frank J. Battisti ruled on August 31, 1976, that both the local and state boards of education were guilty of deliberately inducing segregation practices, issuing the first of what would become 4,000 court orders over the next six years. The school board
18600-647: The control given to students varies from state to state and school to school. The schools are managed by local school districts rather than by the central government. Some states and cities offer special high schools with examinations to admit only the highest performing students, such as Boston Latin School , several schools in the New York City Specialized High School system or Alexandria, Virginia 's Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology . Other high schools cater to
18786-431: The country is one of the main advantages over DAB/+ radio . This is still less than the range of AM radio waves, which because of their lower frequencies can travel as ground waves or reflect off the ionosphere , so AM radio stations can be received at hundreds (sometimes thousands) of miles. This is a property of the carrier wave's typical frequency (and power), not its mode of modulation. The range of FM transmission
18972-414: The country offer Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses to be taken instead of the ones created by the school and/or school district . These classes have a standard curriculum, making them easy to study for, but are more rigorous as they are college level. Students may take these for classes they are more proficient in if they want a challenge. If students earn a good score on
19158-839: The curriculum set by Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). Other science courses offered at high schools include geology , ecology , astronomy , health , and forensic . High school math courses typically include Pre-algebra , Algebra I , Geometry , Algebra II with trigonometry classes. Advanced study options can include Precalculus , Calculus , and Statistics . English and language classes are usually required for four years of high school although many schools count journalism , public speaking/debate, foreign language , literature , drama , and writing (both technical and creative) classes as English/Language classes. Social studies classes include History , Political Science , Economics and Geography . Political science and Economics classes are sometimes combined as two semesters of
19344-541: The demands of accommodating commercial radio, that prompted the school system to enter broadcasting. On July 22, 1937, the Cleveland Board of Education filed paperwork to establish an experimental radio station on 26.4 MHz but the FCC reallocated the Apex frequencies after discovering ionospheric strengthening from high solar activity resulted in strong and undesirable skywave , with two existing stations being heard as far away as Australia. Announced in October 1937,
19530-515: The differences... from being a local and not a regional station." Edward L. Hoon of the Ohio Education Association cited WBOE as a way to effectively reach students who were sick, hospitalized or unable to physically attend classes. Even as WBOE was a non-commercial station, the Cleveland Public Schools made special arrangements with WTAM, WHK, WGAR , WCLE and WJW to provide access to educational sustaining programs from
19716-671: The dispute, federal funding reductions in public broadcasting and local changes to tax funding for the CPL. CPR offered to expand its board of directors from 24 to 31 members, adding three persons each from the CPL and Cuyahoga Community College , plus one from the Board of Education for the first 10 years of the new station's existence. In turn, the CPL agreed to have CPR take control of WBOE's assets and withdrew their license application. CPR also agreed to provide airtime for school board news and to provide vocational training for students, and would air programming provided by Cuyahoga Community College and
19902-448: The district had the ability to do as it still held the license, albeit expired. The FCC deferred on making a decision between the two groups, owing to both being qualified and politically well-connected, with some accusing the commission of timidity . After a power increase on July 22, 1980, WKSU added Cleveland to its primary coverage area with the city receiving a city-grade signal but the CPL contested an additional power upgrade even as
20088-529: The district moved their broadcasts back to WTAM, now NBC -owned, which offered them a daily block of airtime. During the WTAM partnership, the school programs became more sophisticated, including a 43-part series on literacy , geared towards specific age groups from elementary to high school . It would be a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation 's General Education Board in 1937, coupled with
20274-487: The district were initially reluctant to work with the medium, a full generation of teachers had "grown up with radio" and thus saw the value and potential of mass media . Earlier in 1953, the Board of Education set aside $ 200,000 (equivalent to $ 2.28 million in 2023) for possible investment into a television station, committing to investigate the necessary costs. It would not be until 1961 that area civic leaders, including Cleveland mayor Anthony J. Celebrezze , agreed to
