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39-436: Mathematica is split into two parts: the kernel and the front end . The kernel interprets expressions (Wolfram Language code) and returns result expressions, which can then be displayed by the front end. The original front end, designed by Theodore Gray in 1988, consists of a notebook interface and allows the creation and editing of notebook documents that can contain code, plaintext, images, and graphics. Alternatives to

78-482: A desktop environment are implemented as a thin frontend for underlying command-line interface (CLI) programs, to save the user from learning the special terminology and memorizing the commands . Another way to understand the difference between the two is to understand the knowledge required of a frontend vs. a backend software developer . The list below focuses on web development as an example. Note that both positions, despite possibly working on one product, have

117-524: A die. Clojure Clojure ( / ˈ k l oʊ ʒ ər / , like closure ) is a dynamic and functional dialect of the programming language Lisp on the Java platform. Like most other Lisps, Clojure's syntax is built on S-expressions that are first parsed into data structures by a Lisp reader before being compiled . Clojure's reader supports literal syntax for maps , sets, and vectors along with lists, and these are compiled to

156-406: A Lisp dialect, Clojure supports functions as first-class objects , a read–eval–print loop (REPL), and a macro system. Clojure's Lisp macro system is very similar to that of Common Lisp with the exception that Clojure's version of the backquote (termed "syntax quote") qualifies symbols with their namespace . This helps prevent unintended name capture, as binding to namespace-qualified names

195-488: A command line front end. Other interfaces include JMath, based on GNU Readline and WolframScript which runs self-contained Mathematica programs (with arguments) from the UNIX command line. The file extension for Mathematica files is .nb and .m for configuration files. Mathematica is designed to be fully stable and backwards compatible with previous versions. Capabilities for high-performance computing were extended with

234-480: A computer output language. The backend usually optimizes to produce code that runs faster. The frontend/backend distinction can separate the parser section that deals with source code and the backend that generates code and optimizes . Some designs, such as GCC , offer choices between multiple frontends (parsing different source languages ) or backends (generating code for different target processors ). Some graphical user interface (GUI) applications running in

273-584: A half years working on Clojure before releasing it publicly in October 2007, much of that time working exclusively on Clojure with no outside funding. At the end of this time, Hickey sent an email announcing the language to some friends in the Common Lisp community. Clojure's name, according to Hickey, is a word play on the programming concept " closure " incorporating the letters C, L, and J for C# , Lisp , and Java respectively—three languages which had

312-566: A major influence on Clojure's design. Rich Hickey developed Clojure because he wanted a modern Lisp for functional programming , symbiotic with the established Java platform, and designed for concurrency . He has also stressed the importance of simplicity in programming language design and software architecture, advocating for loose coupling , polymorphism via protocols and type classes instead of inheritance , stateless functions that are namespaced instead of methods or replacing syntax with data . Clojure's approach to state

351-489: A very distinct set of skills. The frontend communicates with backend through an API . In the case of web and mobile frontends, the API is often based on HTTP request/response. The API is sometimes designed using the "Backend for Frontend" (BFF) pattern, that serves responses to ease the processing on frontend side. In network computing , frontend can refer to any hardware that optimizes or protects network traffic . It

390-403: Is actually done on the server itself. In software architecture , there may be many layers between the hardware and end user . The front is an abstraction, simplifying the underlying component by providing a user-friendly interface, while the back usually handles data storage and business logic . In telecommunication , the front can be considered a device or service, while the back

429-459: Is called application front-end hardware because it is placed on the network's outward-facing frontend or boundary . Network traffic passes through the front-end hardware before entering the network. In processor design , frontend design would be the initial description of the behavior of a circuit in a hardware description language such as Verilog , while backend design would be the process of mapping that behavior to physical transistors on

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468-443: Is characterized by the concept of identities, which are represented as a series of immutable states over time. Since states are immutable values, any number of workers can operate on them in parallel, and concurrency becomes a question of managing changes from one state to another. For this purpose, Clojure provides several mutable reference types , each having well-defined semantics for the transition between states. Clojure runs on

507-439: Is forbidden. It is possible to force a capturing macro expansion, but it must be done explicitly. Clojure does not allow user-defined reader macros, but the reader supports a more constrained form of syntactic extension. Clojure supports multimethods and for interface -like abstractions has a protocol based polymorphism and data type system using records , providing high-performance and dynamic polymorphism designed to avoid

546-602: Is intended to facilitate developing more robust, especially concurrent , programs that are simple and fast. While its type system is entirely dynamic , recent efforts have also sought the implementation of a dependent type system . The language was created by Rich Hickey in the mid-2000s, originally for the Java platform; the language has since been ported to other platforms, such as the Common Language Runtime (.NET). Hickey continues to lead development of

