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93-581: Political intrigue preceded Wallia's ascension to power, for his Visigothic predecessor Athaulf—who married Galla Placidia in 414—was murdered by his followers who believed him to be a puppet to Roman interests. Athaulf's successor, Sigeric, ignored the Visigothic rights of procedure to military leadership and seemed to likewise acquiesce to the Romans; such perceptions among his people quickly led to his death in turn just seven-days after assuming power. Wallia

186-469: A regent during the early reign of Valentinian III until her death. Placidia was the daughter of Theodosius I and his second wife, Galla , who was herself daughter of Valentinian I and his second wife, Justina . Galla Placidia's date of birth is not recorded, but she must have been born either in the period 388–89 or 392–93. Between these dates, her father was in Italy following his campaign against

279-612: A Roman faction. So, the revolt of Gainas, and the massacre of the Goths in Constantinople in 400, have traditionally been interpreted by scholars (such as Otto Seeck ) as violent anti-barbarian reactions that prevented the rise of all-powerful Romanised barbarian military leaders—such as Stilicho was, in the West—in what has been termed the victory of anti-Germanism in the eastern empire. The main source of this interpretation has been

372-442: A brand of infamy on our age, pollute the gaze of beholders. Accordingly under the conduct of faithful guards let him be taken to the island of Cyprus, whither let your sublimity know that he has been banished ; so that therein guarded with most watchful diligence he may be unable to work confusion with his mad designs. With Eutropius's fall from power, Gainas sought to take advantage of Arcadius's current predicament. He joined

465-481: A brother of Sarus, as the next king of the Visigoths. Sigeric killed Ataulf's six children from a former wife by taking them away from Sigesar, bishop of the Goths. Galla Placidia, Ataulf's widow, was forced to walk more than twelve miles on foot among the crowd of captives driven ahead of the mounted Sigeric. After 7 days of ruling, Sigeric was assassinated and replaced with Wallia , Ataulf's relative. According to

558-606: A chapel dedicated to Lawrence of Rome . It is unknown whether the sarcophagi therein contained the bodies of other members of the Theodosian dynasty, or when they were placed in the building. Arcadius Arcadius ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀρκάδιος Arkadios ; c. 377 – 1 May 408) was Roman emperor from 383 to his death in 408. He was the eldest son of the Augustus Theodosius I ( r.  379–395 ) and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla , and

651-729: A devout Christian , she was involved in the building and restoration of various churches throughout her period of influence. She restored and expanded the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem . She built San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna in thanks for the sparing of her life and those of her children in a storm while crossing

744-491: A failure that precipitated his suing for peace. Subsequently, Wallia accepted a treaty offered by Honorius with the Roman Empire . Christian historian and theologian, Orosius, reported that the terms of the agreements made in 416 and 418 were very favorable for the Romans, including the return of Honorius' sister Galla Placidia to him. Whatever advantages won by Wallia in acquiring food for his forces via treaty with Rome, it

837-565: A general who was a rival of Rufinus, demonstrates the shifting of the centres of power in the eastern court. Such jostling for influence over the malleable emperor would be a recurring feature of Arcadius's reign. The first crisis facing the young Arcadius was the Gothic revolt in 395, under the command of Alaric I ( r.  395–410 ), who sought to take advantage of the accession of two inexperienced Roman emperors. As Alaric marched towards Constantinople, plundering Macedonia and Thrace ,

930-428: A man identified as "Dubius" or "Eberwolf", a former follower of Sarus. Sarus had been a Germanic chieftain killed while fighting under Jovinus and Sebastianus, and his follower harbored a secret desire to avenge the death of his patron. In August/September, 415, in the palace at Barcelona, the man brought Ataulf's reign to a sudden end by killing him while he bathed. The Amali faction proceeded to proclaim Sigeric ,

1023-407: A parade ground adjacent to the city, on 27 November 395. There Rufinus was suddenly assassinated by the Goths, on the orders of Stilicho and possibly with the support of Eutropius. The murder certainly created an opportunity for Eutropius and for Arcadius's wife, Eudoxia, who took Rufinus's place as advisors and guardians of the emperor. While Eutropius consolidated his hold on power in the capital,

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1116-513: A stillborn son. Placidia was a younger, paternal half-sister of emperors Arcadius and Honorius . Her older half-sister Pulcheria predeceased her parents according to Gregory of Nyssa , placing the death of Pulcheria prior to the death of Aelia Flaccilla , the first wife of Theodosius I, in 385. Coins issued in Placidia's honour in Constantinople after 425 give her name as AELIA PLACIDIA; this may have been intended to integrate Placidia with