20460-554: The duplication of programs containing music on FM stations, preventing WBOE from accessing CBS's The American School of the Air via WGAR; the AFM relaxed the ban for WBOE a few weeks later. WBOE also rebroadcast installments of The Ohio Story , a regionally syndicated anthology series WTAM originated by arrangement of Ohio Bell with all commercials excised. As radio networks phased out sustaining programming, WBOE began carrying shows through
20646-403: The effects, the vices, and the virtues of public radio in Cleveland would be, at best, speculative because one of the two NPR-designated stations is not on the air (as of press time). But this much can be said: WCPN intends to offer a measure of public-affairs programming and news that has been little in evidence in commercial radio here... because it is relatively well insulated from the ravages of
20832-447: The end of a semester (halfway through the school year), the student earns 0.5 credits for each class they have a passing grade in (usually above 50%). If the student does not earn a credit, they are able to earn the credit through retaking the class, taking a specific credit recovery class, taking the class at a summer school , or taking the same or an equivalent class online . These options are also available for students who wish to get
21018-464: The end of the year WBOE was permitted to broadcast on both frequencies. On January 1, 1949, WBOE began broadcast solely on 90.3 MHz , increasing its transmitter power to 3,000 watts and an effective radiated power (ERP) of 10,000 watts; a power upgrade to 5,000 watts and an ERP of 15,000 watts took place on December 9, 1959. No other school system in the country, as yet, has carried the experiment of direct teaching by radio quite so far. For example,
21204-486: The end of the year, and WBOE was reassigned to 44.3 MHz . WBOE's initial assignment on the new FM "high" band was for 90.1 MHz , however a subsequent reallocation in the fall of 1947 moved the station to 90.3 MHz . During a transition period, the FCC allowed stations to simultaneously broadcast on both their old and new assignments, and in July 1948 the Board of Education requested permission to remain on 44.5 MHz "for as long as possible", and from September 1 to
21390-440: The enrollment rates of secondary schools in the United States were around 80%, higher than enrollment rates in most or all European countries. The goal became to minimize the number who exited at the mandatory attendance age, which varies by state between 14 and 18 years of age, and become considered to be dropouts , at risk of economic failure. In 1965, the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act ('ESEA'), passed as
21576-434: The establishment of neighborhood, district, or community high schools in the larger cities which may have had one or two schools since the 19th century. High school enrollment and graduation numbers and rates increased markedly, mainly due to the building of new schools, and a practical curriculum based on gaining skills "for life" rather than "for college". There was a shift towards local decision making by school districts, and
21762-567: The extension of the FM band to 108.0 MHz between 1980 and 1995, FM expanded rapidly throughout the British Isles and effectively took over from LW and MW as the delivery platform of choice for fixed and portable domestic and vehicle-based receivers. In addition, Ofcom (previously the Radio Authority) in the UK issues on demand Restricted Service Licences on FM and also on AM (MW) for short-term local-coverage broadcasting which
21948-677: The first Star Wars film trilogy . After NPR's board denied this request, Conrad pulled the Chicago Symphony , the Milwaukee Symphony and New York Philharmonic broadcasts off WKSU and threatened to do the same for Cleveland Orchestra broadcasts WCLV originated and syndicated. In turn, WKSU general manager John Perry threatened to deny the winner for the 90.3 FM license carriage rights for A Prairie Home Companion (syndicated by American Public Media , which unlike NPR, allowed affiliates to claim market exclusivity) as
22134-433: The first in the state of Ohio, still maintaining a schedule from 8:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. on school days. The National Association of Educational Broadcasters (NAEB) expressed hope WBOE's FM conversion and the coming availability of FM sets entering the marketplace could help the station find listeners outside of the classroom, a sentiment shared by U.S. Commissioner of Education John W. Studebaker , who lobbied for
22320-560: The format and calls of WCLV from 104.9 FM on March 28, 2022, following a programming merger between WCPN and WKSU. WCLV's studios are located at Playhouse Square in Downtown Cleveland with the transmitter residing in the Cleveland suburb of Parma . In addition to a standard analog transmission , WCLV broadcasts over three HD Radio channels, is simulcast over the third HD subchannel of WKSU and its repeater network, relayed over WVIZ 's 25.8 audio-only subchannel, and
