Sharpening stones , or whetstones , are used to sharpen the edges of steel tools such as knives through grinding and honing .
41-415: Such stones come in a wide range of shapes, sizes, and material compositions. They may be flat, for working flat edges, or shaped for more complex edges, such as those associated with some wood carving or woodturning tools. They may be composed of natural quarried material or from man-made material. They come in various grades, which refer to the grit size of the abrasive particles in the stone. (Grit size
82-427: A cutting fluid to enhance sharpening and carry away swarf . Those used with water for this purpose are often called water stones or waterstones , those used with oil sometimes oil stones or oilstones . Whetstones will wear away with use, typically in the middle. Tools sharpened in this groove will develop undesirable curves on the blade. In order to prevent this, a whetstone may be levelled out with sandpaper or
123-529: A micrometer abrasive particle size). A diamond plate is a steel plate, sometimes mounted on a plastic or resin base, coated with diamond grit , an abrasive that will grind metal. When they are mounted they are sometimes known as diamond stones. The plate may have a series of holes cut in it that capture the swarf cast off as grinding takes place, and cuts costs by reducing the amount of abrasive surface area on each plate. Diamond plates can serve many purposes including sharpening steel tools, and for maintaining
164-438: A reactant A to a reaction product B directly. For multistep synthesis , a chemical compound is synthesized by a series of individual chemical reactions, each with its own work-up. For example, a laboratory synthesis of paracetamol can consist of three sequential parts. For cascade reactions , multiple chemical transformations occur within a single reactant, for multi-component reactions as many as 11 different reactants form
205-429: A damaged edge. A finer grit is used to remove the scratches of larger grits and to refine an edge. There are two-sided plates with each side coated with a different grit. The highest quality diamond sharpeners use monocrystalline diamonds, single structures which will not break, giving them an excellent lifespan. These diamonds are bonded onto a precision ground surface, set in nickel, and electroplated. This process locks
246-402: A fine grit on the other enabling one stone to satisfy the basic requirements of sharpening. Some shapes are designed for specific purposes such as sharpening scythes, drills or serrations. Modern synthetic stones are generally of equal quality to natural stones, and are often considered superior in sharpening performance because of consistency of particle size and control over the properties of
287-451: A knife, and larger pieces might require the use of a saw. No matter what wood is selected or tool used, the wood sculptor must always carve either across or with the grain of the wood, never against the grain. Once the general shape is made, the carver may use a variety of tools for creating details. For example, a "veiner" or "fluter" can be used to make deep gouges into the surface, or a "v-tool" for making fine lines or decorative cuts. Once
328-660: A levelling or flattening stone. The term is based on the word "whet", which means to sharpen a blade, not on the word "wet". The verb nowadays to describe the process of using a sharpening stone for a knife is simply to sharpen , but the older term to whet is still sometimes used, though so rare in this sense that it is no longer mentioned in, for example, the Oxford Living Dictionaries. Natural whetstones are typically formed of quartz , such as novaculite . The Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas are noted as
369-415: A sheen to the wood which, by reflecting light, helps the observer 'read' the form. Carvers seldom use gloss varnish as it creates too shiny a surface, which reflects so much light it can confuse the form; carvers refer to this as 'the toffee apple effect'. Objects made of wood are frequently finished with a layer of wax, which protects the wood and gives a soft lustrous sheen. A wax finish (e.g., shoe polish)
410-453: A single mine that is still quarrying Coticules and their Belgian Blue Whetstone counterparts. The Japanese traditionally use natural sharpening stones (referred to as tennen toishi ) wetted with water, as using oil on such a stone reduces its effectiveness. The geology of Japan provided a type of stone which consists of fine silicate particles in a clay matrix, somewhat softer than novaculite . Besides this clay mineral , some sedimentary rock
451-402: A single reaction product and for a " telescopic synthesis " one reactant experiences multiple transformations without isolation of intermediates. Organic synthesis is a special type of chemical synthesis dealing with the synthesis of organic compounds . For the total synthesis of a complex product, multiple procedures in sequence may be required to synthesize the product of interest, needing
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#1732772736198492-679: A source for these. Novaculite and other stone formations are found around the world such as in Eastern Crete which produces a stone known as the Turkish Stone , mined in the Elounda mountain but sold all throughout the Levant (hence its name) since antiquity. Similar stones have been in use since antiquity. The Roman historian Pliny described use of several naturally occurring stones for sharpening in his Natural History . He describes
533-410: A transformation under certain conditions. Various reaction types can be applied to formulate a desired product. This requires mixing the compounds in a reaction vessel, such as a chemical reactor or a simple round-bottom flask . Many reactions require some form of processing (" work-up ") or purification procedure to isolate the final product. The amount produced by chemical synthesis is known as
574-507: Is a form of woodworking by means of a cutting tool (knife) in one hand or a chisel by two hands or with one hand on a chisel and one hand on a mallet, resulting in a wooden figure or figurine , or in the sculptural ornamentation of a wooden object. The phrase may also refer to the finished product, from individual sculptures to hand-worked mouldings composing part of a tracery . The making of sculpture in wood has been extremely widely practised , but does not survive undamaged as well as