1209-521: The De Ceremoniis . In noting the character of Arcadius, the historian J. B. Bury described him and his abilities thus: He was of short stature, of dark complexion, thin and inactive, and the dullness of his wit was betrayed by his speech and by his sleepy, drooping eyes. His mental deficiency and the weakness of his character made it inevitable that he should be governed by the strong personalities of his court. Traditional interpretations of

1302-593: The Caucasus . Eudoxia did not get to enjoy her victory for long, dying later that year. In his later reign, Arcadius delegated a large amount of the responsibilities to Anthemius , the Praetorian Prefect . Anthemius attempted to heal the divisions of the past decade by trying to make peace with Stilicho in the West. Stilicho, however, had lost patience with the eastern court, and in 407 encouraged Alaric and

1395-552: The Chronicon Albeldense , included in the Códice de Roda , Wallia was desperate for food supplies. He surrendered to Constantius III , at the time magister militum of Honorius, negotiating terms giving foederati status for the Visigoths. Placidia was returned to Honorius as part of the peace treaty. Her brother Honorius forced her into marriage to Constantius III on 1 January 417. Their daughter Justa Grata Honoria

1488-581: The Historia Nova by Zosimus clarify that Serena's father was an elder Honorius, a brother to Theodosius I. According to " De Consulatu Stilichonis" by Claudian, Placidia was betrothed to Eucherius , only known son of Stilicho and Serena. Her scheduled marriage is mentioned in the text as the third union between Stilicho's family and the Theodosian dynasty , following those of Stilicho to Serena and Maria , their daughter, to Honorius. Stilicho

1581-551: The Po to the gates of Ravenna; with the besiegers outside the walls and the defectors within, the city was quickly captured. Joannes was taken and his right hand cut off; he was then mounted on a donkey and paraded through the streets, and finally beheaded in the hippodrome of Aquileia. With Joannes dead, Valentinian was officially proclaimed the new Augustus of the Western Roman Empire on 23 October 425, by Helion, in

1674-645: The Roman army in Gaul). Galla Placidia became a regent of Western Roman Empire for her son, Valentinian, in 425 until Aetius' rise. Among her early supporters were Bonifacius and Felix . Aetius, their rival for influence, managed to secure Arles against Theodoric I of the Visigoths . The Visigoths concluded a treaty and were given Gallic noblemen as hostages. The later Emperor Avitus visited Theodoric, lived at his court and taught his sons. Felix, her ally,

1767-455: The Theodosian dynasty present at Ravenna to claim the throne, Theodosius II was expected to nominate a Western co-emperor. However, Theodosius hesitated and the decision was delayed. Taking advantage of the power vacuum , Castinus the Patrician proceeded to become a kingmaker . He declared Joannes , the primicerius notariorum "chief notary" (the head of the civil service ), to be

1860-715: The Xērolophos , in which a column was begun to commemorate his 'victory' over Gainas (although the column was only completed after Arcadius's death by Theodosius II ). The Pentelic marble portrait head of Arcadius (now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum ) was discovered in Istanbul close to the Forum Tauri, in June 1949, in excavating foundations for new buildings of the university at Beyazit . The neck

1953-622: The consulship , triggering protests across the empire. For traditionalists, the granting of the consulship to a eunuch and former slave was an insult to the Roman system and other contemporary Romans, and the western court refused to recognize him as consul. The crisis escalated when the Ostrogoths who had been settled in Asia Minor by Theodosius I revolted, demanding the removal of Eutropius. The emperor sent two forces against Tribigild ,

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2046-409: The foederati , regarded as loyal to Stilicho, joined the forces of Alaric I , King of the Visigoths . Alaric led them to Rome and put it under siege , with minor interruptions, from autumn 408 to 24 August 410. Zosimus records that Placidia was within the city during the siege. When Serena was accused of conspiring with Alaric, the whole senate and Placidia sentenced her to death. Placidia

2139-600: The Adriatic Sea. The dedicatory inscription reads "Galla Placidia, along with her son Placidus Valentinian Augustus and her daughter Justa Grata Honoria Augusta, paid off their vow for their liberation from the danger of the sea." Her Mausoleum in Ravenna was one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites inscribed in 1996. However, the building never served as her tomb, but was initially erected as