22506-481: The formula below, is also generated. The pilot is transmitted at 8–10% of overall modulation level and used by the receiver to identify a stereo transmission and to regenerate the 38 kHz sub-carrier with the correct phase. The composite stereo multiplex signal contains the Main Channel (L+R), the pilot tone, and the (L−R) difference signal. This composite signal, along with any other sub-carriers, modulates
22692-537: The four major radio networks: NBC, Blue / ABC , CBS and Mutual . All stations supplied private lines to WBOE's studios for the purpose of either directly broadcasting sustaining programs to a classroom or to record them for future rebroadcast, sometimes with added narration. Provided daily listings from all four networks, WBOE had the ability to broadcast live speeches or addresses from world leaders if any network carried it. Newscasts from all four networks were also rebroadcast, along with locally originated programs from
22878-482: The frequency of the pilot tone. Slight variations in the peak deviation may occur in the presence of other subcarriers or because of local regulations. Another way to look at the resulting signal is that it alternates between left and right at 38 kHz, with the phase determined by the 19 kHz pilot signal. Most stereo encoders use this switching technique to generate the 38 kHz subcarrier, but practical encoder designs need to incorporate circuitry to deal with
23064-413: The growth in educational attainment decreased, which caused the growth of the educated workforce to slow down. Under the education reform movement started in the early 1990s by many state legislatures and the federal government, about two-thirds of the nation's public high school students are required to pass a graduation exam , usually at the 10th and higher grade levels, though no new states had adopted
23250-458: The health and physical education class are combined into one class or are offered in alternate semesters. In some private schools, such as Catholic schools , theology is required before a student graduates. Two years of physical education (usually referred to as "gym," "PE" or "phys ed" by students) is commonly required, although some states and school districts require that all students take Physical Education every term . Most high schools in
23436-513: The high import costs of FM radio receivers, transmissions were carried out in circuit closed to businesses and stores, which played ambient music offered by radio. Until 1976, Rádio Imprensa was the only station operating in FM in Brazil. From the second half of the 1970s onwards, FM radio stations began to become popular in Brazil, causing AM radio to gradually lose popularity. In 2021, the Brazilian Ministry of Communications expanded
23622-524: The late 1960s, FM had been adopted for broadcast of stereo "A.O.R.—' Album Oriented Rock ' Format", but it was not until 1978 that listenership to FM stations exceeded that of AM stations in North America. In most of the 70s FM was seen as highbrow radio associated with educational programming and classical music, which changed during the 1980s and 1990s when Top 40 music stations and later even country music stations largely abandoned AM for FM. Today AM
23808-501: The late 1970s, Dolby FM was similar to Dolby B but used a modified 25 μs pre-emphasis time constant and a frequency selective companding arrangement to reduce noise. The pre-emphasis change compensates for the excess treble response that otherwise would make listening difficult for those without Dolby decoders. A similar system named High Com FM was tested in Germany between July 1979 and December 1981 by IRT . It
23994-465: The left (L) and right (R) channels are algebraically encoded into sum (L+R) and difference (L−R) signals. A mono receiver will use just the L+R signal so the listener will hear both channels through the single loudspeaker. A stereo receiver will add the difference signal to the sum signal to recover the left channel, and subtract the difference signal from the sum to recover the right channel. The (L+R) signal
24180-520: The levy failure for the schools to close so they could file for unemployment benefits . Battisti, who sought to keep the schools operational, twice found the school board in contempt of court for failing to comply with his orders but agreed to delay the busing plan until 1979. As the school year began on September 12, 1978, Cleveland's teachers union went on strike , closing all school buildings and preventing in-school instructional programming from resuming over WBOE. The Ohio Board of Education provided
24366-416: The library's director was not opposed to it. Howley and Norris expressed disappointment over failing to find common ground while Norris considered it "regrettable" a station based outside of Cleveland brought back public radio to Cleveland. WKSU's incursion resulted in a feud with WCLV and station president Robert Conrad, who sought to carry NPR fare unavailable in Cleveland, including a radio adaptation of
