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74-617: Walga Rock , also known as Walgahna Rock and Walganna Rock , is a granite monolith situated about 48 kilometres (30 mi) west of Cue, Western Australia , within the Austin Downs pastoral lease. It is one of the largest granite monoliths in Australia . It is of profound cultural significance to Aboriginal people; the Wajarri elders are the acknowledged traditional owners . An extensive gallery of Aboriginal art exists within

148-575: A continental arc or by convergence yielding continental collisions. Generally, the evolution to granitoid magmas requires a thermal disturbance to ascent though continental crust.   Most granitoids are generated from crustal anatexis , the partial melting of the crust;  however the mantle may contribute both heat and material.   Granitoids can occur coeval with volcanic rocks that have equivalent chemical composition (granite– rhyolite , syenite– trachyte , granodiorite – dacite etc.) however, these extrusive rocks are often eroded so just

222-535: A "contact painting" by Indigenous Australians who saw a ship on the coast and then moved inland. While there are many examples of Indigenous art depicting vessels on the Western Australian coast, including others showing what appears to be SS  Xantho and possibly another steamer at Inthanoona Station east of Cossack, the Walga Rock painting is one of the most inland examples. Those believing

296-529: A Yamaji "warning story" about pearlers capturing Aboriginal men and women and marooning them on offshore islands. In 2020 the many claims and theories surrounding the Walga Rock ship image up to that time were examined and presented in a paper appearing in the Great Circle, Journal of The Australian Association for Maritime History entitled "The Walga Rock Ship: Chronicle of a Century-Old Unsolved Mystery". In that work numerous unresolved issues, including

370-563: A basaltic magma to a granitic magma, but the quantities produced are small. For example, granitic rock makes up just 4% of the exposures in the South Sandwich Islands . In continental arc settings, granitic rocks are the most common plutonic rocks, and batholiths composed of these rock types extend the entire length of the arc. There are no indication of magma chambers where basaltic magmas differentiate into granites, or of cumulates produced by mafic crystals settling out of

444-552: A cave in Walga Rock. While it is the subject of a great deal of research and fieldwork subsequent to a detailed examination conducted in the 1930s by the American anthropologist D. S.   Davidson (who considered it to be "one of the most extensive galleries so far reported in Australia"), the first known European record of Walga is by Daisy Bates . Though she did not visit the rock and its gallery when travelling through

518-493: A complete and unique characterization of the origin, compositional evolution, and geodynamic environment for the genesis of a granitoid. Accordingly, multiple granitoid classification systems have been developed such as those based on: geochemistry , modal content, emplacement depth, and tectonic regime . There are several generalizations that apply to the majority of granitoids. Typically, granitoids occur where orogeny thickens continental crust either by subduction yielding

592-520: A diapir it would expend far too much energy in heating wall rocks, thus cooling and solidifying before reaching higher levels within the crust. Fracture propagation is the mechanism preferred by many geologists as it largely eliminates the major problems of moving a huge mass of magma through cold brittle crust. Magma rises instead in small channels along self-propagating dykes which form along new or pre-existing fracture or fault systems and networks of active shear zones. As these narrow conduits open,

666-610: A granite that is derived from partial melting of metasedimentary rocks may have more alkali feldspar, whereas a granite derived from partial melting of metaigneous rocks may be richer in plagioclase. It is on this basis that the modern "alphabet" classification schemes are based. The letter-based Chappell & White classification system was proposed initially to divide granites into I-type (igneous source) granite and S-type (sedimentary sources). Both types are produced by partial melting of crustal rocks, either metaigneous rocks or metasedimentary rocks. I-type granites are characterized by

740-565: A high content of sodium and calcium, and by a strontium isotope ratio, Sr/ Sr, of less than 0.708. Sr is produced by radioactive decay of Rb, and since rubidium is concentrated in the crust relative to the mantle, a low ratio suggests origin in the mantle. The elevated sodium and calcium favor crystallization of hornblende rather than biotite. I-type granites are known for their porphyry copper deposits. I-type granites are orogenic (associated with mountain building) and usually metaluminous. S-type granites are sodium-poor and aluminum-rich. As

