59-528: The Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes , also known as the Water Convention , is an international environmental agreement and one of five UNECE's negotiated environmental treaties . The purpose of this convention is to improve national attempts and measures for protection and management of transboundary surface waters and groundwaters. On
118-538: A Guidance on Water and Adaptation to Climate Change which provides recommendations for the governments. The Task Force implements the Guidance through various pilot projects and a platform for exchanging experience. This Group deals with prevention of the accidental pollution of transboundary waters. The centre was established at the second meeting of the Parties (Paris, March 2000). It serves as an operational body of
177-433: A disaster: it's only when it affects people or is caused by them that is counts as a disaster. It is argued that natural disasters are always linked to human action or inaction or rooted in anthropogenic processes . Disasters, economic loss, and the underlying vulnerabilities that drive risk are increasing. Global risks like climate change are having major impacts everywhere. Scientists forecast climate change will increase
236-896: A higher share of plant-based foods . This has both mitigation and adaptation benefits. Plant-based options have much lower energy and water requirements. Adaptation options can investigate the dietary patterns that are better suited to the regional, socioeconomic and cultural context. Social-cultural norms strongly affect preferences for foods. Policies such as subsidies, taxes, and marketing can also support dietary choices that help adaptation. Agriculture offers many opportunities for adaptation. These include changing planting times, or changing to crops and livestock that are better adapted to climate conditions and presence of pests. Other examples are breeding more resilient crops and selecting genetically modified crops. All these aim to improve food security and nutrition. Migration counts as behavioural climate adaptation for some, although others refer to it as
295-564: A knowledge loop that includes targeted user communities' access to, interpretation of, communication of, and use of pertinent, accurate, and trustworthy climate information, as well as their feedback on that use. Climate information services involve the timely production, translation and delivery of useful climate data, information and knowledge. Institutional responses include zoning regulations, new building codes , new insurance schemes, and coordination mechanisms. Policies are important tools to integrate issues of climate change adaptation. At
354-588: A legal claim for adequate and prompt compensation. The financial limits of liability as well as the minimum amount of financial securities have been agreed by all the actors of the negotiation, including the insurance sector, and are therefore realistic and appropriate. As of 2013, the Protocol has been ratified only by Hungary and is not in force. Tayia, A. Transboundary Water Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: Substitutes or Complements. Water 2019, 11, 1337 List of international environmental agreements This
413-670: A transboundary impact and to make available the results of water and effluent sampling. The Legal Board was established in November 2003, to facilitate legal issues related to the work under the convention. The Legal Board has developed the Guide to Implementing the convention, together with the Working Group on Integrated Water Resources. The Task Force is responsible for activities related to adaptation to climate change, including flood and drought management. In 2007–2009 they prepared
472-509: A year for the coming decades. In many cases, the cost will be less than the damage that it avoids. The IPCC defines climate change adaptation in this way: Adaptation actions can be incremental and transformative. Incremental actions are actions that aim to maintain the essence and integrity of a system. Transformative actions are actions that change the fundamental attributes of a system in response to climate change and its impacts. Research on climate change adaptation has been ongoing since
531-550: Is a list of international environmental agreements . Most of the following agreements are legally binding for countries that have formally ratified them. Some, such as the Kyoto Protocol , differentiate between types of countries and each nation's respective responsibilities under the agreement. Several hundred international environmental agreements exist but most cover only a limited number of countries. These bilateral or sometimes trilateral agreements are only binding for
590-430: Is a closely related area of work and research topic that has recently emerged. It describes situations in which adaptation, mitigation and development solutions are pursued together. It is able to benefit from synergies from among the actions and reduce trade-offs. Strategies to limit climate change are complementary to efforts to adapt to it. Limiting warming, by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and removing them from
649-421: Is an important step in understanding current and future adaptation needs and options. As of 2022, the level of warming is 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) above levels before the industrial revolution. It is on track to increase to 2.5 to 2.9 °C (36.5 to 37.2 °F) by the end of the century. This is causing a variety of secondary effects. Many negative effects of climate change involve changes in extremes or
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#1732791210024708-547: Is because evacuation and emergency access becomes easier. Reduced air pollution from public transport improves health. This in turn may lead to improved economic resilience, as healthy workers perform better. There are many adaptation responses. We sometimes call them adaptation measures, strategies or solutions. They help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. Current adaptation focuses on near-term climate risks. It also focuses on particular sectors, such as water and agriculture, and on regions, such as Africa and Asia. It
