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49-535: The Walashma princes of Ifat and Adal claimed to possessed Arab genealogical traditions. In terms of lineage, Walashma traditions trace descent from Banu Makhzum tribe by El Maqrisi. But Ifat Sultanate trace descent from Akīl ibn Abī Tālib , the brother of the Caliph ʿAlī and Djaʿfar ibn Abī Tālib. The latter was among the earliest Muslims to settle in the Horn region. However, the semi-legendary apologetic History of

98-399: A Christian document describing Sultan Badlay relates: " And the robes [of the sultan] and those of his leaders were adorned with silver and shone on all sides. And the dagger which he [the sultan] carried at his side was richly adorned with gold and precious stones; and his amulet was adorned with drops of gold; and the inscriptions on the amulet were of gold paint. And his parasol came from

147-526: A French archeologist team discovered numerous ruined towns 20km east of Shewa Robit near the western bank of the Awash River . The most notable were the towns of Asbari, Nora and Awfāt, the latter identified as being the capital of the former Ifat state. The ancient ruins discovered included a mosque, a reservoir for water, and a necropolis dedicated to the Walashma Dynasty , all dated back to

196-496: Is also mentioned by Marco Polo in 1295 as a state continuously in conflict with Abyssinia. According to fourteenth century Arab historian Al Umari , Adal was one of the founding regions of the Ifat Sultanate alongside Biqulzar , Shewa, Kwelgora , Shimi, Jamme and Laboo. In the fourteenth century Emperor Amda Seyon of Ethiopia battled against Adal leader Imam Salih who allied with Jamal ad-Din I of Ifat. In

245-521: Is historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia ( Futuh al-Habash ). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire , which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama . Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of firearms like

294-737: The Arabian Peninsula , shortly after the Hijrah . Zeila's two- mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is one of the oldest mosques in the world. The earliest reference to Adal was following the collapse of the Makhzumi dynasty in July 1288 when ' Ali Baziyu led a campaign in Adal and Mora which was concluded by the killing of the lords of Adal and Mora , the victorious Sultan then annexed Adal and Mora to his Kingdom. Adal

343-519: The Aw Abdal lowlands during their conflict with Abyssinia in the fifteenth century, a gate was thus named after them called the gate of Argobba . According to Ayele Tariku, in the mid-1400s emperor Zara Yaqob assigned a military battalion in Ifat region following his successful defence of the frontier from the attacks of Adal Sultanate . According to sixteenth century Adal writer Arab Faqīh , Ifat

392-517: The Awash River , replacing Ifat as the Muslim power which had come under Ethiopian Christian control in the 1300s. The Christian state under Menelik II 's invasion during the 1800s for the first time in its history maintained control in Adal therefore incorporating it into modern Ethiopia . The region was mostly located in modern-day Awdal and had Zeila as a capital city but also controlled other interior towns like Abasa or Dakkar extending into

441-485: The Banu Makhzum and Umayyad coalitions quarreled in Ifat. According to historian Enrico Cerulli , in thirteenth century Sultan Umar Walasma founded the Ifat Sultanate in Ifat after overthrowing the Makhzumi dynasty and subsequently invading states of Hubat , Gidaya , Hargaya etc. The later Ifat rulers who are described as zealous would expand their dominion from Zequalla in eastern Shewa to Zeila on

490-473: The Hadiya Sultanate . According to Ewald Wagner, the Adal region was historically the area stretching from Zeila to Harar . In the 1800s Catholic missionary Stanely states Adal is situated west of Zeila. Dr. Duri Mohammed asserts the lowlands outside the city of Harar is known as Aw Abdal where Imams traditionally led prayer. According to Amélie Chekroun, Adal designated the region east of

