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208-577: There are some Iranian and Iraqi parties known as Worker-Communist Parties . They all originate from the WCPIran. Left Worker-communist Party of Iraq Leftist Worker-Communist Party of Iraq Worker-communist Party of Iran Worker-communist Party of Iran – Hekmatist Worker-communist Party of Iraq Worker-communist Party of Kurdistan See also [ edit ] Workers Communist Party Communist Workers Party Topics referred to by

416-422: A 25-year cooperation agreement that will strengthen the relations between the two countries and would include "political, strategic and economic" components. Iran-China relations dates back to at least 200 BC and possibly earlier. Iran is one of the few countries in the world that has a good relationship with both North and South Korea . Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including

624-501: A "traditional" empire, aligns with the limited evidence, but such reconsideration does not necessarily diminish their importance in the history of the Ancient Near East. According to Matt Waters, the existing evidence shows a Median king exerting influence or authority directly or indirectly over many peoples through a hierarchical and informal system of governance, without the existence of a formal "Median Empire" — meaning

832-641: A Median Empire. Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg expressed this view when she said that "the Median Empire exists for us because Herodotus says it did". An alternative view suggests a loose confederation of tribes capable of causing devastating effects, such as the conquest of Assyria, but lacking centralized imperial structures, mechanisms, and bureaucracies of control. This confederation would operate through loose alliances and dependencies driven by momentarily overlapping goals and ambitions. If any organized and stable authority existed, it would likely be centered in

1040-546: A Median empire or even a kingdom. Some scholars accept the existence of a powerful and organized empire that would have influenced the political structures of the later Achaemenid empire. Others argue that the Medes formed a loose confederation of tribes rather than a centralized state. Not only during the Neo-Assyrian period of the 9th through 7th centuries BCE but also for the following Neo-Babylonian and early Persian times

1248-537: A Median empire. The Median empire was said to resemble the later Achaemenid Empire and to have ruled over a vast chunk of the Ancient Near East for half a century until its last king, Astyages , was overthrown by his own vassal, Cyrus the Great . In 1988, 1994, and 1995, historian Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg questioned the existence of a Median Empire as a political entity possessing structures comparable to

1456-536: A Muslim-majority population . The country is divided into five regions with 31 provinces . Tehran is the nation's capital , largest city and financial center . A cradle of civilization , Iran has been inhabited since the Lower Palaeolithic . The large part of Iran was first unified as a political entity by the Medes under Cyaxares in the seventh century BC, and reached its territorial height in

1664-478: A centralized and bureaucratic structure. In the 590s BCE, Jeremiah mentions 'the kings of the Medes' (51:11) and 'the kings of the Medes, their governors ( pechah ), all their officials ( sagan ), and all the lands ( eretz ) of their dominion ( memshalah )' (51:27-28). The plurality of "kings" is remarkable (although the Septuagint uses the singular "king"); whether the fact that Jeremiah (25:25) also lists "all

1872-480: A ceremonial body without any real power. The political system is based on the country's constitution . Iran ranked 154th in the 2022 The Economist Democracy Index . Juan José Linz wrote in 2000 that "the Iranian regime combines the ideological bent of totalitarianism with the limited pluralism of authoritarianism ". The President is head of government and the second highest-ranking authority, after

2080-707: A city little to the north of the Assyrian capital Nineveh, and then moved down the Tigris to attack Assur, which they captured before the arrival of the Babylonian army that was coming to their assistance. This collaborative effort indicates a pre-existing alliance between Nabopolassar and the Median king Cyaxares (r. 625–585 a.C.), they then met personally and formalized their relationship. The Babylonian historian Berossus mentions that this alliance between Babylon and Media

2288-590: A close economic and military alliance, and are subject to heavy sanctions by Western nations. Iran is the only country in Western Asia that has been invited to join the CSTO , the Russia-based international treaty organization that parallels NATO . Relations between Iran and China are strong economically; they have developed a friendly, economic and strategic relationship. In 2021, Iran and China signed

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2496-655: A decade. In the Achaemenid Empire , Media retained a privileged position, ranking second after Persia itself. Media was a large province, and its capital, Ecbatana, became one of the Achaemenid capitals and the summer residence of the Persian kings. Persian rule in Media was shaken by a major revolt at the beginning of the reign of Darius the Great , who seized power after killing the usurper Gaumata . This event

2704-532: A descendant of Cyaxares, continued the rebellion but was also defeated. This is the last Median rebellion against Achaemenid rule. After the end of the Achaemenid Empire, Media continued to have great importance under the later Seleucid and Parthian empires . Until the late 20th-century, scholarship generally agreed that the collapse of the Assyrian Empire was followed by the emergence of

2912-542: A distinct political and cultural entity. The Muslim conquest of Persia (632–654) ended the Sasanian Empire and marked a turning point in Iranian history, leading to the Islamization of Iran from the eighth to tenth centuries and the decline of Zoroastrianism . However, the achievements of prior Persian civilizations were absorbed into the new Islamic polity. Iran suffered invasions by nomadic tribes during

3120-417: A forest where lions, leopards, bears, boars, antelopes, gazelles, wild asses, and deer could be found. As usual, these animals were pursued on horseback and targeted with bows or spears. Little is known about the Median army, but it certainly played a significant role in Median history. In the late 7th century BCE, the Medes made notable military progress under Cyaxares, who, according to Herodotus, organized

3328-451: A large population and boasted many villages and some cities like Rages and Gabae . Assyrian texts mention wealthy Median cities, but the recorded plunder mainly consisted of weapons, cattle, donkeys, horses, camels, and occasionally lapis lazuli, obtained through Median trade further east. Around the time of their unification or shortly afterward, it seems that the Medes acquired means to supply themselves with more substantial wealth. This

3536-432: A long period during which the Medes ruled a vast empire. What has survived from his work is filled with romantic stories, exotic anecdotes, court gossip, and lists of questionable reliability making Ctesias one of the few ancient authors considered not very reliable. However, others have regarded him as an important source. The Assyrian royal inscriptions, dating from Shalmaneser to Esarhaddon (circa 850-670 BCE), contain

3744-488: A long period. Some elements of the administrative system introduced by the Assyrians may have persisted in the Median provinces even after the fall of Assyria. Instead of being a centralized monarchy, the Median state was more like a confederation with various rulers. The Median governance system favored a pyramidal structure of loyalty, where small rulers pledged allegiance to a provincial king, who, in turn, owed loyalty to

3952-562: A long political crisis began to develop in Assyria. Later, during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III (r. 745–728 BCE), Assyria began organizing provinces in conquered lands, ensuring a regular source of income and providing a base for further territorial conquests. The Assyrian borders approached Media proper when in 744 BCE, the Assyrians created, in addition to the already established province of Zamua, two more provinces called Bit Ḫamban and Parsua, where they installed governors and garrisons. In

4160-503: A moderate position internationally. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami , whose government advocated freedom of expression , constructive diplomatic relations with Asia and the European Union , and an economic policy that supported a free market and foreign investment. The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist and nationalist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to power. He

4368-470: A monarch, as evidenced by the Medo-Babylonian conquest of Assyria. Nothing is known about the Median socio-political structure, and scholars differ sharply in what they infer from some rather ambiguous evidence. Some posit the existence of a highly developed empire, strongly influenced by Assyrian imperial practices. In contrast, others, underscoring the lack of concrete evidence, lean towards viewing

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4576-400: A mutual arrangement between Medes and Babylonians. Since Arrapha was very close to the principal centers of the Assyrian heartland ( Assur , Nineveh , and Arbela ), all of the empire's positions in western Iran had likely already been lost. The Medes reached Nineveh by the fifth month of 614 BCE, ravaging the territory between Arrapha and Nineveh. In mid-614 BCE, the Medes captured Tarbisu ,

4784-527: A peaceful or military resolution for the trouble with Kaštaritu was achieved, this silence may suggest a negative outcome. Attacks on Assyrian strongholds show that Assyria started to loose control of territory in the east under Esarhaddon's reign. Saparda , which was made part of the province of Harhar in 716 BCE, was not under Assyrian control anymore and its city lord Dusanni is mentioned, alongside Kaštaritu, as an enemy of Assyria in several oracle queries. In Ashurbanipal ’s reign (r. 668–630 BCE), references to

4992-529: A picture does not align with the reconstruction of a Median Empire based on classical historians. The historian Mario Liverani argues that the archaeological evidence from these Median sites aligns well with the evidence from Mesopotamian sources. Some scholars suggest that the abandonment of Tepe Nush-i Jan and other sites in northwest Iran may be related to the centralization of power in Ecbatana. In this context, Herodotus's observation about Deioces compelling

5200-567: A reputation as an impartial and fair judge. Eventually, he ceased administering justice, leading to chaos in Media. This prompted the Medes to assemble and decide to elect a king, ultimately resulting in Deioces becoming their ruler. Then, a fortress city named Ecbatana was constructed where all governing authority was centralized. However, this is not indicated in contemporary textual sources or archaeological findings. Judging by Assyrian sources, no unified Median state, as described by Herodotus for

5408-403: A revolt became inevitable. After the capture of Astyages, Cyrus marched to Ecbatana and took the city's valuables to Anshan. As the extent of the territory the Medes controlled is disputed, we do not know what exactly Cyrus gained by his victory. Taking control of Media may have implied taking control of vassal states like Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Drangiana, and Aria. If Cyrus was indeed