585-512: Is the infrastructure that supports provision of service. A rule of thumb is that the client-side (or "frontend") is any component manipulated by the user. The server-side (or "backend") code usually resides on the server , often far removed physically from the user. In content management systems , the terms frontend and backend may refer to the end-user facing views of the CMS and the administrative views, respectively. In speech synthesis ,

624-622: The recur keyword. For parallel and concurrent programming Clojure provides software transactional memory , a reactive agent system , and channel -based concurrent programming. Clojure 1.7 introduced reader conditionals by allowing the embedding of Clojure, ClojureScript and ClojureCLR code in the same namespace. Transducers were added as a method for composing transformations. Transducers enable higher-order functions such as map and fold to generalize over any source of input data. While traditionally these functions operate on sequences , transducers allow them to work on channels and let

663-424: The Java platform and as a result, integrates with Java and fully supports calling Java code from Clojure, and Clojure code can be called from Java, too. The community uses tools such as Clojure command-line interface (CLI) or Leiningen for project automation, providing support for Maven integration. These tools handle project package management and dependencies and are configured using Clojure syntax. As

702-467: The expression problem . Clojure has support for lazy sequences and encourages the principle of immutability and persistent data structures . As a functional language , emphasis is placed on recursion and higher-order functions instead of side-effect-based looping. Automatic tail call optimization is not supported as the JVM does not support it natively; it is possible to do so explicitly by using

741-525: The "Distinction" winners of the BYTE Awards, stating that it "is another breakthrough Macintosh application ... it could enable you to absorb the algebra and calculus that seemed impossible to comprehend from a textbook". Mathematica has been criticized for being closed source. Wolfram Research claims keeping Mathematica closed source is central to its business model and the continuity of the software. Front and back ends In software engineering ,

780-546: The "JVM Ecosystem Report 2018" (which was claimed to be "the largest survey ever of Java developers"), that was prepared in collaboration by Snyk and Java Magazine, ranked Clojure as the 2nd most used programming language on the JVM for "main applications". Clojure is used in industry by firms such as Apple , Atlassian , Funding Circle , Netflix , Nubank , Puppet , and Walmart as well as government agencies such as NASA . It has also been used for creative computing, including visual art, music, games, and poetry. In

819-413: The 2023 edition of Stack Overflow Developer Survey, Clojure was the fourth most admired in the category of programming and scripting languages, with 68.51% of the respondents who have worked with it last year saying they would like to continue using it. In the desired category, however it was marked as such by only 2.2% of the surveyed, whereas the highest scoring JavaScript was desired by 40.15% of

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858-462: The Clojure JIRA project page. Anyone can ask questions or submit issues and ideas at ask.clojure.org. If it's determined that a new issue warrants a JIRA ticket, a core team member will triage it and add it. JIRA issues are processed by a team of screeners and finally approved by Rich Hickey. With continued interest in functional programming, Clojure's adoption by software developers using

897-433: The Java platform has continued to increase. The language has also been recommended by software developers such as Brian Goetz, Eric Evans, James Gosling , Paul Graham , and Robert C. Martin . ThoughtWorks , while assessing functional programming languages for their Technology Radar, described Clojure as "a simple, elegant implementation of Lisp on the JVM" in 2010 and promoted its status to "ADOPT" in 2012. In

936-573: The Mathematica front end include Wolfram Workbench—an Eclipse -based integrated development environment (IDE) that was introduced in 2006. It provides project-based code development tools for Mathematica, including revision management, debugging, profiling, and testing. There is also a plugin for IntelliJ IDEA -based IDEs to work with Wolfram Language code that in addition to syntax highlighting can analyze and auto-complete local variables and defined functions. The Mathematica Kernel also includes

975-644: The Wolfram Language. Stephen Wolfram announced the launch of the Wolfram Function Repository in June 2019 as a way for the public Wolfram community to contribute functionality to the Wolfram Language. At the time of Stephen Wolfram's release announcement for Mathematica 13, there were 2,259 functions contributed as Resource Functions. In addition to the Wolfram Function Repository, there is a Wolfram Data Repository with computable data and

1014-620: The Wolfram Neural Net Repository for machine learning. Wolfram Mathematica is the basis of the Combinatorica package, which adds discrete mathematics functionality in combinatorics and graph theory to the program. Communication with other applications can be done using a protocol called Wolfram Symbolic Transfer Protocol (WSTP). It allows communication between the Wolfram Mathematica kernel and

1053-585: The front end and provides a general interface between the kernel and other applications. Wolfram Research freely distributes a developer kit for linking applications written in the programming language C to the Mathematica kernel through WSTP using J/Link., a Java program that can ask Mathematica to perform computations. Similar functionality is achieved with .NET /Link, but with .NET programs instead of Java programs. Other languages that connect to Mathematica include Haskell , AppleScript , Racket , Visual Basic , Python , and Clojure . Mathematica supports