24552-412: The losing bidder in the auction, CPR contested WBOE's transfer to the library, filing a competing application for the 90.3 FM frequency on October 17, 1979. CPR chairman Brad Norris explained the filing was within the bounds of the FCC's 30-day period for public comment set aside for radio station transactions. Norris again offered a compromise and merger proposal with CPL by late 1979 that would create
24738-483: The majority of its existence, WBOE joined National Public Radio (NPR) in 1977 but shut down the following year due to extreme fiscal distress within the Cleveland Public Schools; this resulted in the absence of public radio in Cleveland proper until successor station WCPN's launch in 1984. Originally one of two NPR member stations in the Northeast Ohio region alongside Kent –licensed WKSU , this station assumed
24924-480: The maximum permitted carrier deviation is invariably ±75 kHz, although a little higher is permitted in the United States when SCA systems are used. For a monophonic broadcast, again the most common permitted maximum deviation is ±75 kHz. However, some countries specify a lower value for monophonic broadcasts, such as ±50 kHz. The bandwidth of an FM transmission is given by the Carson bandwidth rule which
25110-427: The maximum permitted frequency error of the unmodulated carrier is specified, which typically should be within 2 kHz of the assigned frequency. There are other unusual and obsolete FM broadcasting standards in some countries, with non-standard spacings of 1, 10, 30, 74, 500, and 300 kHz. To minimise inter-channel interference, stations operating from the same or nearby transmitter sites tend to keep to at least
25296-472: The muck of the present. WBOE's suspension resulted in the Greater Cleveland radio market earning the dubious distinction as being the largest market in the United States, and the only major-market city, without a designated public radio outlet. In WBOE's absence, WKSU-FM, which carried NPR programming starting in 1973, became the de facto sole NPR member station in northeast Ohio. Despite this,
25482-474: The musical styles which prevailed at the birth of FM broadcasting. Pre-emphasizing these high-frequency sounds would cause excessive deviation of the FM carrier . Modulation control (limiter) devices are used to prevent this. Systems more modern than FM broadcasting tend to use either programme-dependent variable pre-emphasis; e.g., dbx in the BTSC TV sound system, or none at all. Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
25668-536: The new allocations resulted in a dedicated band for Apex stations consisting of 75 channels with 40 kHz separations, and spanning from 41.02–43.98 MHz . In addition, the band's first 25 channels, from 41.02–41.98 MHz , were reserved in January 1938 for non-commercial educational stations . The school board's application was accordingly modified on January 31, 1938, from an experimental station to an educational station at 41.5 MHz with 500 watts . Assigned
25854-417: The newspaper, there are no firm plans afoot right now to save (WBOE). But then, when you come right down to it, we are rotten at saving worthwhile things, aren't we? Wouldn't you agree with that? We are much better at destruction than we are at preservation, doesn't it seem that way to you? This is the land of Noah Webster and we haven't learned the difference between progress and destruction. All we have to do
26040-540: The next few years this station operated under the call signs W57A, W87A and WGFM, and moved to 99.5 MHz when the FM band was relocated to the 88–108 MHz portion of the radio spectrum. General Electric sold the station in the 1980s. Today this station is WRVE . Other pioneers included W2XQR/W59NY/WQXQ/WQXR-FM , New York; W47NV/WSM-FM Nashville, Tennessee (signed off in 1951); W1XER/W39B/WMNE , with studios in Boston and later Portland, Maine, but whose transmitter
26226-560: The offerings. Students in Glenville High's telecommunications program produced Music Connection , a weekly show on music appreciation centered around rock and roll and R&B that ran on WBOE over the summer of 1977. Several announcers joined the station as a result of the programming expansion, including onetime WJMO announcer Karl Johnson, who had already been working for the school district as public relations director. British classical pianist Clive Lythgoe , who already had
26412-570: The others and was chosen as the national standard for Quadraphonic FM broadcasting in the United States. The first commercial FM station to broadcast quadraphonic program content was WIQB (now called WWWW-FM ) in Ann Arbor / Saline, Michigan under the guidance of Chief Engineer Brian Jeffrey Brown. Various attempts to add analog noise reduction to FM broadcasting were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s: A commercially unsuccessful noise reduction system used with FM radio in some countries during
26598-486: The participating schools. A transmitter and FM exciter were donated to the station by FM's inventor, Major Edwin Howard Armstrong , who was impressed with the station's educational work during a tour of their facilities. On February 3, 1941, WBOE achieved several firsts: it became the first licensed non-commercial educational station on FM in the United States, the first licensed FM station in Cleveland and one of