5616-537: A similar narrative: the progressive growth of public buildings during Phases 1 to 4, followed by a period of "peaceful abandonment" and " squatter occupation " in Phase 5. A similar story is also told by the results of excavations at Baba Jan, although the excavator supports a higher chronology with the flourishing Phase III in the 9th-8th centuries and irregular occupation in the 7th century - primarily for historical reasons (alleged Assyrian and Scythian attacks). In any case,

5824-471: A strong response from Iran, based on their historical and cultural background. Iran has full-control over the islands. Kish island , as a free trade zone , is touted as a consumer's paradise, with malls, shopping centres, tourist attractions, and luxury hotels. Qeshm is the largest island in Iran, and a UNESCO Global Geopark since 2016. Its salt cave, Namakdan, is the largest in the world, and one of

6032-421: A vassal of Media, was the grandson of Astyages. Babylonian sources, however, do not mention this; they refer to Cyrus only as "the king of Anshan" (i.e., Persia), while Astyages is called the "king of the Medes". Herodotus reports that the Median general Harpagus organized a conspiracy against Astyages, and during a battle, he defected with a large part of the troops to the side of Cyrus. Astyages himself commanded

6240-523: A year of military service. Encouraged by the weakness of the Assyrian king Sardanapalus , Arbaces and Belesys rebelled against Assyria, and Arbaces emerged as the first king of Media. While names similar or identical to Deioces and Arbaces do appear in Assyrian sources, these names seem to have been common among the people on the Iranian Plateau during the Assyrian period. Thus, none of the individuals with these names can be conclusively identified as

6448-577: Is officially governed as a unitary Islamic republic with a presidential system , with ultimate authority vested in a Supreme Leader. The government is authoritarian and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant violations of human rights and civil liberties. Iran is a major regional power , due to its large reserves of fossil fuels , including the world's second largest natural gas supply , third largest proven oil reserves , its geopolitically significant location, military capabilities , cultural hegemony , regional influence, and role as

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6656-452: Is accountable only to the Rahbar. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed. The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for 8-year terms. Iran is subdivided into thirty-one provinces ( Persian : استان ostân ), each governed from a local centre, usually the largest local city, which is called

6864-401: Is also mentioned in the so-called "oaths of loyalty" concluded on the occasion of the appointment of the Assyrian throne successor in 672 BCE. In that year, agreements were made between Esarhaddon and chiefs from various western regions of Media, ensuring their loyalty to the Assyrian king and the security of their possessions. Scholars generally view this agreement as a "vassal treaty" imposed by

7072-591: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Iran Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran ( IRI ), also known as Persia , is a country in West Asia . It borders Turkey to the northwest and Iraq to the west, Azerbaijan , Armenia , the Caspian Sea , and Turkmenistan to the north, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to

7280-478: Is four times that of Europe's. There are over 200 protected areas to preserve biodiversity and wildlife, with over 30 being national parks . Iran's living fauna includes 34 bat species, Indian grey mongoose , small Indian mongoose , golden jackal , Indian wolf , foxes , striped hyena , leopard , Eurasian lynx , brown bear and Asian black bear . Ungulate species include wild boar , urial , Armenian mouflon , red deer , and goitered gazelle . One of

7488-559: Is in a seismically active area. On average, an earthquake of magnitude seven on the Richter scale occurs once every ten years. Most earthquakes are shallow-focus and can be very devastating, such as the 2003 Bam earthquake . Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau . It is one of the world's most mountainous countries; its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate basins or plateaus . The populous west part

7696-571: Is mandatory for all male citizen aged 18 to serve around 14 months in the IRIAF or IRGC. Median kingdom According to classical historiography, Media emerged as one major power of the ancient Near East after the collapse of Assyria. Under Cyaxares (r. 625–585 BCE), the kingdom's borders were expanded to the east and west through the subjugation of neighboring peoples, such as the Persians and Armenians . Media's territorial expansion led to

7904-489: Is no direct or substantial indirect evidence, not from Herodotus, supporting the existence of a Median Empire, and that such an empire is a Greek construction. In 2001, an international symposium was held in Padua , Italy, focused on the issue of the Median Empire. While no consensus was reached on the existence of a Median Empire, it was generally agreed that there was no conclusive proof for its existence. The debate continues to

8112-461: Is that, as early as 615 BCE, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar had forged a plan to destroy both Urartu and Assyria. Little is known about the end of Urartu as written sources end after 640 BCE. While the Cimmerians and the Medes are postulated as responsible for the end of Urartu, the general consensus is that Urartu was destroyed by the Medes in the late 7th century BCE. In the early 7th century BCE,

8320-551: Is the highest judge of the Supreme Court of Iran . The Chief Justice nominates candidates to serve as minister of justice, and the President selects one. The Chief Justice can serve for two five-year terms. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics , although it has taken on cases involving laypeople . The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and

8528-635: Is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus , Zagros , and Alborz , the last containing Mount Damavand , Iran's highest point, at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is the highest volcano in Asia. Iran's mountains have impacted its politics and economics for centuries. The north part is covered by the lush lowland Caspian Hyrcanian forests , near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The east part consists mostly of desert basins, such as

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8736-489: The Army , the head of Supreme National Security Council , and has the power to declare a state of emergency after passage by the parliament. The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Rahbar, except for matters directly related to the Rahbar, who has the final say. The President functions as

8944-546: The Babylonian Chronicle and other evidence imply that most of the former Assyrian territory came under Babylonian control. Mario Liverani argues against the notion that the Medes and Babylonians shared Assyrian territory; instead, the Medes simply took over the Zagros, which Assyria had already lost earlier. Until recently, it was a common opinion that, following the fall of Assyria, the Medes took possession of

9152-460: The Babylonians rebelled against Assyrian domination. Nabopolassar, governor of southern regions and leader of the revolt, was soon recognized as king of Babylon. Nabopolassar gained control of Babylon but not all of Babylonia from the Assyrians and was engaged in serious fighting, he must have been looking for any possible allies. Interestingly, Herodotus mentions that the Median king Phraortes

9360-554: The Caucasus to the Russian Empire following the Russo-Persian Wars . Iran remained a monarchy until the 1979 Iranian Revolution , when it officially became an Islamic republic on 1 April 1979. Since then, Iran has experienced significant political, social, and economic changes. The establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran led to the restructuring of its political system, with Ayatollah Khomeini as

9568-786: The Cimmerians invaded the Caucasus and Anatolia. While the Cimmerians settled in the plains of Cappadocia , the kingdom of Lydia was emerging in Anatolia, with its capital in Sardis. The Lydian kings repelled the Cimmerian invasion and initiated an eastward offensive, gradually approaching Cappadocia. The Cimmerian power, once great and significant in Cappadocia, collapsed almost simultaneously with Urartu. This created an opportunity for

9776-625: The G-15 , G-24 , G-77 , IAEA , IBRD , IDA , NAM , IDB , IFC , ILO , IMF , IMO , Interpol , OIC , OPEC , WHO , and the UN , and currently has observer status at the WTO . The military is organized under a unified structure, the Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces , comprising the Islamic Republic of Iran Army , which includes the Ground Forces , Air Defence Force , Air Force , and Navy ;

9984-488: The Great Khurasan Road may have contributed to the accumulation of wealth by Median chiefs, prompting an ambitious individual to seek broader authority. Alternatively, conflicts among Median chiefs led to Assyrian intervention in 676 BCE and the oath of allegiance in 672 BCE. Assyrian concerns about potential threats from the Medes, Scythians, and Cimmerians during this period may have created an opportunity for

10192-483: The Ibenans , Macrones , Mushki , Marres , Mossynoeci and Tibareni were subdued by Cyaxares. Later indirect evidence suggests that the Medes may have conquered Hyrcania , Parthia , Sagartia , Drangiana , Aria and Bactria , becoming an empire that stretched from Anatolia in the west to Central Asia in the east. Whatever the political role of the Medes in the east, the representation of an Indian embassy at

10400-714: The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps , which consists of the Ground Forces , Aerospace Force , Navy , Quds Force , and Basij ; and the Law Enforcement Command (Faraja), which serves an analogous function to a gendarme . While the IRIAF protects the country's sovereignty in a traditional capacity, the IRGC is mandated to ensure the integrity of the Republic, against foreign interference, coups, and internal riots. Since 1925 , it

10608-672: The Kassites , Mannaeans , and Gutians . Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel called the Persians the "first Historical People". The Iranian Empire began in the Iron Age with the rise of the Medes , who unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC. The Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), founded by Cyrus the Great , was the largest empire the world had seen, spanning from the Balkans to North Africa and Central Asia . They were succeeded by

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10816-763: The Kavir Desert , which is the country's largest desert, and the Lut Desert , as well as salt lakes . The Lut Desert is the hottest recorded spot on the Earth's surface, with 70.7 °C recorded in 2005. The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian and at the north end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders the mouth of the Arvand river . Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along

11024-623: The Late Middle Ages and early modern period , negatively impacting the region. Iran was reunified as an independent state in 1501 by the Safavid dynasty , which established Shia Islam as the empire's official religion, marking another turning point in the history of Islam . Iran functioned again as a leading world power, especially in rivalry with the Ottoman Empire . In the 19th century, Iran lost significant territories in