814-824: A much higher proportion of clay with the Cecil soil series a prime example of the consequent Ultisol great soil group. Granite is a natural source of radiation , like most natural stones. Potassium-40 is a radioactive isotope of weak emission, and a constituent of alkali feldspar , which in turn is a common component of granitic rocks, more abundant in alkali feldspar granite and syenites . Some granites contain around 10 to 20 parts per million (ppm) of uranium . By contrast, more mafic rocks, such as tonalite, gabbro and diorite , have 1 to 5 ppm uranium, and limestones and sedimentary rocks usually have equally low amounts. Many large granite plutons are sources for palaeochannel -hosted or roll front uranium ore deposits , where

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888-536: A peculiar mineralogy and geochemistry, with particularly high silicon and potassium at the expense of calcium and magnesium and a high content of high field strength cations (cations with a small radius and high electrical charge, such as zirconium , niobium , tantalum , and rare earth elements .) They are not orogenic, forming instead over hot spots and continental rifting, and are metaluminous to mildly peralkaline and iron-rich. These granites are produced by partial melting of refractory lithology such as granulites in

962-568: A range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels . Granite often occurs as relatively small, less than 100 km stock masses ( stocks ) and in batholiths that are often associated with orogenic mountain ranges. Small dikes of granitic composition called aplites are often associated with the margins of granitic intrusions . In some locations, very coarse-grained pegmatite masses occur with granite. Granite forms from silica-rich ( felsic ) magmas. Felsic magmas are thought to form by addition of heat or water vapor to rock of

1036-415: A result, they contain micas such as biotite and muscovite instead of hornblende. Their strontium isotope ratio is typically greater than 0.708, suggesting a crustal origin. They also commonly contain xenoliths of metamorphosed sedimentary rock, and host tin ores. Their magmas are water-rich, and they readily solidify as the water outgasses from the magma at lower pressure, so they less commonly make it to

1110-549: A shark bite while recovering gold coins (which he regularly presented to the Dirk Hartog Island station owners) from a wreck near his camp; and after dragging himself back to his hut died from blood loss, accompanied only by his dog. Further, though accepting the image is likely to represent SS  Xantho , in her most recent research anthropologist Esmée Webb disputes the Sammy "Malay" connection believing it to be

1184-581: A tall funnel and Malaysian visitors to the Shipwreck Museum in Fremantle advised they felt the four lines underneath the Walghana ship could represent Jawi (a Malay-Arabic script). Of the two-masted colonial steamships operating in the north-west of Australia, SS  Xantho owned by the controversial pearler and pastoralist Charles Edward Broadhurst is the most likely inspiration for

1258-466: Is grus , which is often made up of coarse-grained fragments of disintegrated granite. Climatic variations also influence the weathering rate of granites. For about two thousand years, the relief engravings on Cleopatra's Needle obelisk had survived the arid conditions of its origin before its transfer to London. Within two hundred years, the red granite has drastically deteriorated in the damp and polluted air there. Soil development on granite reflects

1332-545: Is microgranite . The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite . Granitic rock is widely distributed throughout the continental crust . Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age; it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin sedimentary veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors , domes or bornhardts , and rounded massifs . Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by

1406-517: Is 3–6·10 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C (2219–2300 °F); it is strongly reduced in the presence of water, down to 650 °C at a few hundred megapascals of pressure. Granite has poor primary permeability overall, but strong secondary permeability through cracks and fractures if they are present. A worldwide average of the chemical composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses: The medium-grained equivalent of granite

1480-410: Is an excess of aluminum beyond what can be taken up in feldspars (Al 2 O 3 > CaO + K 2 O + Na 2 O) are described as peraluminous , and they contain aluminum-rich minerals such as muscovite . The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm (165 and 172 lb/cu ft), its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa (29,000 psi), and its viscosity near STP