539-677: The Harar plateau to the south-east and modern day Djibouti in the west. Eidal (Abdal) becomes Emir of the region succeeding saint Barkhadle in AD 1067 following a victory against a Persian . After two days he sent some of the horsemen to Hararge to the Sarif Idal, and (this) came (to him) with 150 horsemen. He and the Imam started the war against the army of al-Kanis Mari in the land of Bissidimo. The war broke out for four days until they reached

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588-518: The Harari region were assimilated by Somalis following the decline of the Adal principalities. Harla inhabitants of Adal occupied modern Afar Region in Ethiopia also suffered similar fates by adopting Afar identity in the seventeenth century. According to Professor Lapiso Delebo, the contemporary Harari people are heirs to the ancient Semitic speaking peoples of the Adal region. Historians state

637-609: The Walasma dynasty of the middle ages. Ifat was also the site of forceful conversions of Muslims to Christianity by then Shewa king Menelik II under the orders of emperor Yohannes IV . French writer Élisée Reclus in 1890 describes the fate of the initial inhabitants and dwellings of Ifat: As in Abyssinia properly so-called, the Shoa Mahommedans have been forcibly converted. They were formerly very numerous, and

686-528: The matchlock musket , cannons and the arquebus over traditional weapons. The Walashma sultans of Ifant and Adal also apparently had a fair taste for luxury, the commercial relations that existed between the Adal Sultanate and the rulers of the Arab peninsula allowed Muslims to obtain luxury items that Christian Ethiopians, whose relations with the outside world were still blocked, could not acquire,

735-471: The 14th and 15th centuries. In Asbari and Nora most of the housing were grouped around two large stone mosques, their access was enclosed by walls and a hydrographic system, marked by slight depressions sloping into a thalweg. The funeral epigraphy of the oldest tomb notes that it is of a "sheikh of the Walasma" dated to April 1364, while another is of Sultan Ali ibn Sabr ad-Din dated to June 1373. Sometime in

784-404: The 16th century, these towns were abandoned, local Argobba accredit Arabs for building the structures. The dwellings resemble Argobba or Harari historical building designs. The Argobba people are believed to originate from Ifat and were living alongside the people of Doba in the region. Argobba, Harari , Wolane and Siltʼe people , appear to have represented major populations of Ifat in

833-802: The Abyssinian annexation of its dominion. In the mid fourteenth century Ifat leader Jamal ad-Din I would rebel against Abyssinia by forming an alliance with the Adal leader Salih to battle the forces of the emperor Amda Seyon. In the late fourteenth century, Ifat rebel leaders Haqq ad-Din II and Sa'ad ad-Din II transferred their base to Adal in the Harar region founding the Adal Sultanate . These two Walasma princes exiled from Ifat had moved to an area around Harar which today Argobba and Harari speakers exist. According to Harari tradition numerous Argobba people had fled Ifat, and settled around Harar in

882-477: The Aw Abdal lowlands during their conflict with Abyssinia in the fifteenth century, a gate was thus named after them called the gate of Argobba . In this period the Walasma dynasty of Ifat initiated a series of marriage alliances with the leaders of Adal. According to Enrico Cerulli , local discontent for the Walasma dynasty of Ifat which occupied Adal region led to the rise of Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi in

931-641: The Harari plateau in Adal forming a new Sultanate. The last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II , was killed in Zeila after he had fled there in 1403, his children escaped to Yemen , before later returning to the Harar plateau in 1415. In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was established in the town of Dakkar , where Sabr ad-Din III , the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen. By

980-585: The Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and again invaded Ifat in the early 15th century. After much struggle, Ifat's troops were defeated and the Sultanate's ruler, King Sa'ad ad-Din II , fled to Zeila. He was pursued there by Abyssinian forces, where they slayed him. Adal was a general term for a region of lowlands inhabited by Muslims east of the province of Ifat . It was used ambiguously in

1029-532: The Somalis were periphery peoples of the Adal state. Ifat (historical region) Ifat ( Harari : ኢፋት; Amharic : ይፋት ; Somali : Awfat) also known as Yifat , Awfat or Wafat was a historical Muslim region in the Horn of Africa . It was located on the eastern edge of Shewa . According to thirteenth century Arab geographer Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi , Ifat was alternatively known as Jabarta . In