11232-454: The Magi were a highly influential priestly caste at the court, considered honorable by both the king and the people. They served as interpreters of dreams, sorcerers, and advisors on various matters, including political affairs. They were responsible for the religious ceremonies, and high state offices were likely granted to them. The court's primary entertainment was hunting, often taking place in

11440-618: The Pahlavi dynasty . Attempts by Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalize the oil industry led to an Anglo-American coup in 1953 . After the Iranian Revolution , the monarchy was overthrown in 1979 and the Islamic Republic of Iran was established by Ruhollah Khomeini , who became the country's first Supreme Leader . In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran , sparking the eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War , which ended in stalemate. Iran

11648-588: The Republic of Azerbaijan (611 km or 380 mi); to the north by the Caspian Sea ; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (992 km or 616 mi); to the east by Afghanistan (936 km or 582 mi) and Pakistan (909 km or 565 mi); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman ; and to the west by Iraq (1,458 km or 906 mi) and Turkey (499 km or 310 mi). Iran

11856-799: The Sassanian period . The early capital city at Ecbatana is simply buried or destroyed by the substantial subsequent occupation of the site. Identification of Median sites beyond Iran is challenging, but certain ceramic and architectural features may indicate dispersed Median presence or at least some influence at sites such as Nor Armavir and Arinberd in Armenia, Altıntepe , Van and Tille Höyük in Turkey, Qizkapan and Tell Gubba in Iraq and Ulug Depe in Turkmenistan. The archaeological findings at

12064-650: The Seleucid , Parthian , and Sasanian Empires , who governed Iran for almost 1,000 years, making Iran a leading power once again. Persia's arch-rival during this time was the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire . Iran endured invasions by the Macedonians , Arabs , Turks , and Mongols . Despite these invasions, Iran continually reasserted its national identity and developed as

12272-446: The South Caucasus . However, they have shared common interests, such as the issue of Kurdish separatism and the Qatar diplomatic crisis . Iran has a close and strong relationship with Tajikistan . Iran has deep economic relations and alliance with Iraq , Lebanon and Syria, with Syria often described as Iran's "closest ally". Russia is a key trading partner, especially in regard to its excess oil reserves. Both share

12480-418: The parliament . The Rahbar is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces , controls military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, commanders of the police and military, and the members of the Guardian Council are all appointed by the Rahbar. The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing

12688-413: The "king's eye" (a kind of secret agent), and builders. Ctesias mentions the royal cupbearer as one of the positions at the Median court. When founding the Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus likely continued the organization and practices of the Median court, including forms of etiquette, ceremony, and diplomatic protocol that the Medes, in turn, inherited from Assyria. According to Herodotus, as soon as he ascended

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12896-463: The "royal city" of Median chief Hanaşiruka, and conquered it. According to the Assyrian inscription, 2,300 Medes were killed, and Sagbita, along with 1,200 settlements nearby, was destroyed. This campaign was significant as Assyria henceforth imposed regular tribute on the Median tribes in horses, cattle, and handicraft products. The Assyrians now shifted the main direction of their attacks to Media, partly influenced by events around Lake Urmia , where, by

13104-410: The 16th century, the native Safavids re-established a unified Iranian state with Twelver Shi'ism as the official religion . During the Afsharid Empire in the 18th century, Iran was a leading world power, though by the 19th century, it had lost significant territory through conflicts with the Russian Empire . The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution and the establishment of

13312-806: The 2nd-most powerful person in Iran, was assassinated by the US , heightening tensions between them . Iran retaliated against US airbases in Iraq , the largest ballistic missile attack ever on Americans; 110 sustained brain injuries . Hardliner Ebrahim Raisi ran for president again in 2021 , succeeding Hassan Rouhani . During Raisi's term, Iran intensified uranium enrichment , hindered international inspections, joined SCO and BRICS, supported Russia in its invasion of Ukraine and restored diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia. In April 2024, Israel's airstrike on an Iranian consulate , killed an IRGC commander. Iran retaliated with UAVs , cruise and ballistic missiles ; 9 hit Israel. Western and Jordanian military helped Israel down some Iranian drones. It

13520-401: The 4th largest province, also known as Pârs . The Persian Fârs (فارس), derived from the earlier form Pârs (پارس), which is in turn derived from Pârsâ ( Old Persian : 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿). Due to Fars' historical importance, Persia originated from this territory through Greek in around 550 BC, and Westerners referred to the entire country as Persia , until 1935, when Reza Shah requested

13728-408: The 7th century BCE. Current reasoning suggests that the transition toward a unified state may have occurred in the period from 670 to 615 BCE, during the reign of Ashurbanipal or his successors. The lack of Assyrian records or other contemporary sources for this period left room for the acceptance of Herodotus's account. While the Greek historian's information about earlier periods lacks reliability, in

13936-404: The 8th and 7th centuries BCE, Median sites experienced significant growth but were depopulated in the first half of the 6th century BCE, a period presumed to be the zenith of development for the supposed Median Empire. The Nush-i Jan I phase, with an approximate date of 750-600 BCE, uncovered a sequence of several buildings on the site. The "Central Building" was constructed early in this phase, in

14144-411: The 8th century BCE, while the "Fort" and the "Western Building," the latter featuring a notable columned hall, were added to the site throughout the 7th century BCE. These public buildings were later abandoned, and in the first half of the 6th century BCE, the site was occupied by less institutionalized populations. In one of their reports, the excavators David Stronach and Michael Roaf conjectured that

14352-415: The 8th century. It is unknown whether the Assyrian provinces in the Zagros, Parsua, Bīt-Hamban, Kišesim (Kār-Nergal) and Harhar (Kar-Sarrukin), were still part of the empire during Ashurbanipal's reign. Although the Assyrian sources maintain silence about the Iranians during this period, suggesting that Assyria was less concerned with them than during the reign of Esarhaddon, everything seems to indicate that

14560-409: The Achaemenid Empire, concrete archaeological evidence for such an empire is lacking. Others view the Median Empire as a fiction created by Herodotus to fill a gap between the Assyrian and Persian Empires in his vision of a sequence of Eastern empires. Karen Radner concluded that, without Herodotus and the Greek tradition, it is "highly doubtful" that modern researchers would posit the existence of

14768-798: The Achaemenid period. If this is the case, then there would be no interruption in the occupation of Median sites between 600 and 550 BCE, as suggested by some scholars, implying a breakdown of central authority in this period. According to Stuart Brown , the rise of Persian dominance may have been a contributing factor to the abandonment of various Median sites, including Godin Tepe. Several excavated sites such as Godin Tepe, Tepe Nush-i Jan, Moush Tepe , Gunespan , Baba Jan and Tepe Ozbaki , show significant commonalities in architecture, ceramics and small finds to be considered as arguably Median. Median settlement can be summarized as dispersed with fortified nodes controlling major plains, valley and passes. The largest sites identified in Media measure only 3-4 hectares,

14976-572: The Assyrian Zagros provinces submitted to Esarhaddon and sought his assistance against rival city lords. This episode is followed by the deportation of two city lords from the country of Patušarri to Assyria, here Esarhaddon's activities against the "distant" Medes reached to the Caspian Sea and the Salt Desert near Mount Bikni. However, unlike his predecessors, Esarhaddon does not seem to have expanded Assyrian territory in Iran. Ramateia

15184-434: The Assyrian administration on recently subdued vassals. However, Mario Liverani argued that this agreement resulted from internal struggles among various Median groups and the presence of armed Median warriors in the Assyrian palace serving as bodyguards to the crown prince. The Median chiefs had to swear that their men in the Assyrian court would be loyal to Esarhaddon and his son, Ashurbanipal. Judging by Assyrian texts from

15392-415: The Assyrian and Babylonian sources. The Greek historian Ctesias worked as a physician in the service of the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II and wrote about Assyria, Media, and the Achaemenid Empire in his work Persica , consisting of 23 books supposedly based on Persian royal archives. Despite heavily criticizing Herodotus and accusing him of telling many lies, Ctesias follows Herodotus and also reports

15600-559: The Assyrian lands east of the Tigris River, as well as the Harran region. This view is partially based on a text from the Babylonian king Nabonidus, indicating that the Medes dominated Harran for 54 years until the third year of his reign, and later classical sources. In this case, the Medes held Harran from 607 to 553 BCE. However, some scholars argue that the heart of Assyria and Harran remained under Babylonian control from 609 BCE until

15808-633: The Assyrians regularly invaded and plundered regions in northwest Iran, where numerous small principalities existed at that time. The first mention of the Medes in Assyrian texts dates back to 834 BCE when the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (r. 858–824 BCE) returned from a military campaign, passing through the Median territory in the Hamadan plain. The Medes formed numerous small entities under tribal chiefs, and despite subduing several Median chiefs, Assyrian kings never conquered all of Media. In 815 BCE, Shamshi-Adad V (r. 823–811 BCE) marched against Sagbita,

16016-539: The Assyrians were losing control over the provinces established in the Zagros. This could have created room for the development of a unified Median state and although Assyrian sources make no reference to a united Median territorial state that would be comparable to Assyria itself or other contemporary principalities such as Elam, Mannea or Urartu, many scholars remain reluctant to assign no historical relevance whatsoever to Herodotus' account. The Medes reappear in contemporary sources about forty years later in 615 BCE, under