26784-407: The position until resigning in 1964 amid demands to implement desegregation busing with three predominantly white schools, but declined to cite that as the reason for his resignation. WVIZ signed on as Cleveland's educational television outlet on February 7, 1965, owned by a consortium and based out of Max S. Hayes High School . Like WBOE, WVIZ strictly carried in-school instructional fare during
26970-459: The present day. Ethnic shows, traditionally a staple of commercial station WZAK , were added to the Saturday lineup, with WBOE joining WOSU , KQED-FM and WUSF among non-commercial educational stations that also broadcast ethnic fare. WBOE was one of several stations in the area that picked up NPR's Jazz Alive! along with featuring jazz in assorted hours. Jay Robert Klein, involved with
27156-636: The previous year's fifth graders. Schools that miss AYP for a second consecutive year are publicly labeled as in need of improvement, and students have the option to transfer to a better school within the school district, if such options exist. Standards-based education has been embraced in most states which changed the measurement of success to academic achievement, rather than the completion of 12 years of education. By 2006, two-thirds of students lived in states with effective standards requiring passing tests to ensure that all graduates had achieved these standards. By 2009, charter schools were operating in 41 of
27342-466: The prior arrangements on WTAM and WHK, several divisions in the school district already boasted as much as eight years of broadcasting experience. Studios were constructed on the sixth floor of the Board of Education building in Downtown Cleveland , which radio supervisor William B. Levenson boasted as "one of the finest in the country". All but one of the high schools in the district launched radio workshops that originated educational programming for WBOE in
27528-400: The public interest". CPR touted its desire to be a community based nonprofit with regional support, while CPL saw the radio station as a valuable addition to its existing role as an information service. Animosity between Howley and Norris worsened as Howley called CPR "a nothing organization" in an FCC filing, while Norris publicly criticized Howley's conduct. Compounding matters, Howley was also
27714-799: The quality of education is higher and much more is expected from the enrolled student. Intermediate school is an uncommon term, and can either be a synonym for middle school (notably as used by the New York City public schools) or for schools that encompass the latter years of elementary education prior to middle school/junior high school, serving grades 3 or 4 through 5 or 6. These can also be called 'upper elementary' schools. High schools , or senior high schools, are schools that span grades 8, 9, or 10 through 12. Most American high schools are comprehensive high schools and accept all students from their local area, regardless of ability or vocational/college track. Students have significant control of their education, and may choose even their core classes, although
27900-507: The rear channels. A breakthrough came in 1970 when KIOI ( K-101 ) in San Francisco successfully transmitted true quadraphonic sound from a single FM station using the Quadraplex system under Special Temporary Authority from the FCC . Following this experiment, a long-term test period was proposed that would permit one FM station in each of the top 25 U.S. radio markets to transmit in Quadraplex. The test results hopefully would prove to
28086-559: The reasons for this were: Public service broadcasters in Ireland and Australia were far slower at adopting FM radio than those in either North America or continental Europe . Hans Idzerda operated a broadcasting station, PCGG , at The Hague from 1919 to 1924, which employed narrow-band FM transmissions. In the United Kingdom the BBC conducted tests during the 1940s, then began FM broadcasting in 1955, with three national networks:
28272-478: The receiver after decoding. In the U.S. around 2010, using single-sideband modulation for the stereo subcarrier was proposed. It was theorized to be more spectrum-efficient and to produce a 4 dB s/n improvement at the receiver, and it was claimed that multipath distortion would be reduced as well. A handful of radio stations around the country broadcast stereo in this way, under FCC experimental authority. It may not be compatible with very old receivers, but it
28458-570: The required area is covered without causing interference to other stations further away. Practical transmitter powers range from a few milliwatts to 80 kW. As transmitter powers increase above a few kilowatts, the operating costs become high and only viable for large stations. The efficiency of larger transmitters is now better than 70% (AC power in to RF power out) for FM-only transmission. This compares to 50% before high efficiency switch-mode power supplies and LDMOS amplifiers were used. Efficiency drops dramatically if any digital HD Radio service