2232-483: The African bishops, summoning them to the second synod. Three of her letters are known to have survived. On 8 February 421, Constantius was proclaimed an Augustus , becoming co-ruler with the childless Honorius. Placidia was proclaimed an Augusta . She was the only Empress in the West, since Honorius had divorced his second wife Thermantia in 408 and had never remarried. Neither title was recognised by Theodosius II,

2325-651: The Archbishop, when she threw her support behind Theophilus of Alexandria who presided over a synod in 403 (the Synod of the Oak ) to charge Chrysostom with heresy. Although Arcadius originally supported Chrysostom, the Archbishop's decision not to participate caused Arcadius to change his mind and support Theophilus, resulting in Chrysostom's deposition and banishment. He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately, as

2418-553: The Eastern Roman Emperor. Constantius reportedly complained about the loss of personal freedom and privacy that came with the imperial office. He died of an illness on 2 September 421. According to Olympiodorus of Thebes , a historian used as a source by Zosimus , Sozomen and probably Philostorgius , the public grew suspicious of the increasingly scandalous public caresses she was said to have received from her own brother Honorius after her husband's death. However,

2511-697: The Garonne valley from "Toulouse to Bordeaux" and the coastal strip along the Atlantic from Les Landes at the foot of the Pyrenees mountains "to the Loire in the north". Despite his success, Wallia died before he was able to leave Spain. Wallia's daughter was the mother of Ricimer and the mother-in-law of Gundowech , King of the Burgundians . Wallia is sometimes assumed to have been the historical model for

2604-613: The Hellespont into Asia, but was intercepted and defeated by Fravitta , another Goth who held the position of magister militum praesentalis . Following his defeat, Gainas fled to the Danube with his remaining followers, but was ultimately defeated and killed by Uldin the Hun in Thrace. With the fall of Gainas, the next conflict emerged between Eudoxia and John Chrysostom. The Archbishop

2697-593: The Papal election. Honorius initially confirmed Eulalius as the legitimate pope. As this failed to put an end to the controversy, Honorius called a synod of Italian bishops at Ravenna to decide the matter. The synod met from February to March 419 but failed to reach a conclusion. Honorius called a second synod in May, this time including Gaulish and African bishops. In the meantime, the two rival popes were ordered to leave Rome. As Easter approached, however, Eulalius returned to

2790-417: The Roman armies". Aetius returned from Gaul with an army of "barbarians", and was met by Bonifacius in the bloody Battle of Ravenna (432) . Bonifacius won the battle, but was mortally wounded and died a few days later. Aetius was compelled to retire to Pannonia . With the generals loyal to her having either died or defected to Aetius, Placidia acknowledged Aetius' political role as legitimate. In 433, Aetius

2883-560: The Roman borders or guard the same by equity in the maintenance of law, may not groan over the fact that the divine reward of consulship has been befouled and defiled by a filthy monster. Let him learn that he has been deprived of the rank of the patriciate and all lower dignities that he stained with the perversity of his character. That all the statues, all the images—whether of bronze or marble, or painted in colours, or of any other material used in art—we command to be abolished in all cities, towns, private and public places, that they may not, as

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2976-519: The Roman military, where any conspiracy involving soldiers or the barbarian regiments against persons holding the rank of illustris was considered to be treason, with the conspirators to be sentenced to death, and their descendants to be deprived of citizenship . In 398, Eutropius led a successful campaign against the Huns in Roman Armenia . The following year he convinced Arcadius to grant him

3069-660: The Roman-Persian War. The invasion force was to cross the Adriatic Sea by two routes. Aspar , son of Ardaburius, led the cavalry by land, following the coast of the Adriatic from the Western Balkans to Northern Italy . Placidia and Valentinian joined this force. Along the way, Valentinian was proclaimed Caesar by Helion , a magister officiorum under Theodosius in 23 October 424. Ardaburius and

3162-707: The Vandals and the Alans alike; even killing the Alan ruler, Addax. To this end, Roman writer and clergyman Hydatius recorded how Wallia, king of the Goths "in the name of Rome...inflicted a vast slaughter upon the barbarians in Spain". For whatever reason, Constantius recalled Wallia's Goths—historian Randers-Pehrson suggests that the magister militum was alarmed and fearful of their success—and then "settled them in southern Gaul." Nonetheless, Wallia's Gothic federates were "assigned"

3255-616: The Visigoths to seize the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum and hand it over to the western empire. Stilicho's plan failed, and soon after, on 1 May 408, Arcadius died. He was succeeded by his young son, Theodosius . Like Constantine the Great and several of his successors, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles , in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in