16224-441: The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BCE) made him the brother-in-law of the latter as well. However, not everything was well with the alliance with Babylon, and there is some evidence suggesting that Babylon may have feared the power of the Medes. The relations between Babylonia and Media seem to have deteriorated since in the 590s BCE it was expected that the Medes would invade Babylonian territory, as can be seen from

16432-567: The British pronunciation and / ɪ ˈ r æ n / as the American pronunciation. Voice of America 's pronunciation guide provides / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / . Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC. The western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the traditional ancient Near East with Elam (3200–539 BC), and later with other peoples such as

16640-540: The Guardian Council is not needed. The Leader can revert the decisions of the Guardian Council. The constitution gives the council three mandates: veto power over legislation passed by the parliament , supervision of elections and approving or disqualifying candidates seeking to run in local, parliamentary, presidential, or Assembly of Experts elections. The council can nullify a law based on two accounts: being against Sharia (Islamic law), or being against

16848-508: The Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in Iran. The Parliament has 207 constituencies, including the 5 reserved seats for religious minorities. The remaining 202 are territorial, each covering one or more of Iran's counties . Iran uses a form of Sharia law as its legal system, with elements of European Civil law . The Supreme Leader appoints

17056-458: The Hebrew prophet is not concerned with the complexities of the situation. The descriptions by Nabonidus and Jeremiah are consistent with Herodotus's depiction of Median dominance in 1.134: When the Medes were in power, in the same way, the nations ruled one another. The Medes ruled all together, and (directly) those who lived closest; and these, in turn, ruled their neighbors and so on, following

17264-591: The Iranian plateau in the first half of the 6th century BCE, may have demanded tribute from peoples such as the Persians, Armenians, Parthians, Drangians, and Arians. The importance of Media is primarily related to controlling a substantial portion of the east-west route known in the Middle Ages as the Silk Road . This route connected the Eastern and Western worlds, linking Media to Babylon, Assyria, Armenia, and

17472-590: The Iranians), recognised as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European language *ar-yo- , meaning ' one who assembles (skilfully) ' . According to Iranian mythology , the name comes from Iraj , a legendary king. Iran was referred to as Persia by the West , due to Greek historians who referred to all of Iran as Persís , meaning 'the land of the Persians '. Persia is the Fars province in southwest Iran,

17680-442: The Medes as certainly a potent force, but never developing any state institutions. It is in the period between the fall of Nineveh in 612 BCE and the conquest of the Median capital Ecbatana by the Persians in 550 BCE that the existence of a powerful Median Empire is postulated. However, contemporary sources about the Medes in this period are scarce. In any case, the available evidence in Babylonian and biblical sources indicates that

17888-401: The Medes become very sparse. Ashurbanipal reports that three Median city lords had rebelled against Assyrian rule were defeated and brought to Nineveh during his fifth campaign in 656 BCE. This is the last mention of Medes in the Assyrian sources. The fact that the three Median rulers are described as city lords may indicate that the powers structure among the Medes at this time was the same as in

18096-551: The Medes bred an excellent breed of horses. In Assyrian reliefs, the Medes are sometimes depicted wearing what appears to be sheepskin cloaks over their tunics and high-laced boots, equipment necessary for pastoral work in the plateaus where winters brought snow and intense cold. Archaeological evidence shows that the Medes possessed skilled workers in bronze and gold. The archaeological material from sites like Tepe Nush-i Jan and Godin Tepe, as well as Assyrian reliefs, demonstrate that in

18304-599: The Medes had already subjugated Mannea and Urartu. Julian Reade proposed that the Babylonian Chronicle's entry for 609 BCE might refer to a Median assault on Urartu rather than a Babylonian one. This event, occurring shortly before Babylonian attacks in 608 and possibly 607 BCE, could indicate that the Babylonians provided support for Median expansion westward onto the Anatolian plateau. Another hypothesis

18512-511: The Medes once more recede from history till 550 BCE when the Persian king Cyrus II defeats the Median king Astyages to become the paramount political figure in Iran. The history of the period c. 650–550 BCE — the apparent zenith of Median power — remains poorly understood. While Classical Greek sources claim the existence of a Median Empire during this period, tangible evidence supporting the existence of such an empire has not yet been found and contemporaneous sources from this period rarely reference

18720-506: The Medes played a significant political role in the ancient Near East after the fall of Assyria. Four powers dominated the ancient Near East from then on: Babylon , Media, Lydia , and, further south, Egypt . The Medes seem soon to have established a common frontier with Lydia in central Anatolia. According to Herodotus, hostilities between the Medes and Lydians began five years before a battle precisely dated by an eclipse to 585 BCE. If this account holds true, it implies that before 590 BCE,

18928-762: The Medes residing outside regions controlled by the Assyrians. The Assyrians consistently referred to the Medes as living in settlements ruled by bēl ālāni (“city lords”). The coalescence of broader authoritative power presumably had its origins in the interpersonal relationships among these Median bēl ālāni . The application of a model of secondary state formation to the case of Media proposes that, stimulated by decades of aggressive Assyrian intrusion, Median bēl ālāni learned by example how to organize and administer themselves politically and economically so as to achieve state-like status. Frequent Assyrian attacks compelled various inhabitants of Media to cooperate and develop more effective leadership. The Assyrians valued goods from

19136-405: The Medes then departed for the last time and we know of their activities largely from classical sources. In 605 BCE, the Babylonians marched to Carchemish and conquered it, completely defeating the Assyrians and Egyptians. It is not clear whether the Medes also participated in this final defeat of the Assyrians. The outcome of the fall of Assyria for Median territorial expansion is unknown, but

19344-557: The Medes, who, after conquering Urartu, entered Asia Minor, subjugating Cappadocia. This region might have been familiar to them, as Assyrian texts from the 7th century BCE describe the situation in Anatolia west of the Euphrates similarly to the Zagros region. Herodotus recounts that Cyaxares sent an embassy to Lydia to demand the extradition of Scythian fugitives from Media, but the Lydian monarch Alyattes refused, leading to war between

19552-482: The Medes. The Median period is one of the least understood periods in Iranian archaeology, and the geography of Media remains largely obscure. Any effort to identify distinctive elements of the Median material culture from the Iron Age III (c. 800-550 BCE) in the western region of Iran primarily focuses on sites near the ancient capital of Media, Ecbatana (modern Hamadan ). Furthermore, the lack of clarity in

19760-521: The Median capital of Ecbatana. The basic details of this account align with the detailed narrative of the Median king's treachery and despotism in Herodotus. That the confrontation is likely to have been longer than the concise chronicle entry conveys is indicated by an inscription from Sippar where the Babylonian king Nabonidus seems to refer to a conflict between Persians and Medes already in 553 BCE. In Herodotus's narrative, Cyrus, in addition to being

19968-464: The Median nobles to leave their small cities to live near the capital becomes relevant. One possible scenario suggests that Tepe Nush-i Jan underwent formal closure around 550 BCE, with informal or squatter occupation persisting until approximately 500 BCE. The revised dating implies that Tepe Nush-i Jan and potentially other sites from the Iron III period maintained formal occupation until the onset of

20176-571: The Median state, contrary to the will of the tribal nobility. This may have contributed to the downfall of the kingdom. According to Ctesias, the Median kings also fought wars against the Cadusians and the Sacae , although there is no hard evidence to back this up. Nevertheless, the reference to a war against the Sacae might indicate continued challenges from nomadic incursions, while the narrative about

20384-412: The Median state, going against the will of tribal nobility, which may have contributed to the kingdom's downfall. In 550 BCE, the Median capital, Ecbatana, was conquered by the Persian king Cyrus II , marking the beginning of the Achaemenid empire. While it is generally accepted that the Medes played a significant role in the ancient Near East after the fall of Assyria, historians debate the existence of

20592-474: The Mediterranean in the west, as well as to Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdiana, and China in the east. Another important road connected Ecbatana with the Persian capitals, Persepolis and Pasargadae. In addition to controlling east-west trade, Media was also rich in agricultural products. The valleys of the Zagros were fertile, and Media was well-known for its crops, sheep, and goats. The country could sustain

20800-592: The Medo-Persian conflict as a protracted rebellion led by the Persian king Cyrus II against his Median overlord. However, the notion of Median overlordship over Persia lacks support from contemporary evidence. According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, in 550 BCE, the Median king Astyages marched with his troops against Cyrus of Persia "for conquest". However, his own soldiers revolted, captured him, and handed him over to Cyrus. Subsequently, Cyrus captured

21008-492: The Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, or Achaemenid Empires. She cast doubts on the overall validity of our most important source, namely Herodotus's Medikos Logos , and pointed to gaps in non-classical sources, especially for the first half of the 6th century BCE. Sancisi-Weerdenburg highlighted that virtually only Greek classical sources were used by modern historiography to construct Median history, and that ancient Near Eastern sources were almost fully ignored. She argued that there

21216-407: The Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in). More than one-tenth of the country is forested . About 120 million hectares of forests and fields are government-owned for national exploitation. Iran's forests can be divided into five vegetation regions: Hyrcanian region which forms

21424-465: The Persians. Both fought on horseback and on foot using spears, bows, and daggers, large wicker shields, and carrying quivers on their backs. The original characteristics of the Median army, as indicated in the Hebrew Bible and by Xenophon , are simpler than Herodotus's description. The Median army seems to have been based on horse archery. Trained in a variety of equestrian exercises and the use of