767-638: Is because transformational adaptation is connected with implementation at scale and ideally at the system-level. Strengthening resilience is therefore important for maintaining a capacity for transformation. Transformations, and the processes of transition, cover the major systems and sectors at scale. These are energy, land and ecosystems, urban and infrastructure, and industrial and societal. Transformations may fail if they do not integrate social justice, consider power differences and political inclusion, and if they do not deliver improvements in incomes and wellbeing for everyone. Climate resilient development
826-471: Is establishing and implementing joint programmes for monitoring the conditions of transboundary waters, including floods and ice drift , as well as transboundary impacts. Also, this Working Group prepares periodic assessments on the status of transboundary waters and international lakes in the UNECE region. It encourages Parties to inform each other and the general public about any critical situation that may have
885-468: Is important to close gaps between adaptation that is carried out and the needs relative to today's climate in order to reduce risks to a tolerable level. However, future adaptation must also anticipate future climate change risks. Some options may become less effective or entirely unfeasible as global warming increases. Adaptation responses fall into four categories that all directly aim to reduce risks and exploit opportunities: We can also group options
944-490: Is important to help countries manage climate risks. Plans, policies or strategies are in place in more than 70% of countries. Agreements like the Paris Agreement encourage countries to develop adaptation plans. Other levels of government like cities and provinces also use adaptation planning. So do economic sectors. Donor countries can give money to developing countries to help develop national adaptation plans. This
1003-458: Is important to help them implement more adaptation. Monitoring and evaluation activities are key parts of adaptation efforts. They ensure strategies work well and allow for necessary changes along the way. The adaptation carried out so far is not enough to manage risks at current levels of climate change. And adaptation must also anticipate future risks of climate change. The costs of climate change adaptation are likely to cost billions of dollars
1062-799: Is in three categories: 1. Structural and physical adaptation (including engineering and built environment, technological, ecosystem-based, services); 2. Social adaptation (educational, informational, behavioural); 3. Institutional adaptation (economic organizations, laws and regulation, government policies and programmes). Other ways to distinguish types of adaptation are anticipatory versus reactive, autonomous versus planned and incremental versus transformational. Built environment options include installing or upgrading infrastructure to protect against flooding, sea level rise, heatwaves and extreme heat. They also include infrastructure to respond to changed rainfall patterns in agriculture. This could be infrastructure for irrigation. These are explained further in
1121-443: Is not possible to directly reduce hazards. This is because hazards are affected by current and future changes in climate. Instead, adaptation addresses the risks of climate impacts that arise from the way climate-related hazards interact with the exposure and vulnerability of human and ecological systems. Exposure refers to the presence of people, livelihoods, ecosystems and other assets in places that could suffer negative effects. It
1180-470: Is one way to reduce vulnerability to climate hazards. For instance, mangroves can dampen storm energy. So they can help prevent flooding. In this way, protection of the mangrove ecosystem can be a form of adaptation. Insurance and livelihood diversification increase resilience and decrease vulnerability. Other ways to decrease vulnerability include strengthening social protection and building infrastructure more resistant to hazards. Adaptive capacity in
1239-412: Is part of the broader consideration of sustainable development . Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction have similar goals (to reduce potential impacts of hazards and increase the resilience of people at risk). They use similar concepts and are informed by similar sources and studies. Disasters are often triggered by natural hazards. A natural event such as a fire or flood is not of itself
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#17327912100241298-447: Is possible to reduce exposure by retreating from areas with high climate risks, such as floodplains. Improving systems for early warnings and evacuations are other ways to reduce exposure. The IPCC defines climate change vulnerability as "the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected" by climate change. It can apply to humans but also to natural systems . Human and ecosystem vulnerability are interdependent. According to
1357-504: Is strong variation within countries. The determinants of adaptive capacity include: The IPCC considers climate resilience to be “the capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance”. It includes the abilities to reorganise and learn. This definition is similar to that of climate change adaptation. However, resilience involves a more systematic approach to absorbing change. It involves using those changes to become more efficient. The idea
1416-423: Is that people can intervene to reorganise the system when disturbance creates an opportunity to do so. Implemented adaptation most often builds upon resilience as a way of bouncing back to recover after a disturbance. Experts consider it to be incremental rather than transformational. On the other hand, climate resilience-focused projects can be activities to promote and support transformational adaptation. This