1554-637: Is believed to have a mass of around 81 tonnes. It was the tallest temple in south India. Imperial Roman granite was quarried mainly in Egypt, and also in Turkey, and on the islands of Elba and Giglio . Granite became "an integral part of the Roman language of monumental architecture". The quarrying ceased around the third century AD. Beginning in Late Antiquity the granite was reused, which since at least

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1628-434: Is called a binary or two-mica granite. Two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites, as described below . Another aspect of granite classification is the ratios of metals that potentially form feldspars. Most granites have a composition such that almost all their aluminum and alkali metals (sodium and potassium) are combined as feldspar. This

1702-433: Is limited by the amount of thermal energy available, which must be replenished by crystallization of higher-melting minerals in the magma. Thus, the magma is melting crustal rock at its roof while simultaneously crystallizing at its base. This results in steady contamination with crustal material as the magma rises. This may not be evident in the major and minor element chemistry, since the minerals most likely to crystallize at

1776-404: Is permeated by sheets and channels of light granitic rock (the leucosome ). The leucosome is interpreted as partial melt of a parent rock that has begun to separate from the remaining solid residue (the melanosome). If enough partial melt is produced, it will separate from the source rock, become more highly evolved through fractional crystallization during its ascent toward the surface, and become

1850-454: Is relieved when overlying material is removed by erosion or other processes. Chemical weathering of granite occurs when dilute carbonic acid , and other acids present in rain and soil waters, alter feldspar in a process called hydrolysis . As demonstrated in the following reaction, this causes potassium feldspar to form kaolinite , with potassium ions, bicarbonate, and silica in solution as byproducts. An end product of granite weathering

1924-411: Is some concern that some granite sold as countertops or building material may be hazardous to health. Dan Steck of St. Johns University has stated that approximately 5% of all granite is of concern, with the caveat that only a tiny percentage of the tens of thousands of granite slab types have been tested. Resources from national geological survey organizations are accessible online to assist in assessing

1998-479: Is that magma will rise through the crust as a single mass through buoyancy . As it rises, it heats the wall rocks , causing them to behave as a power-law fluid and thus flow around the intrusion allowing it to pass without major heat loss. This is entirely feasible in the warm, ductile lower crust where rocks are easily deformed, but runs into problems in the upper crust which is far colder and more brittle. Rocks there do not deform so easily: for magma to rise as

2072-410: Is the case when K 2 O + Na 2 O + CaO > Al 2 O 3 > K 2 O + Na 2 O. Such granites are described as normal or metaluminous . Granites in which there is not enough aluminum to combine with all the alkali oxides as feldspar (Al 2 O 3 < K 2 O + Na 2 O) are described as peralkaline , and they contain unusual sodium amphiboles such as riebeckite . Granites in which there

2146-459: Is typically orthoclase or microcline and is often perthitic . The plagioclase is typically sodium-rich oligoclase . Phenocrysts are usually alkali feldspar. Granitic rocks are classified according to the QAPF diagram for coarse grained plutonic rocks and are named according to the percentage of quartz , alkali feldspar ( orthoclase , sanidine , or microcline ) and plagioclase feldspar on

2220-428: Is uncommon, is classified simply as quartz-rich granitoid or, if composed almost entirely of quartz, as quartzolite . True granites are further classified by the percentage of their total feldspar that is alkali feldspar. Granites whose feldspar is 65% to 90% alkali feldspar are syenogranites , while the feldspar in monzogranite is 35% to 65% alkali feldspar. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas

2294-489: The Walga Rock painting. Research indicates the Walga Rock "gunports" may not be false at all, rather they are most likely square or rectangular scuttles (port holes) that can be opened like a gunport. These often appeared on passenger ferries designed to operate in sheltered waters and were opened for the comfort of its passengers when travelling in calm waters and when it got too hot below decks. When SS  Xantho