21632-475: The Rahbar, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem. To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Rahbar's decisions nor attempted to dismiss him. The previous head of the judicial system, Sadeq Larijani , appointed by the Rahbar, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Rahbar. Many believe the Assembly of Experts has become

21840-509: The Revolution or Supreme Leadership Authority, is the head of state and responsible for supervision of policy. The president has limited power compared to the Rahbar. Key ministers are selected with the Rahbar's agreement and they have the ultimate say on foreign policy. The Rahbar is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defence, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as other top ministries after submission of candidates from

22048-617: The Scythian interregnum is not implausible except for the duration of Scythian domination, his narrative has a legendary character and is not reliable. Despite the doubtful historicity of the Scythian interregnum, the Scythians are mentioned in Assyrian sources during the same period of the supposed interregnum. After the death of Ashurbanipal in 631 BCE, the Assyrian Empire entered a period of political instability. In 626 BCE,

22256-431: The Scythian leaders to a feast, induced them to drink until they were thoroughly intoxicated, attacked and easily killed them. Subsequently, a war ensued resulting in the defeat of the Scythians. However, it is more likely that, during this time, the Scythians voluntarily withdrew from western Iran to raid elsewhere or were simply absorbed by a rapidly developing confederation under Median hegemony. Herodotus believed that

22464-586: The Supreme Leader. Iran's foreign relations have been shaped by the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), ongoing tensions with the United States, and its nuclear program, which has been a point of contention in international diplomacy. In 1989, Akbar Rafsanjani concentrated on a pro-business policy of rebuilding the economy without breaking with the ideology of the revolution. He supported a free market domestically, favoring privatization of state industries and

22672-521: The Supreme Leader. The President is elected by universal suffrage for 4 years. Before elections , nominees to become a presidential candidate must be approved by the Guardian Council . The Council's members are chosen by the Leader, with the Leader having the power to dismiss the president. The President can only be re-elected for one term. The president is the deputy commander-in-chief of

22880-470: The Urartian site of Erebuni, in Armenia, has shown that a columned hall initially dated to the Achaemenid period is now likely to have been constructed in the late 7th century. This is the period following the fall of Assyria, when the Medes would have begun their expansion northward according to Herodotus. A similar columned hall at Altıntepe, in eastern Turkey, may also be dated to this period. The spread of

23088-474: The Zagros region, Sennacherib (r. 704-681 BCE) operated only on a very low-key level compared to his predecessors Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II. This may suggest that after the initial problems to control the new provinces Kar-Sarrukin and Kar-Nergal things proceeded smoothly in the eastern Assyrian territories after 713 BCE. The established dual system, involving the Assyrian provincial administration and local city lords, seems to have found an equilibrium that

23296-551: The archaeological record makes it challenging to determine whether certain archaeological materials should be attributed to the Median or Achaemenid culture. Modern archaeological activity in the central area of ancient Media was especially intense and fruitful in the 1960s and 1970s, with excavations at Godin Tepe , Tepe Nush-i Jan , and Baba Jan . Additionally, in the adjacent region of the ancient kingdom of Mannea , excavations at Hasanlu and Ziwiye also yielded productive results. The archaeological activity revealed that, during

23504-414: The army in the battle, but the Medes were defeated, and their king was taken prisoner. The deeper cause of the Median army's rebellion might have been dissatisfaction with Astyages's policies. In the 6th century BCE, Iranian tribes became increasingly settled, and their leaders no longer resembled early tribal chiefs but began to behave like kings. When Astyages started punishing some of these tribal leaders,

23712-526: The army into special units: infantry, spearmen, archers, and horsemen, as the previous mixed genders led to confusion in the army on the battlefield. Before Cyaxares, it appears that the Medes went to war in tribal organization, with each chief bringing and leading their infantry and mounted troops. The king trained the forces into an army divided into tactical groups with unified weapons. The Medes used chariots less frequently and relied mainly on cavalry equipped with Nisean horses . Their martial equipment included

23920-476: The army toward the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, with the aim of destroying the city. While besieging Nineveh, the Medes were attacked by a large Scythian army under the command of Madyes , son of Bartatua . A battle ensued, in which the Medes were defeated, losing their power in Asia, which was entirely taken over by the Scythians. The Scythian yoke was said to be unbearable, characterized by brutality, injustice, and high taxes. According to Herodotus, Cyaxares invited

24128-588: The authenticity of Ctesias's account is questionable, it is very likely that Cyrus married a daughter of the Median king. After Astyages's defeat, the Lydian king Croesus crossed the Halys River in hopes of expanding his borders to the east. This resulted in a war, leading Lydia to be conquered by the Persians. Subsequently, Cyrus conquered Babylon, putting an end to three powers in the Ancient Near East: Media, Lydia, and Babylon, all within

24336-582: The bow, the Medes advanced against their enemies on horseback, similar to the Scythians, and achieved their victories primarily through their skill in shooting arrows while advancing or retreating. They also used swords and spears, but the terror inspired by the Medes arose from their exceptional archery abilities. The Medes had a pastoral lifestyle, with their primary economic activity being animal husbandry, including cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, mules, and horses. Horses were particularly prized, as Assyrian cuneiform texts on Assyrian incursions into Media show that

24544-736: The capital (Persian: مرکز , markaz ) of that province. The provincial authority is headed by a governor-general ( استاندار ostândâr ), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to approval of the cabinet . Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 165 countries , but not the United States and Israel —a state which Iran derecognised in 1979. Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political and ideologies. Iran and Turkey have been involved in modern proxy conflicts such as in Syria , Libya , and

24752-473: The case of Cyaxares, his existence and role in the fall of Nineveh are corroborated by the Babylonian Chronicle . Thus, other details regarding the chronology of his reign and his status as the king of a unified state have more credibility. According to Herodotus, Deioces was succeeded by his son Phraortes . Herodotus may have advanced the events linked with the Median kings by one reign. Thus,

24960-435: The central Zagros region, between Lake Urmia and Elam. While this hypothesis is sustainable and plausible, it remains a probability since textual evidence is inconclusive. Although archaeological evidence supports many judgments based on textual sources, at least for the period until around 650 BCE, there is still enough uncertainty for the period after 650 BCE. Reconsidering the Medes as a confederation or coalition, rather than

25168-420: The central court in Ecbatana. This system somewhat resembled the satrapal and feudal systems. The exercise of authority over various Iranian and non-Iranian peoples in the form of a confederation is implied by the ancient Iranian royal title " king of kings ". Jeremiah speeches dating from 593 BCE mentions "kings of Media" in the plural, alongside satraps and governors. Herodotus gives this characterization of

25376-420: The chest with empty sleeves hanging at the sides. The Median attire quickly gained popularity among other Iranian peoples. The presence of Median soldiers in Assyrian palaces evidently significantly influenced the restructuring of Median military tactics, adopting more advanced techniques. The Median cavalry was highly trained and well-equipped, playing a crucial role in battles against the Assyrians. Occupying

25584-494: The collapse of Assyria and the gradual erosion of Scythian power might have influenced the abandonment of various fortresses, especially those located near the territorial core of Media. In another report, it was suggested that the various buildings were abandoned in different ways during the period when Median power was still on the rise. Godin Tepe's Level II, excavated by T. Cuyler Young and Louis Levine, contains architectural structures similar to those of Nush-i Jan I and presents

25792-417: The columned hall form before the ascension of the Achaemenid Empire suggests some form of Median presence or influence in adjacent regions during the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. Evidence from recent excavations and surveys, suggests that permanent settlement in Media persisted beyond the late 7th century BCE. Monumental construction appears to have continued at various sites, and an early form of money

26000-471: The conclusion that the Scythian domination was much shorter. It couldn't have been long after the Scythian attack for the Medes to begin recovering and clearing their territories of the Scythians. If the invasion occurred during the reign of Cyaxares, and not Phraortes, it is likely that less than a decade after its occurrence, the Medes were strong enough to resume their old plans and, for the second time, lead an army into Assyria. Although Herodotus's account of

26208-548: The constitution. The Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) is at the top of the foreign policy decisions process. The council was formed during the 1989 Iranian constitutional referendum for the protection and support of national interests, the revolution, territorial integrity and national sovereignty. It is mandated by Article 176 of the Constitution to be presided over by the President . The Leader selects

26416-462: The court of Cyaxares ( Xenophon , Cyropaedia 2.4.1) seems a plausible outcome of commercial contacts. Cyaxares died shortly after the treaty with the Lydians, leaving the throne to his son Astyages. Compared to Cyaxares, little is known about the reign of Astyages. His marriage to Aryenis made him the brother-in-law of the future Lydian king Croesus , and the marriage of his sister Amytis to

26624-470: The dominant groups were the Scythians, and their involvement in the affairs of the western plateau during the 7th century BCE may mark one of the most significant turning points in Iron Age history. Herodotus provides some details about a Scythian dominance period, the so-called Scythian interregnum in the Median dynasty. The dating of this event remains uncertain but is traditionally seen as occurring between

26832-463: The east emanated from the actions of Kaštaritu , the city lord of Kār-Kaššî , who is prominently mentioned in oracle queries concerning Median affairs. The Assyrians perceived Kaštaritu as a political leader of substantial influence and a force to be reckoned with; Esarhaddon worried about Kaštaritu plotting with other Median city lords, mobilizing against Assyria and attacking the Assyrian strongholds and cities. The available sources don't reveal whether