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1078-407: The Sultanate of Shewa. After a few years of struggle the sultanate was annexed into Ifat . This annexation is usually attributed to ʿUmar, but he had been dead for 50 years by the time Shewa was annexed. More likely, it was his grandson Jamal ad-Dīn or perhaps even his great-grandson Abūd. In 1288 Sultan Wali Asma successfully conquered Hubat , Adal and other Muslim states in the region. Making Ifat

1127-646: The Walashma dynasty to be of local origin. Cerulli asserts that according to Harar chronicles, the 10th century Somali saint " Aw " Barkhadle from Arabia was the fifth ancestor ofʿUmar ibn Dunya-hawaz, founder of the Walashma Dynasty. Ioan Lewis also mentions that in a short king-list titled 'Rulers of the land of Sa'ad ad-Din', Barkhadle is recognized as one of the Walashma ancestors. Lewis places his death at around 1190 AD. J. Spencer Trimingham does note that according to local traditions though, he

1176-408: The Walashma themselves spoke Arabic. During the end of the 13th century, northern Hararghe was seat of a Muslim sultanate named under the rule of Makhzumi dynasty . A contemporary source describes the sultanate being torn apart by internal strafe and weakened by struggles with neighboring Muslim states. In 1278 one of these neighboring states, named Ifat in eastern Shewa, led by the Walashma invaded

1225-561: The Walasma asserts that ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawaz was a descendant of Caliph ʿAlī's son al-Hasan. This is not supported by both Maqrizi and the chronicle of the Walashma. But ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawaz, whom both assert was the founder of the dynasty, was of Quraysh or Hashimite origin. Fourteenth century Arab historian Ibn Khaldun mentions the ancestors of Walasma were once tributary to the Kingdom of Damot . However, most historians, including Enrico Cerulli and J. Spencer Trimingham , regard

1274-409: The coast of Somalia thus the Muslim dominated regions of the Horn of Africa would be known as Ifat up to the fourteenth century. In 1328 during Emperor Amda Seyon of Ethiopia's crusades, the territory of Ifat was invaded and incorporated into his empire after defeating its sultan Haqq ad-Din I 's forces in battle. Ifat would lose its prominence as the Muslim power in the region to Adal following

1323-408: The designated emperor of Ethiopia Lij Iyasu is stated to have entered into marriage alliances with the peoples of Adal. Iyasu married the daughter of a Somali noble, the daughter of an Afar descended from the governor of Zeila as well as the daughter of Abdullahi Sadiq , a Harari aristocrat. The city of Zeila was originally the center of power and commerce in the Adal region. The bustling port city

1372-546: The eighteenth century, slave and salt commerce was active in Ifat mainly Wollo where its reported Afar brokers would transport them to Tadjoura on the coast. Later in the nineteenth century Ifat towns such as Aliyu Amba were major centers facilitating trade between Abyssinia and the Emirate of Harar . Under the reign of Shewan king Sahle Selassie , the appointed Muslim Ifat governors were Hussain of Argobba , and his father Walasma Mohamed who professed their origin from

1421-572: The fourteenth century Al Umari mentioned seven cities or domains within Ifat: Biqulzar , Adal , Shewa , Kwelgora , Shimi, Jamme and Laboo. Ifat designated the Muslim dominated portion of Shewa in Abyssinia according to post seventeenth century Harari texts, its territory extended from the Shewan uplands east, towards the Awash River . During Islam's inception tradition states

1470-461: The insurgents. Talha would however successfully negotiate a peace treaty with the emperor which ended hostilities a year later. According to historian Hussein Ahmed, Talha deceived the emperor into presuming he had a large force backing his rebellion, when in fact they were diminutive. In 1958 Ifat sub-province was called Yifat & Timuga with Menz and Gishe becoming their own zone. In 2007,