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2368-416: The plutonic rocks outcrop.   Granitoids can form in all tectonic environments. There are numerous exceptions to these generalizations.   For example, granitoids can form in anorogenic environments , a granitoid source rock can be from the mantle (for example, at intraplate hotspots ) and the melting mechanism can be radiogenic crustal heat . This igneous rock -related article

2442-571: The A-Q-P half of the diagram. True granite (according to modern petrologic convention) contains between 20% and 60% quartz by volume, with 35% to 90% of the total feldspar consisting of alkali feldspar . Granitic rocks poorer in quartz are classified as syenites or monzonites , while granitic rocks dominated by plagioclase are classified as granodiorites or tonalites . Granitic rocks with over 90% alkali feldspar are classified as alkali feldspar granites . Granitic rock with more than 60% quartz, which

2516-615: The European Union safety standards (section 4.1.1.1 of the National Health and Engineering study) and radon emission levels well below the average outdoor radon concentrations in the US. Granite and related marble industries are considered one of the oldest industries in the world, existing as far back as Ancient Egypt . Major modern exporters of granite include China, India, Italy, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Sweden, Spain and

2590-639: The Mohs hardness scale) , and tough. These properties have made granite a widespread construction stone throughout human history. The word "granite" comes from the Latin granum , a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a completely crystalline rock. Granitic rocks mainly consist of feldspar , quartz , mica , and amphibole minerals , which form an interlocking, somewhat equigranular matrix of feldspar and quartz with scattered darker biotite mica and amphibole (often hornblende ) peppering

2664-544: The Ryan brothers, indicates the Walga Rock painting was produced around 1917 by Sammy "Malay", also known as Sammy Hassan. Apparently a "Malay" (the name generally but incorrectly describing indentured labourers who came to the north west from the islands north of Australia), Sammy Hassan is known to have camped for many years at Sammy Well outstation on the north east end of Dirk Hartog Island at an outcamp that still appears marked on station maps and some charts as "Sammy Well". It

2738-511: The United States. The Red Pyramid of Egypt ( c.  2590 BC ), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed limestone surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids . Pyramid of Menkaure , likely dating 2510 BC, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2580 BC ) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite". The mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from

2812-419: The base of the chamber are the same ones that would crystallize anyway, but crustal assimilation is detectable in isotope ratios. Heat loss to the country rock means that ascent by assimilation is limited to distance similar to the height of the magma chamber. Physical weathering occurs on a large scale in the form of exfoliation joints , which are the result of granite's expanding and fracturing as pressure

2886-418: The big difference in rheology between mafic and felsic magmas makes this process problematic in nature. Granitization is an old, and largely discounted, hypothesis that granite is formed in place through extreme metasomatism . The idea behind granitization was that fluids would supposedly bring in elements such as potassium, and remove others, such as calcium, to transform a metamorphic rock into granite. This

2960-483: The company of Aboriginal folk at the time the Ryan Brothers stated he produced the ship painting at the ancient gallery there, the question who produced it and why it was painted remains unresolved. Granite Granite is typical of a larger family of granitic rocks , or granitoids , that are composed mostly of coarse-grained quartz and feldspars in varying proportions. These rocks are classified by

3034-404: The division between S-type (produced by underplating) and I-type (produced by injection and differentiation) granites, discussed below. The composition and origin of any magma that differentiates into granite leave certain petrological evidence as to what the granite's parental rock was. The final texture and composition of a granite are generally distinctive as to its parental rock. For instance,

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3108-621: The earlier works and underneath there are lines of writing that to some resembles a Cyrillic or Arabic script. While the Indigenous gallery is in itself remarkable, there has been a great deal of speculation about the painting, especially considering it is located 325 kilometres (202 mi) from the coast. It has been argued that it was drawn by survivors of the heavily armed three-masted Dutch East India Company ( Dutch : Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie , commonly abbreviated to VOC) ships Batavia or Zuiddorp ; or that it represents

3182-473: The early 16th century became known as spolia . Through the process of case-hardening , granite becomes harder with age. The technology required to make tempered metal chisels was largely forgotten during the Middle Ages. As a result, Medieval stoneworkers were forced to use saws or emery to shorten ancient columns or hack them into discs. Giorgio Vasari noted in the 16th century that granite in quarries