27040-434: The east, such as Bactrian lapis lazuli, and the east-west trade route through Media became increasingly crucial. Trade might explain Ecbatana's rise as the central city of Media and could have triggered the unification process. According to Herodotus, Deioces strategically plotted to establish autocratic rule over the Medes. In a time of widespread lawlessness in Media, Deioces diligently worked to establish justice, earning

27248-402: The emergence of a dominant leader. The attack on Assyria from 615 to 610 BCE likely played a crucial role in consolidating the authority of this leader. David Stronach argues that there is not enough reason to posit the existence of a robust, independent, and unified Median kingdom at any date before 615 BCE. However, he disagrees with extending this negative assessment to the period from 615 to

27456-586: The executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Rahbar. The President appoints ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, and the Rahbar, who can dismiss or reinstate any minister. The President supervises the Council of Ministers , coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before

27664-485: The fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BCE. It is true that, judging by the Babylonian Chronicle , Harran remained under Babylonian rule while the Medes returned to their land. However, it is possible that some time after 609 BCE, the Medes took Harran again and remained there for a long period. By the late 7th century BCE, the Medes appear to have coalesced into a significant political entity under

27872-663: The favored regions of Media in the Zagros and Azerbaijan, the soil was almost entirely cultivable and capable of producing an excellent grain harvest. South of the Caspian Sea, there was a narrow strip of fertile soil covered by a dense forest, providing excellent-quality wood. The economy of the villages relied on crops such as barley, spelt, wheat bread, peas, lentils, and grapes. The densely forested mountains offered an extensive range of hunting, but animal husbandry remained noble. The sample of domestic bones in Nush-i Jan includes nine species, with sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle being

28080-402: The first half of the first millennium BCE, there were urban-type settlements in various regions of Media, serving as centers for craft production and a sedentary agricultural and livestock economy. From Median territories, the Assyrians received tribute in the form of horses, cattle, sheep, Bactrian camels, lapis lazuli, bronze, gold, silver, and other metals, as well as linen and wool fabrics. In

28288-550: The formation of the first Iranian empire, which at its height would have exercised authority over more than two million square kilometers, stretching from the eastern banks of the Halys River in Anatolia to Central Asia . In this period, the Median empire was one of the great powers in the ancient Near East alongside Babylon , Lydia , and Egypt . During his reign, Astyages (r. 585–550 BCE) worked to strengthen and centralize

28496-491: The founder of the Median Kingdom, who united all Median tribes and build the new capital of Media, could have been Deioces' successor. Phraortes is commonly identified with Kaštaritu, who led the Median revolt against the Assyrians in 672 BCE, although some scholars tend to reject or consider this identification doubtful. Other scholars believe that the Medes were only unified under Cyaxares, who, according to Herodotus,

28704-475: The grandson of Astyages as Herodotus claims, then this would explain why the Medes accepted his reign. However, it is also possible that the connection between Cyrus and Astyages was invented to justify Persian rule over the Medes. According to Ctesias, Astyages had a daughter named Amytis , who was married to Spitamas , who then became the presumptive successor to his father-in-law. After killing Spitamas, Cyrus would have married Amytis to gain legitimacy. Although

28912-509: The green belt of the north side of the country; the Turan region, which are mainly scattered in the center of Iran; Zagros region , which mainly contains oak forests in the west; the Persian Gulf region , which is scattered in the southern coastal belt; the Arasbarani region , which contains rare and unique species. More than 8,200 plant species are grown. The land covered by natural flora

29120-516: The head of the Supreme Court and chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain offences, such as crimes against national security . The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Chief Justice is the head of the judicial system and responsible for its administration and supervision. He

29328-798: The international community to use its native and original name, Iran ; Iranians called their nation Iran since at least 1000 BC. Today, both Iran and Persia are used culturally, while Iran remains mandatory in official use. The Persian pronunciation of Iran is [ʔiːˈɾɒːn] . Commonwealth English pronunciations of Iran are listed in the Oxford English Dictionary as / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / and / ɪ ˈ r æ n / , while American English dictionaries provide pronunciations which map to / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n , - ˈ r æ n , aɪ ˈ r æ n / , or / ɪ ˈ r æ n , ɪ ˈ r ɑː n , aɪ ˈ r æ n / . The Cambridge Dictionary lists / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / as

29536-518: The kings of Elam and Media" among the condemned nations shows that the plural and singular are rhetorically interchangeable is debatable. A possible explanation may be found in Nabonidus's references to the " Ummān-manda , their country, and the kings who march at their side." Nabonidus is pointing to a unitary threat, composed of components that include a plurality of kings. Jeremiah's formula may be an alternative way of expressing this, especially since

29744-528: The land of the Aryans ' derives from Middle Persian Ērān , first attested in a 3rd-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam , with the accompanying Parthian inscription using Aryān , in reference to the Iranians . Ērān and Aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning ' Aryan ', i.e. of

29952-489: The late 9th century BCE, the Urartians had conquered the west and south shores of Lake Urmia and began advancing towards Mannea . Assyria failed to halt the Urartian advance and gradually became an ally of Mannea in its struggle against Urartu . The Assyrians could not secure victories in the six campaigns (in 809, 800, 799, 793, 792, and 788 BCE) waged against the Medes by Adad-nirari III (r. 810–781 BCE), and subsequently

30160-403: The leadership of Cyaxares , launching an attack on the Assyrian heartland and allying with the Babylonians. Nothing in the existing Assyrian sources provide insights into how Cyaxares assumed leadership of a unified Median force since the preceding decades is marked by a scarcity of sources concerning Assyria's internal and foreign policies, creating a fragmented understanding of the second half of

30368-498: The legislature. Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of 22 ministers, all appointed by the president. Presidential and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the 12-member Guardian Council (all members of which are appointed by the Leader) or the Leader, before running to ensure their allegiance. The Leader rarely does the vetting, but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of

30576-471: The mid-19th century, the history of civilizations in the Near East prior to the Achaemenid Empire relied solely on classical and biblical sources. Information about the Medes, as well as about the Assyrians and Babylonians, was derived from the works of classical authors such as Herodotus and their successors. They gathered information from scholarly circles within the Achaemenid Empire, but this information

30784-468: The mid-6th century BCE. For the period from 615 to 550 BCE, Babylonian sources contain two important pieces of information that align with Herodotus's account: in 615-610 BCE, the Medes, united under the leadership of Cyaxares, destroyed Assyrian capitals; in 550 BCE, the Median army, led by Astyages, defected to the Persian king Cyrus, followed by the conquest of Ecbatana. Thus, the beginning and end of an independent Median kingdom seem to be present, although

30992-491: The middle Euphrates and captured Mannean forces who were helping the Assyrians. Whether the Kingdom of Mannea still existed by this time remains uncertain. In the same year, the Babylonians defeated the Assyrians near Arrapha (modern Kirkuk). In the third month of 615 BCE, the Babylonians marched directly up the Tigris and attacked Assur but were driven back. In the eighth month, the Medes were active near Arrapha, which suggests

31200-655: The military or used for wildlife protection, and entry is prohibited or requires a permit. Iran took control of Bumusa , and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs in 1971, in the Strait of Hormuz between the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. Despite the islands being small and having little natural resources or population, they are highly valuable for their strategic location. Although the United Arab Emirates claims sovereignty, it has consistently been met with

31408-399: The most common. There are also indications, in line with the millennia-old reputation of Media's pastures, that the aforementioned horse breeding played a significant role in the local economy. Hilary Gopnik see the Median state as a “dominant economic force” in control of the trade routes of the northern Zagros in the late 7th and 6th centuries. As Medes, being the most powerful people on

31616-441: The most famous animals is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah , which survives only in Iran. Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the extinct Caspian tigers by the early 20th century. Domestic ungulates are represented by sheep , goat , cattle , horse , water buffalo , donkey and camel . Bird species like pheasant , partridge , stork , eagles and falcons are native. The Supreme Leader , "Rahbar", Leader of

31824-530: The most significant set of historical information about the Medes. The Herodotean account dealing with the period before the Median king Cyaxares has been largely dismissed in favor of contemporary Assyrian records. The Assyrian sources that provide information on the Medes never mention a unified Median state. Instead, these sources indicate a fragmented political landscape comprising small-scale entities headed by various city lords. While scholars have suggested connections between certain individuals in this milieu and

32032-434: The names mentioned in classical sources, all identifications based on name similarity are questionable. The Assyrian sources only offer a clear picture up to c. 650 BCE. For the subsequent period, there is a gap in quantity and quality of Assyrian sources. Historical evidence for a unified Median state comes only very late in the period, when in 615 BCE the Medes reappear in Babylonian sources led by Cyaxares. After this event,

32240-490: The national budget. All parliamentary candidates and legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council . The Guardian Council can and has dismissed elected members of the parliament. The parliament has no legal status without the Guardian Council, and the Council holds absolute veto power over legislation. The Expediency Discernment Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and

32448-446: The nature of such a kingdom is not necessarily equal to that described by Herodotus as a true empire foreshadowing the Achaemenid Empire. It is likely that a unified Median kingdom exerted control over a significant part of northern Iran, at least in the first half of the 6th century BCE. However, some scholars have also raised doubts about the existence of a unified, short-lived Median kingdom. Historian Mario Liverani proposed that there