1519-411: The land of Kurummi. When Sarif Idal reached her, he cut off her head and hung her on lances. She had 200 riders with her, all of whom God quickly sent into the fire of hell. The Imam returned (with) Sarif Idal after killing her and was called Emir Idal. He entered Hararge with 500 riders, praising God and cheering with innumerable and incalculable booty. Islam was first introduced to the area early on from

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1568-558: The land of Syria and it was such beautiful work that those who looked at it marveled, and winged serpents were painted on it. " Adal (historical region) Adal ( Harari : ኣው አብዳል; Somali : Awdal), known as Awdal or Aw Abdal was a historical Muslim region in the Horn of Africa . Located east of Ifat and the Awash river as far as the coast, and including Harar as well as Zeila . The Zeila state often denoted Adal and other Muslim dominions in medieval texts. Adal

1617-624: The language spoken by the people of Adal as well as its rulers the Imams and Sultans would closely resemble contemporary Harari language . According to Bahru Zewde and others the Walasma state of Adal in the fourteenth century primarily included the Semitic speaking Harari and Argobba people , however it also began including some portions of Somali and Afar people. The agriculture practicing population of Adal were exclusively Harla and Harari people. According to Archaeologist Jorge Rodriguez,

1666-609: The last Walasma ruler of Ifat Sa'ad ad-Din II participated in the sixteenth century Ethiopian–Adal War . The last known Walasma member in Adal was Barakat ibn Umar Din of Harar during the sixteenth century. The Kabirto of Harla as well as Doba who originate from the Walasma dynasty were overthrown in 1769 by the Mudaito dynasty of Afar in Aussa (modern Afar Region ), the descendant of Kabirto Shaykh Kabir Hamza, preserved their history through manuscripts. The title Walasma

1715-457: The late 1400s the Walasma sultans began to be challenged by the Harla emirs of the Harar plateau with rise of Imam Mahfuz . Adal's headquarters were relocated in the following century, this time to Harar . From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or Ahmad "Gran") that invaded the Abyssinian empire. This 16th century campaign

1764-607: The late fourteenth century rebel leaders of Ifat Haqq ad-Din II and Sa'ad ad-Din II relocated their base to the Harari plateau in Adal forming a new Sultanate at Dakkar . This new Adal Sultanate encompassed the modern city of Harar . According to Arabic texts Coffee was introduced into Arabia by the Arab brother in-law of Sa'ad ad-Din II, Ali bin Omar al- Shadhili which he became familiar with during his brief stay in Adal. According to Harari tradition numerous Argobba people had fled Ifat and settled around Harar in

1813-522: The locals for their warfare with neighboring Abyssinia. It was used ambiguously in the medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabitant low land portion east of the Ethiopian Empire . Including north of the Awash River towards Lake Abbe in modern Djibouti–Ethiopia border as well as the territory between Shewa and Zeila on the coast of Somalia . Districts within Adal included Hubat , Gidaya and Hargaya . It also occasionally included

1862-447: The medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabited low land portion east of the Ethiopian Empire . Including north of the Awash River towards Lake Abbe as well as the territory between Shewa and Zeila on the coast of Somaliland . According to Ewald Wagner, Adal region was historically the area stretching from Zeila to Harar . In the late fourteenth century Walasma princes Haqq ad-Din II and Sa'ad ad-Din II relocated their base to

1911-541: The most powerful Muslim kingdom in the Horn of Africa . In 1332, the Sultan of Ifat, Haqq ad-Din I was slain in a military campaign against the Abyssinian Emperor Amda Seyon 's troops. Amda Seyon then appointed Jamal ad-Din as the new King, followed by Jamal ad-Din's brother Nasr ad-Din . Despite this setback, the Muslim rulers of Ifat continued their campaign. The Abyssinian Emperor branded