3348-530: The advice of John Chrysostom , the Archbishop of Constantinople . By July 400, the actions of Gainas had irritated a significant portion of the population of Constantinople to the point that a general riot broke out in the capital. Although Gainas had stationed his troops outside of the capital walls, he was either unable or unwilling to bring them into the capital when many Goths in the city were hunted down and attacked. As many as 7,000 Goths were killed in

3441-502: The brother of Honorius ( r.  393–423 ). Arcadius ruled the eastern half of the empire from 395, when their father died, while Honorius ruled the west. In his time, he was seen as a weak ruler dominated by a series of powerful ministers and by his wife, Aelia Eudoxia . Arcadius was born in 377 in Hispania , the eldest son of Theodosius I and Aelia Flaccilla , and brother of Honorius . On 19 January 383, his father declared

3534-425: The city and attempted to seize the Basilica of Saint John Lateran in order to "preside at the paschal ceremonies". Imperial troops managed to repel him, and on Easter (30 March 419) the ceremonies were led by Achilleus, Bishop of Spoleto . The conflict cost Eulalius the imperial favor, and Boniface was proclaimed the legitimate pope as of 3 April 419, returning to Rome a week later. Placidia had personally written to

3627-530: The civil war with Eugenius. Arcadius and Rufinus felt more threatened by Stilicho than by Alaric; upon landing in Thessaly Stilicho received an imperial order to send along the eastern regiments, but himself to proceed no further. Stilicho complied, falling back to Salona while Gainas led the mercenaries to Constantinople. Arcadius and his entourage received Gainas in the Campus Martius,

3720-462: The distracted government still failed to react to the presence of Alaric in Greece . At first Eutropius may have coordinated with Stilicho around the defence of Illyricum; by 397, when Stilicho personally led a blockade that compelled Alaric to retreat into Epirus , the atmosphere of the eastern court had changed. As neither Arcadius nor Eutropius was keen to have Stilicho intervening in the affairs of

3813-502: The eastern court could offer no response, as the majority of its army had gone to Italy with Theodosius and was now in the hands of Stilicho. Perhaps sensing an opportunity to exercise power in the eastern half of the empire as well, Stilicho declared that Theodosius had made him guardian over both his sons. He traveled eastward, ostensibly to face Alaric, leading both his own forces and the Gothic mercenaries whom Theodosius had taken west in

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3906-494: The eastern dynasty of Theodosius II . There is no evidence that the name Aelia was ever used in the west, or that it formed part of Placidia's official nomenclature. Placidia was granted her own household by her father in the early 390s and was thus financially independent while underage. She was summoned to the court of her father in Mediolanum (Milan) during 394, and was present at Theodosius' death on 17 January 395. She

3999-477: The eastern empire, they provided no further military aid to Stilicho, who then abandoned the blockade of the Visigoths. At Eutropius's urging, Arcadius declared Stilicho to be a hostis publicus , and came to an arrangement with Alaric, making him magister militum per Illyricum . At around the same time, the eastern court persuaded Gildo , the magister utriusque militiae per Africam , to transfer his allegiance from Honorius to Arcadius, causing relations between

4092-401: The eunuch praepositus sacri cubiculi , arranged for the two to meet. Arcadius fell in love and a marriage was quickly arranged, with the ceremony performed on 27 April 395. According to Zosimus, Rufinus assumed that his daughter was still to be the bride, only discovering otherwise when the nuptial procession went to Eudoxia's residence rather than his own. The rise of Eudoxia, facilitated by

4185-582: The five-year-old Arcadius an Augustus and co-ruler for the eastern half of the Empire. Ten years later a corresponding declaration made Honorius the Augustus of the western half . Arcadius passed his early years under the tutelage of the rhetorician Themistius and Arsenius Zonaras , a monk. Both of Theodosius's sons were young and inexperienced, susceptible to being dominated by ambitious subordinates. In 394 Arcadius briefly exercised independent power with

4278-553: The help of his advisors in Constantinople , when his father Theodosius went west to fight Arbogastes and Eugenius . Theodosius died on 17 January 395, and Arcadius, still aged only 17, fell under the influence of the praetorian prefect of the East , Rufinus . Honorius, aged 10, was consigned to the guardianship of the magister militum Stilicho . Rufinus ambitiously sought to marry his daughter to Arcadius and thereby gain