1475-701: Is the main governing body of the Water Convention that reviews its implementation. It consists of all Parties to the convention. Other Signatories and States as well as non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations can participate as observers. The Bureau of the Meeting of the Parties makes arrangements to further develop the workplan, adapts it to changing circumstances and avoids duplication of efforts with water-related activities of other United Nations bodies and other international organizations. Is also takes initiatives to strengthen implementation of
1534-1252: Is usually done alongside climate change mitigation . It also aims to exploit opportunities. Humans may also intervene to help adjust for natural systems. There are many adaptation strategies or options. For instance, building hospitals that can withstand natural disasters, roads that don't get washed away in the face of rains and floods. They can help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. The four types of adaptation actions are infrastructural , institutional, behavioural and nature-based options. Some examples of these are building seawalls or inland flood defenses, providing new insurance schemes, changing crop planting times or varieties, and installing green roofs or green spaces. Adaptation can be reactive (responding to climate impacts as they happen) or proactive (taking steps in anticipation of future climate change). The need for adaptation varies from place to place. Different regions must adapt differently because they each face particular sets of climate risks . For instance, coastal regions might prioritize sea-level rise defenses and mangrove restoration. Arid areas could focus on water scarcity solutions, land restoration and heat management. The needs for adaptation will also depend on how much
1593-539: The European Union . It has been signed but not ratified by the United Kingdom. Some of the UNECE's water related problems are of water quantity and water quality, high water stress and overexploitation of water resources, increasing droughts and floods, contaminated water resulting in water-related diseases, etc. These issues are even harder to solve due to transboundary nature of the water sources in
1652-628: The codes or regulations that buildings must conform to is important for keeping people healthy and comfortable during extremes of hot and cold and protecting them from floods. There are many ways to do this. They include increasing the insulation values, adding solar shading, increasing natural ventilation or passive cooling , codes for green roofs to reduce urban heat island effects or requiring waterfront properties to have higher foundations. Land use zoning controls are central to investment in urban development . They can reduce risks to areas threatened by floods and landslides. Insurance spreads
1711-747: The 1990s. The number and variety of subtopics has greatly increased since then. Adaptation has become an established policy area in the 2010s and since the Paris Agreement, and an important topic for policy research. Scientific research into climate change adaptation generally starts with analyses of the likely effects of climate change on people, ecosystems, and the environment. These impacts cover its effects on lives, livelihoods, health and well-being, ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultural assets, and infrastructure. Impacts may include changed agricultural yields, increased floods, and droughts or coral reef bleaching. Analysis of such impacts
1770-593: The Convention and its Provisions. The objective of the Implementation Committee is to facilitate, promote and safeguard the implementation and application and compliance with the Water Convention. Established in November 2012, the committee is to be simple, non-confrontational, non-adversarial, transparent, supportive and cooperative, building on the collaborative spirit of the convention. There are two protocols to this convention: This protocol
1829-619: The Global Goal are in development as of 2023. It will support the long-term adaptation goals of the governments that are parties to the agreement. It also aims to fund support for the most vulnerable countries’ adaptation needs in the context of the 1.5/2 °C goal. It has three core components. These are reducing vulnerability to climate change, enhancing adaptive capacity, and strengthening resilience. Adaptation can help decrease climate risk by addressing three interacting risk factors. These are hazards , vulnerability , and exposure. It
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1888-606: The IPCC, climate change vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements, including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. Sensitivity to climate change could be reduced by for example increasing the storage capacity of a reservoir, or planting crops that are more resistant to climate variability. It is also possible to reduce vulnerability in towns and cities with green garden spaces. These can reduce heat stress and food insecurity for low-income neighbourhoods. Ecosystem-based adaptation
1947-466: The State Parties decided to help countries in establishing joint bodies, as required by certain provisions of the convention. Also, it was decided to facilitate cooperation between this and other UNECE conventions, and to examine difficulties arising when implementing the convention (administrative practices). At the fifth session of the meeting of the parties, a Guide to implementing the convention
2006-497: The UN is running a partnership titled "Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems" to aid high risk countries with neglected warning systems in developing them. Climate Information Services (CIS) (or climate services) entail the dissemination of climate data in a way that aids people and organizations in making decisions. CIS helps its users foresee and control the hazards associated with a changing and unpredictable climate. It encompasses
2065-413: The UNECE region. More than 150 major rivers and 50 large lakes are either shared or are situated along the borders of two or more countries. The Water Convention approaches its issues in a holistic way, equally emphasizing the importance of ecosystems , human societies and economies, and stressing the integrated water management instead the previously used focus on specific localized problems. In 2003,