3256-579: The first magma to enter solidifies and provides a form of insulation for later magma. These mechanisms can operate in tandem. For example, diapirs may continue to rise through the brittle upper crust through stoping , where the granite cracks the roof rocks, removing blocks of the overlying crust which then sink to the bottom of the diapir while the magma rises to take their place. This can occur as piecemeal stopping (stoping of small blocks of chamber roof), as cauldron subsidence (collapse of large blocks of chamber roof), or as roof foundering (complete collapse of

3330-713: The grotto is a highly regarded piece of Buddhist art , and along with the temple complex to which it belongs, Seokguram was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1995. Rajaraja Chola I of the Chola Dynasty in South India built the world's first temple entirely of granite in the 11th century AD in Tanjore , India . The Brihadeeswarar Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva was built in 1010. The massive Gopuram (ornate, upper section of shrine)

3404-846: The identity of the artist, the date the ship image first appeared and the discrepancy between the Shark Bay legend that Sammy died from the effects of shark bite at his camp on Dirk Hartog Island and the Ryan Brother's account that he moved to Walga Rock and produced the painting in 1917, were not resolved. Research recently conducted by Denis Cherry MD has cast considerable light on Sammy Hassan and his life in Western Australia nonetheless. Dr Cherry has traced an application from Sammy seeking permission to marry an Aboriginal woman 'Mary Ann' dated October 1906 and posted from Pindar near Cue. Cherry has also found evidence Sammy Hassan

3478-480: The images represents a VOC ship, are of the opinion the middle (or main) mast of the three shown in the Walga Rock/Walganha Rock image had broken and fallen overboard. Ratlines (to enable the crew to scale the rigging), and some stays (holding the masts vertical) are depicted and seven gunports are evident along the hull. Evidence now points to the image being that of a two-masted steamship with

3552-570: The lighter color minerals. Occasionally some individual crystals ( phenocrysts ) are larger than the groundmass , in which case the texture is known as porphyritic . A granitic rock with a porphyritic texture is known as a granite porphyry . Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks. Petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. Granites can be predominantly white, pink, or gray in color, depending on their mineralogy . The alkali feldspar in granites

3626-474: The lower crust , rather than by decompression of mantle rock, as is the case with basaltic magmas. It has also been suggested that some granites found at convergent boundaries between tectonic plates , where oceanic crust subducts below continental crust, were formed from sediments subducted with the oceanic plate. The melted sediments would have produced magma intermediate in its silica content, which became further enriched in silica as it rose through

3700-729: The lower continental crust at high thermal gradients. This leads to significant extraction of hydrous felsic melts from granulite-facies resitites. A-type granites occur in the Koettlitz Glacier Alkaline Province in the Royal Society Range, Antarctica. The rhyolites of the Yellowstone Caldera are examples of volcanic equivalents of A-type granite. M-type granite was later proposed to cover those granites that were clearly sourced from crystallized mafic magmas, generally sourced from

3774-435: The magma is inevitable once enough magma has accumulated. However, the question of precisely how such large quantities of magma are able to shove aside country rock to make room for themselves (the room problem ) is still a matter of research. Two main mechanisms are thought to be important: Of these two mechanisms, Stokes diapirism has been favoured for many years in the absence of a reasonable alternative. The basic idea

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3848-426: The magma. Other processes must produce these great volumes of felsic magma. One such process is injection of basaltic magma into the lower crust, followed by differentiation, which leaves any cumulates in the mantle. Another is heating of the lower crust by underplating basaltic magma, which produces felsic magma directly from crustal rock. The two processes produce different kinds of granites, which may be reflected in

3922-408: The magmatic parent of granitic rock. The residue of the source rock becomes a granulite . The partial melting of solid rocks requires high temperatures and the addition of water or other volatiles which lower the solidus temperature (temperature at which partial melting commences) of these rocks. It was long debated whether crustal thickening in orogens (mountain belts along convergent boundaries )