1960-482: The name of Jiberti, by which they are known throughout Abyssinia, is a reminiscence of their holy city of Jabarta in Ifat, which has since disappeared. In 1896 rebel leader of Ifat, Talha Jafar led a revolt with the support of local Afar , Oromo , Argobba, Warjih and Amhara Muslims in the region, he had also made attempts to reach out to the ruler of Sudan known as the " Khalifah al-Mahdi " , this forced Menelik now emperor of Ethiopia to send an army to confront

2009-602: The people of Doba . The Harari people also claim to be associated with the Walasma. Bahru Zewde , Richard Pankhurst , Djibril Niane regard the Walasma Sultans of Ifat and Adal to be predominantly Argobba and Harari . However, Amelie Chekroun suggests no possible link to identify the people of medieval Ifat with the Argobba people .According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over

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2058-455: The reign of Sahle Selassie in early 1840s which led to a delegate from Harar referred to as "Abdal Wanag" (lion of Adal) administrating the Abyssinian town of Aliyu Amba . In 1842 British traveler Charles Johnston described Harar as the last city of Adal. Adal state would be annexed by Ethiopia in the late 1800s during Menelik II 's invasion after the Battle of Chelenqo . In the 1900s

2107-457: The similarly established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. Walasma dynasty of Ifat initiated a series of marriage alliances with the leaders of Adal. Ferry Robert notes that there existed political and matrimonial relations between the nobles of Adal and Somali tribes. According to the chronicle "Conquest of Abyssinia" by Arab Faqīh , Harla lords descendant from

2156-482: The sixteenth century. Up until the end of the sixteenth century, the rulers of Adal were in a raging conflict with the leaders of neighboring Christian state of Ethiopian Empire . In the ensuing Oromo invasions , Adal split into two states, the Aussa Sultanate of Adal and Harar Emirate of Adal, the latter surviving up until the nineteenth century. Adal had friendly trade relations with Abyssinia during

2205-638: Was governed by the Adalite, Abūn b. ‘Uthmān following its conquest by the Adal Sultanate during the Ethiopian-Adal war . During Ifat peoples conflicts with Oromo in the early seventeenth century, the Ifat Muslim leaders formed an alliance with Christian rulers of Shewa however the region much like neighboring modern Bale , Fatagar , Angot and others would eventually succumb to the Oromo. In

2254-560: Was predominantly inhabited by Somalis , as well as Arabs and Afars . Clans of Adal mentioned in the fourteenth century Emperor Amda Seyon I chronicles during the Ethiopian invasion included; Wargar , Tiqo, Paguma, Labakala and Gabala . In the fifteenth century Emperor Zara Yaqob chronicle, the Harla people are mentioned as the traders of Adal. Harla are considered to be the main population of Adal. However, according to historian Enrico Cerulli , Harla people who originate from

2303-410: Was said to have lived for over 500 years, placing his death in the early 16th century. Some rulers of the Walashma Dynasty are also thought to be buried at the site of Aw-Barkhadle in modern-day Somaliland . As descendants of Barkhadle, it was said that the Walashma success, longevity, and influence was due to their native family background Walasma are historically tied to the ancestors of Argobba and

2352-428: Was situated east of the province of Ifat and was a general term for a region inhabited by Muslims. According to Portuguese explorer Francisco Alvarez , Adal in 1520 bordered on the Abyssinian frontier province of Fatagar in the west and stretched to Cape Guardafui in the east. He further stated that it was confined by the Kingdom of Dankali in the north west and that the leaders of Adal were considered saints by

2401-706: Was still used in Ifat province as late as the nineteenth century with governors of that region claiming descent from the old dynasty. In 1993 Mohammed Saleh who professed his ancestors were the Argobba Walasma of Ifat revealed that his progenitors were traders of the Shewa -Harar route for centuries. According to Ferry Robert, the language spoken by the people of Adal as well as its rulers the Imams and Sultans would closely resemble contemporary Harari language . The 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that

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