28644-434: The same time the 41–44 MHz Apex band was established, the FCC noted that research would begin on the technical requirements of frequency modulation as a possible alternative to the ultra high frequency broadcasts that Apex utilitzed. FM experimentations soon revealed significant advantages to Apex, especially with sound quality and resistance to interference from static, including from lightning. The reassigned Apex band
28830-603: The school day and was aligned with school districts throughout the area. Even with the competition from television, WBOE continued with educational fare. Southern Illinois University professor Richard Swerdlin considered educational radio in 1967 to be an inexpensive and overlooked alternative to television, citing WBOE as one of several "outstanding" stations in the field. In 1963, Leetonia High School in Leetonia, Ohio , began playing programs taped from both WBOE and Kent State University 's WKSU-FM , showing tangible results among
29016-401: The school day: for a two-week period in January 1954, WBOE experimented with a five-hour evening program block aimed at adults; such fare already aired over WBOE during semester breaks. When WERE-FM (98.5) suspended broadcasting as part of an antenna upgrade, WBOE broadcast that station's evening programming commercial-free from late January 1958 until March 1958, with WERE-FM management sending
29202-499: The school district since the end of World War II, became WBOE's final station manager in 1974 while junior high school programmer Tom Altenbernd was with WBOE from 1952 until retiring in 1977. WBOE's visibility in the market remained imperceptible, however, failing to attract more than one percent of listeners in area Arbitron ratings . We're broke. You want any simpler than that? Paul Briggs, Cleveland Municipal School District superintendent While WBOE started to evolve into
29388-438: The son of CEI's lead counsel, the utility Norris helped litigate against. Donald R. Waldrip, the court-appointed desegregation administrator for the Cleveland school board, filed a request with Judge Frank Battisti by late August 1981 to cancel the sale of WBOE to the library and instead sell the assets to CPR. Earlier in the year, Waldrip's magnet school proposal for the district involved a provision to possibly reopen WBOE, which
29574-557: The start, and in some cases also by race or ethnic background, they unanimously recommended that "every subject which is taught at all in a secondary school should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to every pupil so long as he pursues it, no matter what the probable destination of the pupil may be, or at what point his education is to cease." Between 1910 and 1940, the high school movement resulted in rapidly increasing founding of public high schools in many cities and towns and later with further expansions in each locality with
29760-791: The station continued airing in-school educational programming during the weekday, did not set up a local news department or conduct pledge drives . With CPR unable to file for a non-commercial license of their own due to the Cleveland market being saturated with FM signals and the acquisition of a commercial license being cost-prohibitive, Norris again approached the Board of Education with the offer, along with endorsements from multiple Cleveland city councilmen and area community organizations, but were rejected. Production of in-school materials continued under coordinator Charles Siegel, with shows like Living today: Survival, It's your decision! and The Plain Dealer Green Thumb Club among
29946-630: The station it supplanted, WBOE . Under the auspices of the Cleveland Board of Education , WBOE signed on in 1938 as the first formally recognized educational radio station in the United States on the Apex band. In 1941, the station converted to the FM band, becoming not only the first educational FM station, but also the first licensed FM station in Cleveland and one of the first FM stations in Ohio. Featuring in-school instructional programming throughout
30132-468: The stations if they were of educational interest. Sustaining programs relayed over WBOE during the 1939–1940 school year included Mutual's Intercollegiate Debates , NBC's Gallant American Women and Between the Bookends , and CBS's Young People's Concerts . This arrangement was briefly imperiled in November 1945 when American Federation of Musicians president James Petrillo directed networks to ban
30318-484: The student body. One 1964 series directed toward junior high students centered around communism and life in Soviet Russia in both an economic and historical context. One of the station's highest-profile moments came when two students from Glenville and South High , respectively, interviewed Louis Stokes after his 1968 election to the U.S. House , which WBOE later broadcast. Ultimately, educational radio had