1092-412: The frontend refers to the part of the synthesis system that converts the input text into a symbolic phonetic representation, and the backend converts the symbolic phonetic representation into actual sounds. In compilers , the frontend translates a computer programming source code into an intermediate representation , and the backend works with the intermediate representation to produce code in

1131-537: The generation and execution of Modelica models for systems modeling and connects with Wolfram System Modeler . Links are also available to many third-party software packages and APIs. Mathematica can also capture real-time data from a variety of sources and can read and write to public blockchains ( Bitcoin , Ethereum , and ARK). It supports import and export of over 220 data, image, video, sound, computer-aided design (CAD), geographic information systems (GIS), document, and biomedical formats. In 2019, support

1170-603: The introduction of packed arrays in version 4 (1999) and sparse matrices (version 5, 2003), and by adopting the GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library to evaluate high-precision arithmetic. Version 5.2 (2005) added automatic multi-threading when computations are performed on multi-core computers. This release included CPU-specific optimized libraries. In addition Mathematica is supported by third party specialist acceleration hardware such as ClearSpeed . In 2002, gridMathematica

1209-539: The language as its benevolent dictator for life . Rich Hickey is the creator of the Clojure language. Before Clojure, he developed dotLisp , a similar project based on the .NET platform, and three earlier attempts to provide interoperability between Lisp and Java : a Java foreign language interface for Common Lisp ( jfli ), A Foreign Object Interface for Lisp (FOIL), and a Lisp-friendly interface to Java Servlets (Lisplets). Hickey spent about two and

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1248-510: The mentioned structures directly. Clojure treats code as data and has a Lisp macro system. Clojure is a Lisp-1 and is not intended to be code-compatible with other dialects of Lisp, since it uses its own set of data structures incompatible with other Lisps. Clojure advocates immutability and immutable data structures and encourages programmers to be explicit about managing identity and its states. This focus on programming with immutable values and explicit progression-of-time constructs

1287-499: The others avoids relying on either convention or context to convey elements not included in the base set. The primary platform of Clojure is Java , but other target implementations exist. The most notable of these is ClojureScript, which compiles to ECMAScript 3, and ClojureCLR, a full port on the .NET platform, interoperable with its ecosystem. Other implementations of Clojure on different platforms include: Tooling for Clojure development has seen significant improvement over

1326-442: The terms frontend and backend (sometimes written as back end or back-end ) refer to the separation of concerns between the presentation layer ( frontend ), and the data access layer ( backend ) of a piece of software , or the physical infrastructure or hardware . In the client–server model , the client is usually considered the frontend and the server is usually considered the backend, even when some presentation work

1365-429: The use of tags , which consist of the character # followed by a symbol. When encountering a tag, the reader passes the value of the next element to the corresponding handler, which returns a data value. For example, this could be a tagged element: #myapp/Person {:first "Fred" :last "Mertz"} , whose interpretation will depend on the appropriate handler of the reader. This definition of extension elements in terms of

1404-498: The user define their own models for transduction. Extensible Data Notation , or edn , is a subset of the Clojure language intended as a data transfer format. It can be used to serialize and deserialize Clojure data structures, and Clojure itself uses a superset of edn to represent programs. edn is used in a similar way to JSON or XML , but has a relatively large list of built-in elements, shown here with examples: In addition to those elements, it supports extensibility through

1443-495: The years. The following is a list of some popular IDEs and text editors with plug-ins that add support for programming in Clojure: In addition to the tools provided by the community, the official Clojure command-line interface (CLI) tools have also become available on Linux , macOS , and Windows since Clojure 1.9. The development process is restricted to the Clojure core team, though issues are publicly visible at

1482-568: Was added for compiling Wolfram Language code to LLVM . Version 12.3 of the Wolfram Language added support for Arduino . Mathematica is also integrated with Wolfram Alpha , an online answer engine that provides additional data, some of which is kept updated in real time, for users who use Mathematica with an internet connection. Some of the data sets include astronomical, chemical, geopolitical, language, biomedical, airplane, and weather data, in addition to mathematical data (such as knots and polyhedra). BYTE in 1989 listed Mathematica as among

1521-455: Was introduced to allow user level parallel programming on heterogeneous clusters and multiprocessor systems and in 2008 parallel computing technology was included in all Mathematica licenses including support for grid technology such as Windows HPC Server 2008 , Microsoft Compute Cluster Server and Sun Grid . Support for CUDA and OpenCL GPU hardware was added in 2010. As of Version 14, there are 6,602 built-in functions and symbols in

#1998