3996-405: The mantle. Although the fractional crystallisation of basaltic melts can yield small amounts of granites, which are sometimes found in island arcs, such granites must occur together with large amounts of basaltic rocks. H-type granites were suggested for hybrid granites, which were hypothesized to form by mixing between mafic and felsic from different sources, such as M-type and S-type. However,

4070-441: The overlying crust. Early fractional crystallisation serves to reduce a melt in magnesium and chromium, and enrich the melt in iron, sodium, potassium, aluminum, and silicon. Further fractionation reduces the content of iron, calcium, and titanium. This is reflected in the high content of alkali feldspar and quartz in granite. The presence of granitic rock in island arcs shows that fractional crystallization alone can convert

4144-416: The possibility the lines of writing were Arabic added further to the Ryan's belief that the artist was Sammy Hassan. Despite some sources linking Sammy Hassan with the image, others disagreed with the 1917 date, however, with some believing the image was from the turn of the century. Shark Bay identities also disputed Sammy "Malay's" link with the Walga Rock image, for local legend has it that he received

4218-524: The region in 1908, "Walga" is marked near the mining towns of Cue and Day Dawn and many other sites of Aboriginal significance on sketch Map 19 held at the State Library of Western Australia as part of her Special Map Collection. Other than to the place and its ancient gallery, visitors are regularly drawn to an apparently anomalous painting of what appeared at first glance to be a European-tradition sailing ship. It appears superimposed over some of

4292-736: The reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, which is now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur ). Other uses in Ancient Egypt include columns , door lintels , sills , jambs , and wall and floor veneer. How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Tool marks described by the Egyptologist Anna Serotta indicate

4366-420: The relative percentages of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase (the QAPF classification ), with true granite representing granitic rocks rich in quartz and alkali feldspar. Most granitic rocks also contain mica or amphibole minerals, though a few (known as leucogranites ) contain almost no dark minerals. Granite is nearly always massive (lacking any internal structures), hard (falling between 6 and 7 on

4440-564: The risk factors in granite country and design rules relating, in particular, to preventing accumulation of radon gas in enclosed basements and dwellings. A study of granite countertops was done (initiated and paid for by the Marble Institute of America) in November 2008 by National Health and Engineering Inc. of USA. In this test, all of the 39 full-size granite slabs that were measured for the study showed radiation levels well below

4514-418: The rock's high quartz content and dearth of available bases, with the base-poor status predisposing the soil to acidification and podzolization in cool humid climates as the weather-resistant quartz yields much sand. Feldspars also weather slowly in cool climes, allowing sand to dominate the fine-earth fraction. In warm humid regions, the weathering of feldspar as described above is accelerated so as to allow

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4588-414: The rocks often bear a close resemblance. Under these conditions, granitic melts can be produced in place through the partial melting of metamorphic rocks by extracting melt-mobile elements such as potassium and silicon into the melts but leaving others such as calcium and iron in granulite residues. This may be the origin of migmatites . A migmatite consists of dark, refractory rock (the melanosome ) that

4662-492: The roof of a shallow magma chamber accompanied by a caldera eruption.) There is evidence for cauldron subsidence at the Mt. Ascutney intrusion in eastern Vermont. Evidence for piecemeal stoping is found in intrusions that are rimmed with igneous breccia containing fragments of country rock. Assimilation is another mechanism of ascent, where the granite melts its way up into the crust and removes overlying material in this way. This

4736-435: The surface than magmas of I-type granites, which are thus more common as volcanic rock (rhyolite). They are also orogenic but range from metaluminous to strongly peraluminous. Although both I- and S-type granites are orogenic, I-type granites are more common close to the convergent boundary than S-type. This is attributed to thicker crust further from the boundary, which results in more crustal melting. A-type granites show