30504-437: The suitability of using higher transmitting frequencies between roughly 25 and 44 MHz . These stations were informally known as "Apex" stations, due to the tall height of their transmitter antennas, which were needed because coverage was primarily limited to local line-of-sight distances. These original Apex stations operated under experimental licenses, and like standard broadcasting stations, used AM transmissions. Meanwhile,
30690-462: The switching harmonics. Converting the multiplex signal back into left and right audio signals is performed by a decoder, built into stereo receivers. Again, the decoder can use a switching technique to recover the left and right channels. In addition, for a given RF level at the receiver, the signal-to-noise ratio and multipath distortion for the stereo signal will be worse than for the mono receiver. For this reason many stereo FM receivers include
30876-494: The tape network affiliates (including WBOE) did not join NPR proper despite the changes, a distinction NPR emphasized. The Cleveland school's emphasis on visual aides, including instructors and recorded music, to accentuate programs over WBOE led Variety to describe the radio station in their March 8, 1944, issue as "a close facsimile to actual television", suggesting that WBOE could be a forerunner to educational television . During
31062-402: The term in their names (Corning Free Academy, demoted to a middle school , closed in 2014). In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the college and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Today, it is known as the University of Pennsylvania . The United States Military Academy was formed in 1802 as
31248-465: The transmitted signal. Because transmitted FM signals use significantly more bandwidth than AM signals, this form of modulation is commonly used with the higher ( VHF or UHF ) frequencies used by TV , the FM broadcast band , and land mobile radio systems . The maximum frequency deviation of the carrier is usually specified and regulated by the licensing authorities in each country. For a stereo broadcast,
31434-520: The use of lantern slides in the classroom as a visual component. Saul Carson, writing for The New Republic , called WBOE "a model for the country" and "the most exciting broadcasting job being done". Contemporary historian Carroll Atkinson, Ph.D. regarded the Cleveland schools as the "strongest exponent of the 'master teacher' ideal in the value of radio instruction" while William B. Levenson called WBOE "America's Pioneer School Station". The station would soon have an international influence when Levenson
31620-460: The wealthier areas of similar income levels and greatly expanded after 1865 into the 1890s. Many high schools in the 19th century contained a "normal school" which trained students as teachers in common schools. Most of those enrolled were young women planning to teach a few years before marriage. High school enrollment increased when schools at this level became free tuition, and when compulsory education laws required teenagers to attend until
31806-435: Was "45% jazz and 55% news and public affairs", and the station expanded to 24-hour service on January 1, 1985. WCPN's sign-on came not only amidst a significant financial crisis for NPR over the past fiscal year, but also with WKSU having been Greater Cleveland's lone public radio outlet for nearly six years with significant signal overlap. WKSU general manager John Perry noted that during a recent pledge drive , $ 85,000 out of
31992-534: Was a featured speaker at a March 1946 conference for the Canadian National Advisory Council on School Broadcasting, with Canadian Broadcasting Corporation executives in attendance. The "Cleveland Plan" became a sobriquet to describe WBOE as a model for educational radio, but station director Edwin F. Helman downplayed this in 1949, writing, "we have the natural feeling that there is nothing different about our aims or programming—only
32178-444: Was a mixture of a pledge from The George Gund Foundation and assumption of a Health, Education and Welfare obligation and other outstanding debt. CPL held the winning bid of $ 205,000 (equivalent to $ 860,605 in 2023) and intended to relaunch the station as WCPL by year's end with paperwork transferring the license filed with the FCC, but prior to consummation, WBOE's license was discovered to have expired on October 1, 1979. While
32364-413: Was also still prone to extreme skywave propagation, with WBOE receiving reception reports throughout the western and southwestern U.S. and as far as England. In May 1940, the FCC decided to authorize an FM broadcast band, effective January 1, 1941, operating on 40 channels spanning 42–50 MHz , with the first five channels reserved for educational stations. Apex stations were subsequently informed by
32550-616: Was atop the highest mountain in the northeast United States, Mount Washington , New Hampshire (shut down in 1948); and W9XAO/W55M/WTMJ-FM Milwaukee, Wisconsin (went off air in 1950). A commercial FM broadcasting band was formally established in the United States as of January 1, 1941, with the first fifteen construction permits announced on October 31, 1940. These stations primarily simulcast their AM sister stations, in addition to broadcasting lush orchestral music for stores and offices, classical music to an upmarket listenership in urban areas, and educational programming. On June 27, 1945