32656-401: The period from the Scythian victory over the Medes to the assassination of the Scythian leaders was exactly 28 years, but this chronology is problematic. It is highly unlikely that the Scythians could have dominated the Medes for nearly three decades. The Scythians, being nomads, were fierce warriors but incapable of ruling large territories for an extended period. This and other reasons lead to

32864-414: The present day. Around 650 BCE, information about the Assyrian provinces in the Zagros was considerably reduced, and Assyrian sources no longer mention the Medes. When the Medes reappear in contemporary records in 615 BCE, they are attacking Assyria. There is no indication of how Cyaxares brought a unified Median force to such effective and devastating use. Currently, two contrasting academic views exist:

33072-529: The president. Regional policy is directly controlled by the Rahbar, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. Ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Force , which directly reports to the Rahbar. The Rahbar can order laws to be amended. Setad was estimated at $ 95 billion in 2013 by Reuters, accounts of which are secret even to

33280-938: The protagonists described by the Greek historians. Although some characters in Herodotus and Ctesias can be identified with figures known in Assyrian and Babylonian sources, the narratives presented by these Greek historians deviate from the course of events found in Near Eastern sources. Consequently, it remains unknown to what extent many details in their stories reflect historical reality. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon (r. 680–669 BCE) conducted several expeditions into Iranian territory. Compared to Sargon's conquests, Esarhaddon's campaign results were rather insignificant. Most likely in 676 BCE, and certainly before 672 BCE, city lords Uppis of Partakka, Zanasana of Partukka, and Ramateia of Urakazabarna brought horses and lapis lazuli as tribute to Nineveh. These rulers who hailed from regions beyond

33488-522: The provincial system already implemented in more accessible and nearby areas. Assyrian governors coexisted with local city lords: the former likely responsible for overseeing long-distance trade and tax collection, while the latter retained power for handling local affairs. In 716 BCE, Sargon made Harhar and Kišesim centers of new Assyrian provinces, adding to them some other territories of west Media, including Sagbita, and renamed these provinces Kar-Sarrukin and Kar-Nergal, respectively. Despite being active in

33696-604: The region in the seventh century AD, leading to Iran's Islamization . The blossoming literature , philosophy , mathematics , medicine , astronomy and art became major elements for Iranian civilization during the Islamic Golden Age . A series of Iranian Muslim dynasties ended Arab rule, revived the Persian language and ruled the country until the Seljuk and Mongol conquests of the 11th to 14th centuries. In

33904-551: The reign of Deioces, existed in the early 7th century BCE. His account is at best a Median legend about the foundation of their kingdom. In contrast, Ctesias presents a different narrative centered around a Mede named Arbaces . Arbaces served as a general in the Assyrian army and as the governor of the Medes on behalf of the Assyrian king. He met his later ally, the Babylonian Belesys, at Nineveh, where both commanded Assyria's Median and Babylonian auxiliary troops during

34112-520: The reigns of Phraortes and Cyaxares. Russian Iranologist Edvin Grantovsky dates this event between 635 and 615 BCE, while historian George Cameron dates it between 653 and 625 BCE. According to Herodotus, king Phraortes led an attack against Assyria, but the Assyrian king managed to repel the invasion, and Phraortes, along with much of his army, died in the battle. Herodotus reports that Cyaxares, wanting to avenge his father's death, marched with

34320-706: The remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz , and Gulf of Oman. Iranian islands are mainly located in the Persian Gulf. Iran has 102 islands in Urmia Lake , 427 in Aras River , several in Anzali Lagoon , Ashurade Island in the Caspian Sea , Sheytan Island in the Oman Sea and other inland islands. Iran has an uninhabited island at the far end of the Gulf of Oman , near Pakistan. A few islands can be visited by tourists. Most are owned by

34528-524: The royal presence by an official. He was surrounded by bodyguards for personal security and rarely left his palace, relying on reports about the state of his kingdom transmitted to him occasionally by his officials. No one could laugh or spit in the royal presence or in the presence of anyone else, as such acts were considered unworthy and shameful. Having consolidated royal authority, Deioces proceeded to administer justice with severity. Legal cases were sent to him in writing, he judged them and returned them with

34736-422: The sack of the Assyrian capital, only the Babylonians seem to have continued the campaign and a part of the Babylonian army marched on Nasibina and Rasappa , while Cyaxares and his army returned to Media. Meanwhile the Assyrians were regrouping under a new king further west at Harran . The Medes appear to be absent from the account of 611 BCE, while the Babylonians are militarily active advancing towards Syria and

34944-404: The same principle by which the Persians esteem others. Thus, indeed, it progressed, each nation ruling and being ruled (by its neighbor). Currently, there's a lack of direct information about the political, economic, and social structure of the Medes. However, it is likely that in many aspects, the Median administrative system resembled that of the Assyrians, under whose influence the Medes were for

35152-484: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Worker-Communist Party . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Worker-Communist_Party&oldid=821932175 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Political party disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

35360-601: The same year, the Assyrians received tribute from the Medes and Manneans, and in 737 BCE, Tiglath-Pileser invaded Media, reaching its remote parts and demanding tribute from the "city lords" of the Medes up to the Salt Desert and Mount Bikni. In an account of this campaign, Tiglath-Pileser mentions "the provinces of the mighty Medes" and claims to have deported 6,500 people from northwest Iran to Syria and Phoenicia. Under Sargon II (r. 722–705 BCE), Assyrian presence in Media reached its zenith. Sargon aimed to establish direct administrative control over these distant regions, following

35568-506: The second most important position in the Achaemenid Empire, the Medes paid less tribute but provided more soldiers to the Achaemenid army than other peoples. This is evidenced by the reliefs of Persepolis and Herodotus, as well as the fact that many Median generals, such as Harpagus , Mazares , and Datis , served in the Persian army. According to Herodotus, during the Greco-Persian Wars , Median soldiers did not differ much from

35776-619: The secretary of the Supreme Council, and the decisions of the council are effective after the confirmation by the Leader. The SNSC formulates nuclear policy, and would become effective if they are confirmed by the Leader. The legislature , known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly (ICA), Iranian Parliament or "Majles", is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four-years. It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties , and approves

35984-431: The sentence. He established law and order by introducing "observers and listeners" throughout his kingdom, monitoring the actions of his subjects. Like other oriental rulers, the Median monarch had multiple wives and concubines , and polygamy was commonly practiced among the wealthier and prominent classes. The main characteristics of the Median court may have been similar to the Assyrian court. According to Herodotus,

36192-446: The side" of the Median king mentioned in Babylonian sources. Maria Brosius envisions Media as a territory of chiefdoms that, between 614 and 550 BCE, united their military forces under a city lord, with Ecbatana as their power base. Available information about the Median court is limited and not entirely reliable. In his charming account of the youth of Cyrus II, Herodotus suggests that the Median court included bodyguards, messengers,

36400-506: The site appears to be completely abandoned in the first half of the 6th century BCE. The archaeological developments in Mannae appear to have been exactly the same as those in Media: flourishing settlements with public buildings in the second half of the 8th century BCE and throughout the 7th century BCE, followed by a period of irregular occupation in the first half of the 6th century BCE. Such

36608-635: The sixth century BC, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire , one of the largest in ancient history . Alexander the Great conquered the empire in the fourth century BC. An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC and liberated the country, which was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire in the third century AD. Ancient Iran saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, religion and central government. Muslims conquered

36816-413: The size of small villages. Notably, monumental architecture found many Median sites does not appear to be integrated into larger settlements. It is difficult to reconcile this archaeological picture with the system of “city leaders” mentioned in the Assyrian sources. The capital of Media, Ecbatana, is a site of great interest for archaeological study, but excavations so far have revealed remains belonging to

37024-481: The sources exhibit an external view of the Medes. There is not a single Median source representing a Median perspective on their own history. The available textual sources on Media primarily consist of contemporary Assyrian and Babylonian texts, as well as the Persian inscription of Behistun , works by later Greek authors such as Herodotus and Ctesias, and some biblical texts. Before the archaeological discoveries of Assyrian and Babylonian ruins and cuneiform archives in

37232-453: The southeast, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. With a multi-ethnic population of almost 90 million in an area of 1,648,195 km (636,372 sq mi), Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population . It is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and one of the world's most mountainous countries. Officially an Islamic republic , Iran has

37440-428: The spear, bow, sword, and dagger. The mountainous nature of their country and its martial character contributed to the development of suitable attire for cavalry: tight trousers typically made of leather with an extra belt for a short sword, a long tight leather tunic, a round felt helmet with cheek flaps and a neck protector, possibly covering the mouth, and a long variegated cloak thrown over the shoulders and fastened to

37648-462: The speeches of Jeremiah. According to Herodotus, Astyages married his daughter Mandane to the Persian king Cambyses I , with whom she would have a son, Cyrus II , connecting the Median dynasty to the Achaemenid dynasty . This marriage would have taken place before 576 BCE, but there is some doubt about its historicity. During his reign, Astyages may have worked to strengthen and centralize

37856-553: The spring, the Persian leader invaded Media from the west, and in May 521 BCE, defeated Phraortes. The Persian victory was complete, and Phraortes fled to Parthia but was captured in Rages (modern Tehran ). Later, the rebel was tortured and crucified in Ecbatana. After his victory, Darius could send troops to Armenia and Parthia, where his generals managed to defeat the remaining rebels. A Sagartian named Tritantechmes , who also claimed to be