615-524: Is comparatively fragile though and only suitable for indoor carvings. Chemical synthesis Chemical synthesis ( chemical combination ) is the artificial execution of chemical reactions to obtain one or several products . This occurs by physical and chemical manipulations usually involving one or more reactions. In modern laboratory uses, the process is reproducible and reliable. A chemical synthesis involves one or more compounds (known as reagents or reactants ) that will experience
656-418: Is difficult as the classes are broad and natural stones have no inherent "grit number". As an indication, ara-to is probably (using a non-Japanese system of grading grit size) 500–1000 grit. The naka-to is probably 3000–5000 grit and the shiage-to is likely 7000–10000 grit. Current synthetic grit values range from extremely coarse, such as 120 grit, through extremely fine, such as 30,000 grit (less than half
697-415: Is done with abrasive paper. Large grained paper with a rougher surface is used first, with the sculptor then using finer grained paper that can make the surface of the sculpture slick to the touch. After the carving and finishing is completed, the artist may seal & colour the wood with a variety of natural oils, such as walnut or linseed oil which protects the wood from dirt and moisture. Oil also imparts
738-461: Is given as a number, which indicates the spatial density of the particles; a higher number denotes a higher density and therefore smaller particles, which give a finer finish to the surface of the sharpened object.) Stones intended for use on a workbench are called bench stones, while small, portable ones, whose size makes it hard to draw large blades uniformly over them, especially "in the field", are called pocket stones. Often whetstones are used with
779-410: Is instead employed, since a design may have multiple weak points in different directions, or orientation of these along the grain would necessitate carving detail on end grain, (which is considerably more difficult). Carving blanks are also sometimes assembled, as with carousel horses, out of many smaller boards, and in this way, one can orient different areas of a carving in the most logical way, both for
820-434: Is minimal due to diamond's hardness, a diamond plate retains its flatness. Rubbing the diamond plate on a whetstone to true (flatten) the whetstone is a modern alternative to more traditional truing methods. Diamond plates are available in various plate sizes (from credit card to bench plate size) and grades of grit. A coarser grit is used to remove larger amounts of metal more rapidly, such as when forming an edge or restoring
861-656: Is to be painted and of not too delicate a nature is often carved in pine , which is relatively soft and inexpensive. A wood carver begins a new carving by selecting a chunk of wood the approximate size and shape of the figure he or she wishes to create or if the carving is to be large, several pieces of wood may be laminated together to create the required size. The type of wood is important. Hardwoods are more difficult to shape but have greater luster and longevity. Softer woods may be easier to carve but are more prone to damage. Any wood can be carved but they all have different qualities and characteristics. The choice will depend on
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#1732772736198902-487: The reaction yield . Typically, yields are expressed as a mass in grams (in a laboratory setting) or as a percentage of the total theoretical quantity that could be produced based on the limiting reagent . A side reaction is an unwanted chemical reaction that can reduce the desired yield. The word synthesis was used first in a chemical context by the chemist Hermann Kolbe . Many strategies exist in chemical synthesis that are more complicated than simply converting
943-595: The Middle Ages in Germany , Russia , Italy , and France , where the typical themes of that era were Christian iconography . In England , many complete examples remain from the 16th and 17th century, where oak was the preferred medium. The oldest wood carved sculpture, the Shigir Idol carved from larch , is around 12,000 years old. Pattern, Blocking, Detailing, Surfacing, and Smoothening The nature of
984-413: The ara-to , or "rough stone", the naka-to or "middle/medium stone" and the shiage-to or "finishing stone". There is a fourth type of stone, the nagura , which is not used directly. Rather, it is used to form a cutting slurry on the shiage-to (early finishing stone) or awasedo (late finishing stone), which are often too hard to create the necessary slurry. Converting these names to absolute grit size
1025-520: The carving process and for durability. Less commonly, this same principle is used in solid pieces of wood, where the fork of two branches is utilized for its divergent grain, or a branch off of a larger log is carved into a beak (this was the technique employed for traditional Welsh shepherd's crooks, and some Native American adze handles). The failure to appreciate these primary rules may constantly be seen in damaged work, when it will be noticed that, whereas tendrils, tips of birds beaks, etc., arranged across
1066-423: The diamonds in place. There is no dominant standard for the relationship between "grit size" and particle diameter. Part of the difficulty is that "grit size" is used to refer to the smoothness of the finish produced by a sharpening stone, and not just the actual size of the grit particles. Other factors apart from particle diameter that affect the finish (and thus the "grit size" rating) are: In synthetic stones,
1107-570: The finer details have been added, the woodcarver finishes the surface. The method chosen depends on the required quality of the surface finish. The texture left by shallow gouges gives 'life' to the carving's surface and many carvers prefer this 'tooled' finish. If a completely smooth surface is required general smoothing can be done with tools such as "rasps," which are flat-bladed tools with a surface of pointed teeth. "Rifflers" are similar to rasps, but smaller, usually double-ended, and of various shapes for working in folds or crevasses. The finer polishing