4371-451: The historian Thomas S. Burns : "Despite much civilian distrust and outright hatred of the army and the barbarians in it, there were no anti-barbarian or pro-barbarian parties at the court." With respect to Arcadius himself, as emperor was more concerned with appearing to be a pious Christian than he was with political or military matters. Not being a military leader, he began to promote a new type of imperial victory through images, not via

4464-399: The hostilities. The prisoner was allowed the "courteous freedom" of walking the court and streets of Ravenna during his captivity. He took advantage of this privilege to come into contact with the forces of Joannes and convinced some of them to defect to Theodosius' side. The conspirators contacted Aspar and beckoned him to Ravenna. A shepherd led Aspar's cavalry force through the marshes of

4557-532: The infantry boarded ships of the Eastern Roman navy in an attempt to reach Ravenna by sea. Aspar marched his forces to Aquileia , taking the city by surprise and with virtually no resistance. The fleet, on the other hand, was dispersed by a storm. Ardaburius and two of his galleys were captured by forces loyal to Joannes and were held prisoners in Ravenna. Ardaburius was treated well by Joannes, who probably intended to negotiate with Theodosius for an end to

4650-424: The legendary figure of Walter of Aquitaine . Galla Placidia Galla Placidia (392/93 – 27 November 450), daughter of the Roman emperor Theodosius I , was a mother, tutor, and advisor to emperor Valentinian III . She was queen consort to Ataulf , King of the Visigoths from 414 until his death in 415, briefly empress consort to Constantius III in 421, and managed the government administration as

4743-503: The letter from Aetius. The plot now revealed, his friends returned to Rome to apprise Placidia of the true situation. She did not move against Aetius, as he wielded great influence, and as the Empire was already in danger; but she urged Bonifacius to return to Rome "and not to permit the empire of the Romans to lie under the hand of barbarians." Bonifacius now regretted his alliance with the Vandals and tried to persuade them to return to Spain. Gaiseric offered battle instead, and Bonifacius

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4836-446: The letter. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry . When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of Placidia persuaded him not to kill Honoria. Valentinian wrote to Attila denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, unconvinced, sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria

4929-419: The main influence upon the emperor. Arcadius therefore dismissed Eutropius and sent him into exile (17 August 399), before recalling him to face trial and execution during the autumn of 399. The imperial edict issued by Arcadius detailing Eutropius's banishment survives: The Emperors Arcadius and Honorius, Augusti, to Aurelian, Praetorian Prefect. We have added to our treasury all the property of Eutropius, who

5022-436: The new Western Roman Emperor. Among their supporters was Flavius Aetius . Joannes' rule was accepted in the provinces of Italia , Gaul and Hispania , but not in the province of Africa . Theodosius II reacted by preparing Valentinian III for eventual promotion to the imperial office. In 423/424, Valentinian was named nobilissimus . In 424, Valentinian was betrothed to Licinia Eudoxia , his first cousin once removed. She

5115-465: The office in charge of manufacturing military equipment was transferred from the praetorian prefects to the magister officiorum (master of offices). Secondly, the role that Eutropius held, the praepositus sacri cubiculi (grand chamberlain) was given the rank of illustris , and therefore equal in rank to the praetorian prefects. In the autumn of 397 he issued a law in Arcadius's name, targeting

5208-587: The only power at court. During these years, Galla Placidia befriended bishop Peter Chrysologus , both having a shared interest in building churches. She also befriended a certain Barbatianus , whom she met in Rome. He came to Ravenna to be her confessor. According to his later biography, through his intercession she miraculously obtained a sandal of John the Evangelist for the church she had built to honour

5301-404: The other electing Boniface I (28 December). They acted as rival popes, both in Rome, and their factions plunged the city into tumult. Symmachus, Prefect of Rome, sent his report to the imperial court at Ravenna, requesting an imperial decision on the matter. Placidia and, presumably, Constantius petitioned the emperor in favor of Eulalius. This was arguably the first intervention by an Emperor in

5394-521: The people started rioting over his departure, even threatening to burn the imperial palace. There was an earthquake the night of his arrest, which Eudoxia took for a sign of God 's anger, prompting her to ask Arcadius for John's reinstatement. Peace was short-lived. In September 403 a silver statue of Eudoxia was erected in the Augustaion , near the Magna Ecclesia church. Chrysostom, who

5487-581: The possessions of the wife of a condemned senator, preached a sermon in 401 in which Eudoxia was openly called Jezebel , the infamous wife of the Israelite king Ahab . Eudoxia retaliated by supporting Bishop Severian of Gabala in his conflict with Chrysostom. As Chrysostom was very popular in the capital, riots erupted in favour of the Archbishop, forcing Arcadius and Eudoxia to publicly back down and beg Chrysostom to revoke Severian's excommunication. Then in 403, Eudoxia saw another chance to strike against