4810-454: The three defining mineral groups (quartz, plagioclase, and alkali feldspar) need to be present for the rock to be called a granitoid, foid -bearing rocks, which predominantly contain feldspars but no quartz, are also granitoids. The terms granite and granitic rock are often used interchangeably for granitoids; however, granite is just one particular type of granitoid. Granitoids are diverse; no classification system for granitoids can give

4884-502: The uranium washes into the sediments from the granite uplands and associated, often highly radioactive pegmatites. Cellars and basements built into soils over granite can become a trap for radon gas, which is formed by the decay of uranium. Radon gas poses significant health concerns and is the number two cause of lung cancer in the US behind smoking. Thorium occurs in all granites. Conway granite has been noted for its relatively high thorium concentration of 56±6 ppm. There

4958-617: The use of flint tools on finer work with harder stones, e.g. when producing the hieroglyphic inscriptions. Patrick Hunt has postulated that the Egyptians used emery , which has greater hardness. The Seokguram Grotto in Korea is a Buddhist shrine and part of the Bulguksa temple complex. Completed in 774 AD, it is an artificial grotto constructed entirely of granite. The main Buddha of

5032-641: Was "far softer and easier to work than after it has lain exposed" while ancient columns, because of their "hardness and solidity have nothing to fear from fire or sword, and time itself, that drives everything to ruin, not only has not destroyed them but has not even altered their colour." Granitoid A granitoid is a generic term for a diverse category of coarse-grained igneous rocks that consist predominantly of quartz , plagioclase , and alkali feldspar . Granitoids range from plagioclase-rich tonalites to alkali-rich syenites and from quartz-poor monzonites to quartz-rich quartzolites . As only two of

5106-686: Was born in Singapore, had arrived in the Colony around 1890 and died from old age at Cue hospital in the early 1930s. While Dr Cherry's research is ongoing he has resolved two issues outstanding after the publication of the 2020 Walga Rock paper in the Great Circle: First, Sammy Hassan was living in the Walga Rock-Cue-Pindar area in the early 20th century, and second, having arrived in the colony well after SS Xantho sunk he

5180-634: Was built in 1848 as a ferry, reference was made in its contract to it being similar to PS  Loch Lomond which is known to have rectangular ventilation ports, for example. The first European account of the Walga Rock ship image appeared in the Christmas Edition of the Geraldton Guardian in 1928. In looking to who the artist or artists may have been, research conducted by mid-west historian Stan Gratte, based on interviews with "old Cue residents" and local sheep station identities

5254-450: Was considered that Sammy Hassan could have been one of many hundreds of indentured "Malay" pearl divers who were transported to north west Australia in the early 1870s. Of these, 140 boys aged between 12–14 were transported on SS  Xantho from Batavia, for example. Some "Malays" were abandoned by Broadhurst at Geraldton when SS  Xantho sank in 1872 and many others suffered a similar fate three years later in Shark Bay. Research into

5328-416: Was not one of the many "Malays" who the pearler C.E. Broadhurst brought to the north-west. While Dr Cherry’s research also indicates there may have been another man described as ’Sammy Malay’ (or similar) in the mid-west pastoral industry, he is presently working to resolve the matter. Though a man called 'Sammy Malay’ was certainly at Shark Bay and a ’Sammy Malay’was in the Walga Rock area and living in

5402-405: Was sufficient to produce granite melts by radiogenic heating , but recent work suggests that this is not a viable mechanism. In-situ granitization requires heating by the asthenospheric mantle or by underplating with mantle-derived magmas. Granite magmas have a density of 2.4 Mg/m , much less than the 2.8 Mg/m of high-grade metamorphic rock. This gives them tremendous buoyancy, so that ascent of

5476-564: Was supposed to occur across a migrating front. However, experimental work had established by the 1960s that granites were of igneous origin. The mineralogical and chemical features of granite can be explained only by crystal-liquid phase relations, showing that there must have been at least enough melting to mobilize the magma. However, at sufficiently deep crustal levels, the distinction between metamorphism and crustal melting itself becomes vague. Conditions for crystallization of liquid magma are close enough to those of high-grade metamorphism that

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