32736-530: Was based on the Telefunken High ;Com broadband compander system, but was never introduced commercially in FM broadcasting. Yet another system was the CX -based noise reduction system FMX implemented in some radio broadcasting stations in the United States in the 1980s. FM broadcasting has included subsidiary communications authorization (SCA) services capability since its inception, as it
32922-461: Was criticized as the Cleveland school board had appointed many of the library's trustees. The school board held an auction for the station's license, with the minimum bid set at $ 200,000, and a stipulation that the winner would be responsible for renewing the station's license. Cleveland Public Radio bid $ 234,360.87 (equivalent to $ 983,864.34 in 2023) but this was rejected by the school board, which insisted that bids needed to be all-cash; CPR's bid
33108-580: Was held on September 8, 1984, at WCPN's new studios in the Cleveland Centre building. This event included a live show featuring vocalist Mel Tormé at the Cleveland Masonic Auditorium, followed by WCPN making its formal debut at 10 p.m. that evening. Among the attendees were NPR president Douglas J. Bennet , Morning Edition host Bob Edwards , Dick Feagler and WBBG / WMJI owner Larry Robinson. The original format
33294-489: Was mandated to institute a busing plan, but needed to raise money to fund it; a mill levy referendum failed on April 6, 1978, by a 2–1 margin almost entirely on racial lines, putting the district in debt of $ 30 million (equivalent to $ 140 million in 2023) and threatening an outright closure of the district. Faculty, which had not been paid for nearly a month, appealed to the Ohio Supreme Court after
33480-427: Was reallocating the current FM "low band" frequencies to other services, and existing FM band stations would be relocated to 88–106 MHz (later expanded to 108 MHz ). Once again this meant that the transmitter had to be replaced, and the school radios upgraded for reception on the new band. In July 1946, the FCC directed that FM stations currently operating on 42–44 MHz would have to move to new frequencies by
33666-457: Was rejected due to lack of high frequency stereo separation and reduction in the main channel signal-to-noise ratio. The GE and Zenith systems, so similar that they were considered theoretically identical, were formally approved by the FCC in April 1961 as the standard stereo FM broadcasting method in the United States and later adopted by most other countries. It is important that stereo broadcasts be compatible with mono receivers. For this reason,
33852-613: Was seen as another service which licensees could use to create additional income. Use of SCAs was particularly popular in the US, but much less so elsewhere. Uses for such subcarriers include radio reading services for the blind , which became common and remain so, private data transmission services (for example sending stock market information to stockbrokers or stolen credit card number denial lists to stores, ) subscription commercial-free background music services for shops, paging ("beeper") services, alternative-language programming, and providing
34038-539: Was slowed by both technical matters and a lack of willingness by school board officials to follow through. WBOE continued to operate solely from 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. on school days featuring in-school programming, with light entertainment, public service or classical music selections to conclude the broadcast day. The delays also impacted the launch of the Cleveland Radio Reading Service (CRRS): originally intending to broadcast over
34224-448: Was sometimes transmitted for teachers during after-school hours, introducing any forthcoming series and to familiarize themselves with course material and the presenters. By 1949, the school system employed eleven scriptwriters on a full-time basis, more than any of the 12 commercial radio stations in the city. Programs often had periods of silent intervals in order for teachers to present supplemental materials, and some programs incorporated
34410-479: Was the first state to pass a charter school law in 1991. In 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act required all public schools receiving federal funding to administer a statewide standardized test annually to all students. Schools that receive Title I funding must make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) in test scores; for instance, each year, fifth graders must do better on standardized tests than
34596-446: Was used in the earliest days of FM broadcasting. According to a BBC report from 1946, 100 μs was originally considered in the US, but 75 μs subsequently adopted. Long before FM stereo transmission was considered, FM multiplexing of other types of audio-level information was experimented with. Edwin Armstrong, who invented FM, was the first to experiment with multiplexing, at his experimental 41 MHz station W2XDG located on
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