1148-426: The flatness of man-made waterstones, which can become grooved or hollowed in use. Truing (flattening a stone whose shape has been changed as it wears away) is widely considered essential to the sharpening process but some hand sharpening techniques utilise the high points of a non-true stone. As the only part of a diamond plate to wear away is a very thin coating of grit and adhesive, and in a good diamond plate this wear
1189-609: The grain have been broken away, similar details designed more in harmony with the growth of the wood and not too deeply undercut remain intact. Probably the two most common woods used for carving in North America are basswood (aka tilia or lime) and tupelo ; both are hardwoods that are relatively easy to work with. Chestnut , butternut, oak, American walnut , mahogany and teak are also very good woods; while for fine work Italian walnut, sycamore maple , apple , pear , box or plum , are usually chosen. Decoration that
1230-410: The great majority of African sculpture and that of Oceania and other regions. Wood is light and can take very fine detail so it is highly suitable for masks and other sculpture intended to be worn or carried. It is also much easier to work on than stone and can be carved more thinly and precisely due to its fibrous strength. Some of the finest extant examples of early European wood carving are from
1271-472: The grit size is related to the mesh size used to select the particles to be included in the abrasive. Sandpaper also uses a similar system . Here are some typical sharpening stone grit sizes and their uses when sharpening steel knives: Standards for grit size measurements include JIS, CAMI, ANSI, FEPA-P (for sandpaper), FEPA-F (for metal abrasives), and various trademarked standards for individual company product ranges. Wood carving Wood carving
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1312-425: The other main materials like stone and bronze , as it is vulnerable to decay, insect damage, and fire. Therefore, it forms an important hidden element in the art history of many cultures. Outdoor wood sculptures do not last long in most parts of the world, so it is still unknown how the totem pole tradition developed. Many of the most important sculptures of China and Japan, in particular, are in wood, and so are
1353-404: The requirements of carving being done: for example, a detailed figure would need a wood with a fine grain and very little figure as a strong figure can interfere with 'reading' fine detail. Once the sculptor has selected their wood, he or she begins a general shaping process using gouges of various sizes. The gouge is a curved blade that can remove large portions of wood smoothly. For harder woods,
1394-403: The sculptor may use gouges sharpened with stronger bevels, about 35 degrees, and a mallet similar to a stone carver's. The terms gouge and chisel are open to confusion. Correctly, a gouge is a tool with a curved cross-section and a chisel is a tool with a flat cross-section. However, professional carvers tend to refer to them all as 'chisels'. Smaller sculptures may require the woodcarver to use
1435-400: The speckled Tam'o Shanter stone, both forms of slate used as razor oilstones. Artificial stones usually come in the form of a bonded abrasive composed of a ceramic such as silicon carbide (carborundum) or aluminium oxide (corundum). Bonded abrasives provide a faster cutting action than natural stones. They are commonly available as a double-sided block with a coarse grit on one side and
1476-510: The stones. For example, the proportional content of abrasive particles as opposed to base or "binder" materials can be controlled to make the stone cut faster or more slowly, as desired. The use of natural stone for sharpening has diminished with the widespread availability of high-quality artificial stones with consistent particle size. As a result, the legendary Honyama mines in Kyoto , Japan, have been closed since 1967. Belgium currently has only
1517-475: The use of both oil and water stones and gives the locations of several ancient sources for these stones. One of the most well-regarded natural whetstones is the yellow-gray "Belgian Coticule", which has been legendary for the edge it can give to blades since Roman times, and has been quarried for centuries from the Ardennes . The slightly coarser and more plentiful "Belgian Blue" whetstone is found naturally with
1558-401: The wood being carved limits the scope of the carver in that wood is not equally strong in all directions: it is an anisotropic material. The direction in which wood is strongest is called " grain " (grain may be straight, interlocked, wavy or fiddleback, etc .). It is smart to arrange the more delicate parts of a design along the grain instead of across it. Often, however, a "line of best fit"
1599-603: The yellow coticule in adjacent strata; hence two-sided whetstones are available, with a naturally occurring seam between the yellow and blue layers. These are highly prized for their natural elegance and beauty, and for providing both a fast-cutting surface for establishing a bevel and a finer surface for refining it. Different veins of this stone are suitable for knives, tools, and razors respectively. Certain versions (such as La Veinette) are very sought after for razor honing. The hard stone of Charnwood Forest in northwest Leicestershire, England , has been quarried for centuries, and
1640-517: Was a source of whetstones and quern-stones . Natural stones are often prized for their natural beauty as stones and their rarity, adding value as collectors' items. Furthermore, each natural stone is different, and there are rare natural stones that contain abrasive particles with different properties than are currently available in artificial stones. Two common stones in the UK are the Water of Ayr stone and
1681-640: Was used by the Japanese for whetstones, the most famous being typically mined in the Narutaki District just north of Kyoto along the Hon-kuchi Naori stratum. There were many individual mines which produced stone from one of the three stratums in the region, many sought after for specific reputations such as Ohira Uchigumori, Hakka Tomae, and Nakayama stones. Historically, there are three broad grades of Japanese toishi (sharpening stones):