38064-408: The structure of the Median kingdom (1, 134): "... one people ruled another, but the Medes ruled over all and especially over those that dwelt nearest them, and these ruled over their neighbours, and they again over theirs". Some scholars assume that the later Median administrative structure evolved into a more developed form in the administrative system of the Achaemenid Empire. Probably, there never

38272-488: The subsequent years from 616 to 595, much of the Babylonian Chronicle is preserved and provides reasonably reliable account of events. The source is not a complete record of the history of the period, and is focused exclusively on events in Mesopotamia. After securing full control of Babylonian territory, Nabopolassar (r. 626–605 BCE) marched against Assyria. In 616 BCE, the Babylonians defeated an Assyrian army on

38480-492: The throne, Deioces ordered the construction of a fortress city to be his capital; all governmental authority was centralized in this city, Ecbatana. He established a royal guard, and a very strict court protocol, in such a way that the heads of the great Median families ”took him for a being of a different nature from themselves.” In normal circumstances, the monarch remained isolated in his palace, and no one could see him unless formally requesting an audience and being presented to

38688-465: The time of Esarhaddon, the situation on the Assyrian eastern borders was extremely tense. While going into the Assyrian provinces in the Zagros in order to collect tribute is routine of the various governors after 713 BCE, such missions were fraught with danger in the time of Esarhaddon. This increased risk stemmed not only from traditional adversaries like the Medes and Manneans but also from the Cimmerians and Scythians active in Iran. The primary threat in

38896-474: The traditional perspective sees Cyaxares as the king of a unified Median state confronting Assyria as an equal power, while the alternative view considers the Medes as a military force that contributed to the fall of Assyria but lacked political cohesion. The absence of relevant Assyrian evidence after 650 BCE does not rule out the existence of a broader Median authority centered in Ecbatana. Some theories suggest that tribute demands and commercial exploitation along

39104-411: The two kingdoms. The war between the Medes and Lydians resulted in a series of conflicts over five years, with both sides experiencing alternating victories. In the sixth year of the conflict, a solar eclipse interrupted a battle, leading both sides to conclude a peace treaty mediated by Labynetus of Babylon and Syennesis I of Cilicia . As a result, the Halys River was established as the border between

39312-458: The two powers. The treaty was sealed by the marriage of Aryenis , daughter of Alyattes, and Astyages , son of Cyaxares, establishing a new balance of power among the Near Eastern states. In a few words, Herodotus states that Cyaxares subjugated all of Asia east of the river Halys, suggesting that he engaged in a series of battles with various peoples in the region to subdue them. This assertion may imply that, in addition to Cappadocia and Urartu,

39520-410: The upper Euphrates. The Egyptian pharaoh Necho II sent help to the Assyrian army that had entrenched itself in Harran. So Nabopolassar seems to have asked the Medes for help. The Medes reappeared on the scene in 610 BCE, when they joined the Babylonians for an assault on Harran. Faced with the formidable alliance, the Assyrians and their Egyptian allies abandoned Harran, which was captured. After that,

39728-485: The war against the Cadusians might indicate that the Medes had limited control over the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, where the Cadusians lived. Apparently, Astyages's reign was relatively undisturbed until shortly before its end. Moses of Chorene claims that he engaged in a long struggle with an Armenian king named Tigranes , but little credit can be given to these statements. Both Herodotus and Ctesias depict

39936-520: The west part. The UN Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that " Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today". To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The east and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain and have occasional deserts. Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38 °C (100.4 °F). The southern coastal plains of

40144-411: The world's focal point of Shia Islam . The Iranian economy is the world's 23rd-largest by PPP . Iran is a founding member of the United Nations , OIC , OPEC , and ECO as well as a current member of the NAM , SCO , and BRICS . Iran is home to 28 UNESCO World Heritage Sites , the 10th highest in the world, and ranks 5th in Intangible Cultural Heritage , or human treasures. The term Iran '

40352-451: The world's longest caves. Iran's climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid , to subtropical along the Caspian coast and northern forests. On the north edge of the country, temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the east part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in

40560-436: Was a Median empire strictu sensu . Therefore, the term "empire" to refer to the political entity constructed by the Medes might not be suitable. The Median kingdom was probably just a loose federation of western Iranian chieftains and kings and their unity was maintained by their personal ties with the Median king, who was less an absolute monarch than a first among equals. This fits the description of other rulers "who march at

40768-406: Was apparently in use in the heart of Media around 600 BCE. However, the Median Empire is still not a concrete archaeological fact, and its history is largely based on information provided by Herodotus and other texts directly or indirectly influenced by him. At the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, Median tribes began settling in the territory of future Media in western Iran. From the 9th century BCE,

40976-402: Was elected to office. Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km (636,372 sq mi). It is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and the second-largest in West Asia. It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N , and longitudes 44° and 64° E . It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia (35 km or 22 mi), the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan (179 km or 111 mi), and

41184-456: Was followed by a series of rebellions in the Achaemenid satrapies. When Darius suppressed these rebellions and stayed in Babylon, a certain Phraortes made an attempt to seize power and restore Median independence. He claimed to be a descendant of Cyaxares and managed to seize Ecbatana in December 522 BCE. Around the same time, there was a new rebellion in Elam, and there were rebellions in adjacent provinces such as Armenia, Assyria, and Parthia. In

41392-491: Was for a long time the primary and generally accepted historical account of the ancient Medes. In his account in the first book of his Histories , Herodotus traces the development of a unified Median state or empire with a major capital at Ecbatana and a geographical reach as far west as the Halys river in central Turkey. Although what he describes happened centuries earlier and he probably relied on unreliable oral accounts, his description can be correlated to some degree with

41600-457: Was killed around 625 BCE during an unsuccessful invasion of Assyria. There is no evidence regarding the relations between the Medes and Assyrians from 624 to 617 BCE. It is unknown whether the Medes were still geographically separated from the Assyrian heartland by the Zagros mountains and surrounding peoples, or if they were already asserting themselves in the mountainous Assyrian provinces, particularly in Mazamua (modern Suleimaniya ). However, for

41808-553: Was known for his hardline views, nuclearisation, and hostility towards Israel , Saudi Arabia , the UK , the US and other states. He was the first president to be summoned by the parliament to answer questions regarding his presidency. In 2013, centrist and reformist Hassan Rouhani was elected president. In domestic policy, he encouraged personal freedom, free access to information, and improved women's rights. He improved Iran's diplomatic relations through exchanging conciliatory letters. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)

42016-400: Was mutually beneficial. The extant sources available shows the continued Assyrian control over the provinces founded by Tiglath-Pileser and Sargon, at least until the reign of Esarhaddon. In 702 BCE, Sennacherib engaged with the Medes during a campaign against the Zagros kingdom of Ellipi . This marked his only recorded direct contact with the Medes in their own territory, receiving tribute from

42224-437: Was neither direct nor contemporary, nor was it based on solid archives or historical materials. Although no contemporary textual source has been discovered in Media, the information available in Assyrian and Babylonian sources is quite relevant. Due to the absence of written records from pre-Achaemenid Media and, until recently, the lack of archaeological evidence, the 'Median logos' of the Greek historian Herodotus (1. 95-106)

42432-403: Was no transition from city lords to regional rulers or kings; instead, there was a brief unification under a primary Median king, specifically to confront a weakened Assyria in the 610s BCE, followed by a rapid return to the previous status quo . Nevertheless, this view is not widely accepted. While some scholars still consider Media a powerful and structured empire that would have influenced

42640-508: Was reached in Vienna in 2015, between Iran, the P5+1 ( UN Security Council + Germany) and the EU. The negotiations centered around ending the economic sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium . In 2018, however, the US under Trump Administration withdrew from the deal and new sanctions were imposed. This nulled the economic provisions, left the agreement in jeopardy, and brought Iran to nuclear threshold status . In 2020, IRGC general, Qasem Soleimani ,

42848-586: Was sealed with the marriage of Amytis , probably the daughter of Cyaxares, with the son of Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II . Afterwards Cyaxares and his army went home. In 613 BCE, the Medes are not mentioned in the chronicle. However, in 612 BCE, a king of the ummān-manda appears on the scene; he is surely identical with the king of the Medes, although it is strange that a single cuneiform tablet should describe one people by two different terms. The combined military forces of Cyaxares and Nabopolassar laid siege to Nineveh, resulting in its fall after three months. After

43056-478: Was the largest drone strike in history, biggest missile attack in Iranian history, its first ever direct attack on Israel and the first time since 1991 , Israel was directly attacked by a state force. This occurred during heightened tensions amid the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip . In May 2024, President Raisi was killed in a helicopter crash , and Iran held a presidential election in June, when reformist and former Minister of Health , Masoud Pezeshkian ,

43264-471: Was the son of Phraortes and began his reign around 625 BCE. From 627 BCE onward the Assyrians were definitely in serious trouble both at home and in Babylonia and, therefore, the Median kingdom most likely emerged after 627, or possibly already after 631 BCE. In ancient times, the vast areas north of the Black and Caspian Seas were inhabited by the Scythians . In the late 8th and early 7th centuries BCE, groups of nomadic warriors entered western Iran. Among

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