2124-559: The Water Convention was amended , allowing countries outside the UNECE region to join the convention, and thus benefit from its legal framework and experience; the amendment entered into force in 2013. This is especially beneficial for countries bordering UNECE region. UNECE's records on transboundary water agreements previous to the Water Convention: Party : European Union Signatory only : United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland At their second meeting
2183-578: The ability to design and implement effective adaptation strategies, or to react to evolving hazards and stresses. Societies that can respond to change quickly and successfully have a high adaptive capacity. Conversely, high adaptive capacity does not necessarily lead to successful adaptation action. It does not necessarily succeed in goals of equity and enhancing well-being. In general, adaptation capacity differs between high and low-income countries. By some indices such as ND-GAIN , high-income countries tend to have higher adaptive capacity. However, there
2242-418: The adoption of resilient building codes to mitigate potential damages. Coordination helps achieve goals shared by a range of people or organizations. Examples are information-sharing or joint implementation of adaptation options. Coordination helps use resources effectively. It avoids duplication, promotes consistency across government, and makes it easier for all people and organizations involved to understand
2301-400: The atmosphere, is also known as climate change mitigation . There are some synergies or co-benefits between adaptation and mitigation. Synergies include the benefits of public transport for both mitigation and adaptation. Public transport has lower greenhouse gas emissions per kilometer travelled than cars. A good public transport network also increases resilience in case of disasters. This
2360-500: The climate changes or is expected to change, which is different from place to place. Adaptation is particularly important in developing countries because they are most vulnerable to climate change. Adaptation needs are high for food, water and other sectors important for economic output, jobs and incomes. One of the challenges is to prioritize the needs of communities, including the poorest, to help ensure they are not disproportionately affected by climate change. Adaptation planning
2419-433: The context of climate change covers human, natural, or managed systems. It looks at how they respond to both climate variability and extremes. It covers the ability of a system to adjust to climate change to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with consequences. Adaptive capacity is the ability to reduce the likelihood of negative impacts of climate-related hazards. It does this through
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2478-408: The convention. The two Working Groups collaborate closely through cooperation on a number of joint activities. They hold one ordinary meeting per year. 1. Working Group on Integrated Water Resources Management The focus of this Group are the intersectoral activities related to the integrated management of transboundary water resources. Activities tend to prevent damage to the environment, promote
2537-594: The countries that have ratified them but are nevertheless essential in the international environmental regime. Including the major conventions listed below, more than 3,000 international environmental instruments have been identified by the IEA Database Project. Adaptation to climate change Climate change adaptation is the process of adjusting to the effects of climate change . These can be both current or expected impacts. Adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm for people, and
2596-458: The ecosystem approach in the framework of integrated water resources management, and ensure conservation and possibly, restoration of water-related ecosystems. Further efforts include promotion of the concept of payments for ecosystem services , prevention of accidental water pollution , and adaptation to climate change in the transboundary context, including floods and droughts management. 2. Working Group on Monitoring and Assessment The focus
2655-432: The financial impact of flooding and other extreme weather events. There is an increasing availability of such options. For example, index-based insurance is a new product which triggers payment when weather indices such as precipitation or temperature cross a threshold. It aims to help customers such as farmers deal with production risks. Access to reinsurance may make cities more resilient. Where there are failures in
2714-624: The food supply chain. Thus it can be a risk to food security and nutrition. Adaptation measures can review the production, processing and other handling practices of suppliers. Examples include further sorting to separate damaged products, drying the product for better storage or improved packaging. Other behaviour change options for retailers and consumers include accepting fruit and vegetables that appear less than perfect, redistributing food surpluses, and lowering prices on nearly expired food. Dietary change options in regions with excess consumption of calories include replacing meat and dairy foods with
2773-506: The frequency and severity of extreme weather events and disasters. So adaptation may include measures to increase preparedness and relevant disaster response capacities. For humans, adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm, and to exploit opportunities. For natural systems, humans may intervene to help adjustment. The Paris Agreement of 2015 requires countries to keep global temperature rise this century to less than 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit
2832-508: The global south. Behavioural adaptation is a change in the strategies, practices and actions that help to reduce risk. These can include protecting homes from flooding, protecting crops from drought, and adopting different income-earning activities. Behavioural change is the most common form of adaptation. Food waste spoilage increases with exposure to higher temperatures and humidity. It also increases with extreme events such as flooding and contamination. This can happen at different points in
2891-506: The international level, Parties are obliged to cooperate and create joint bodies. The Convention includes provisions on: monitoring, research, development, consultations, warning and alarm systems, mutual assistance and access as well as exchange of information. It was opened for signature in Helsinki on 17 March 1992 and entered into force on 6 October 1996. As of November 2022, it has been ratified by 47 parties, which includes 46 states and
2950-805: The national level, adaptation strategies appear in National Adaptation Plans (NAPS) and National Adaptation Programmes of Action ( NAPA ). They also occur in national climate change policies and strategies. These are at different levels of development in different countries and in cities. This is discussed further in the section below on "implementation". Cities, states, and provinces often have considerable responsibility in land use planning, public health, and disaster management. Institutional adaptation actions occur more frequently in cities than in other sectors. Some have begun to adapt to threats intensified by climate change, such as flooding, bushfires, heatwaves, and rising sea levels. Managing
3009-731: The national situation, streamlining and harmonizing responsibilities and commitments in water and health. A State Party has to elaborate a realistic plan for improvement. This process helps focus the attention on the services and actions needed. Some of the areas of work of the Protocol are: small scale water supplies, water supply and sanitation in extreme weather events, water-related disease surveillance, equitable access to water and sanitation etc. The Protocol on Water and Health entered into force in 2005. As of 2013, it has been ratified by 26 European states. The Protocol on Civil Liability for Damage and Compensation for Damage Caused by Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents on Transboundary Waters
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#17327912100243068-648: The private insurance market, the public sector can subsidize premiums. One study identified key equity issues for policy considerations: Government-subsidized insurance, such as the U.S. National Flood Insurance Program, comes under criticism for providing a perverse incentive to develop properties in hazardous areas. This increases overall risk. Insurance can also undermine other efforts such as property level protection and resilience to increase adaptation. Appropriate land-use policies can counter this behavioural effect. These policies limit new construction where there are current or future climate risks. They also encourage
3127-455: The section below "by type of climate change impact". Because of changes in extreme weather and sea level rise , due to climate change, the UN has recommended early warning systems as key elements of climate change adaptation and climate risk management . Flooding, cyclones and other rapidly changing weather events can make communities in coastal areas, along floodzones and reliant on agriculture very vulnerable to extreme events. To this end
3186-402: The temperature increase to 1.5 °C. Even if greenhouse gas emissions are stopped relatively soon, global warming and its effects will last many years. This is due to the inertia of the climate system . So both carbon neutrality ("net zero") and adaptation are necessary. The Global Goal on Adaptation was also established under the Paris Agreement. The specific targets and indicators for
3245-562: The way conditions vary rather than changes in average conditions. For example, the average sea level in a port might not be as important as the height of water during a storm surge. That is because a storm surge can cause flooding. The average rainfall in an area might not be as important as how frequent and severe droughts and extreme precipitation events become. Climate change contributes to disaster risk. So experts sometimes see climate change adaptation as one of many processes within disaster risk reduction . In turn, disaster risk reduction
3304-454: The work. In the food production sector, adaptation projects financed through the UNFCCC often include coordination between national governments and administrations at the state, provincial or city level. There are fewer examples of coordination between community-level and national government. Individuals and households play a central role in adaptation. There are many examples particularly in
3363-410: Was adopted. A Guide offers commentaries to the provisions, and examples of good practices. In addition to that, an Assessment was made, to show the current status of transboundary waters. The Second Assessment covers more than 140 transboundary rivers, 25 transboundary lakes, about 200 transboundary groundwaters and 25 Ramsar sites or other wetlands of transboundary importance. Meeting of the Parties
3422-732: Was formally adapted at the Ministerial Conference "Environment for Europe" in Kyiv, Ukraine, on 21 May 2003. It was initiated by a first joint special session of the Parties to the Water Convention together with the Parties to the Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents . Its aim is to give individuals affected by the transboundary impact of industrial accidents on international watercourses (e.g. fishermen or operators of downstream waterworks)
3481-448: Was negotiated in 1999. It is addressing the problems of water related diseases in the UNECE region, where one out of seven people do not have access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. Consequently, that brings diseases such as cholera , bacillary dysentery , coli infections, viral hepatitis A and typhoid . The implementation of this Protocol requires setting firm targets: the process of setting targets consists of analyzing
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