5580-522: The presence of the Roman Senate , with Theodosius II's support. Three days following Joannes' death, Aetius brought reinforcements for his army, a reported number of sixty thousand Huns from across the Danube . After some skirmishing, Placidia, Valentinian and Aetius came to an agreement and established peace. The Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of comes and magister militum per Gallias ( commander-in-chief of

5673-547: The prestige of being the emperor's father-in-law. However, when the prefect was called away to business in Antioch (where according to Zosimus , Rufinus had Lucianus, the comes orientis , flogged to death with whips loaded with lead), Arcadius was shown a painting of Aelia Eudoxia , the daughter of the deceased Frankish magister militum per orientem , Bauto . Seeing the young emperor's interest in Eudoxia, Eutropius ,

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5766-590: The principal participants as being the leading cause for the court intrigue throughout Arcadius's reign. The gradual decline of the use of Gothic mercenaries in the eastern empire's armies that began in the reign of Arcadius was driven by recruitment issues, as the regions beyond the Danube were made inaccessible by the Huns, forcing the empire to seek recruitment in Asia Minor. The current consensus can be summarised by

5859-480: The rebel Ostrogoths, and, in a face to face meeting with Arcadius, forced the emperor to make him magister militum praesentalis and Consul designate for 401. Arcadius also acquiesced when Gainas asked for the dismissal of further officials, such as the urban prefect Aurelianus , as well as a place for settlement for his troops in Thrace. However, Arcadius refused to agree to Gainas's demand for an Arian church in Constantinople for his Gothic mercenaries, following

5952-535: The rebel leader; the first, under an officer named Leo, was defeated. The second force was commanded by Gainas, rival of Eutropius in the Eastern court. He returned to Arcadius and argued that the Ostrogoths could not be defeated, and that it would be sensible to accede to their demand. Arcadius viewed this proposal with displeasure, but was convinced to support it by Eudoxia, who wished to take Eutropius's place as

6045-446: The reign of Arcadius have revolved around his weakness as an Emperor, and the formulation of policy by prominent individuals (and the court parties that formed and regrouped round them) towards curtailing the increasing influence of barbarians in the military, which in Constantinople at this period meant the Goths . Scholars such as the historian J. B. Bury spoke of a group in Arcadius's court with Germanic interests and, opposed to them,

6138-468: The rioting; those who took refuge in a church were stoned and burned to death, after they received the emperor's permission, nor was it condemned by the Archbishop of Constantinople, John Chrysostom. Although initially staying his hand (probably through the intervention of the new Praetorian Prefect of the East Caesarius ), Gainas eventually withdrew with his Gothic mercenaries into Thrace and rebelled against Arcadius. He attempted to take his forces across

6231-414: The saint. When Barbatianus died, Placidia and Chrysologus arranged his burial. Attila was diverted from Constantinople towards Italy by a letter from Placidia's own daughter Justa Grata Honoria in the spring of 450, asking him to rescue her from an unwanted marriage to a Roman senator that the Imperial family, including Placidia, was trying to force upon her. Honoria included her engagement ring with

6324-516: The siblings' relationship suddenly turned hostile, and around this time, she may have plotted against him. After her soldiers clashed with those of Honorius, Galla Placidia herself was now forced to flee to Constantinople with her children. Despite this setback, Bonifacius , governor of the Diocese of Africa continued to be loyal to her. Placidia, Valentinian, and Honoria arrived in Constantinople around 422/423. On 15 August 423, Honorius died of edema , perhaps pulmonary edema . With no member of

6417-405: The traditional military achievements, but focusing on his piety. Arcadius's reign saw the growing push towards the outright abolishment of paganism. On 13 July 399, Arcadius issued an edict ordering that all remaining non-Christian temples should be immediately demolished . In terms of buildings and monuments, a new forum was built in the name of Arcadius, on the seventh hill of Constantinople,

6510-425: The two imperial courts to deteriorate further. Eutropius's influence lasted four years, during which time he sought to marginalise the military and promote the civilian offices within the bureaucracy. He brought to trial two prominent military officers, Timasius and Abundantius . He also had Arcadius introduce two administrative innovations: the running of the cursus publicus (office of postmaster general) and

6603-426: The usurper Magnus Maximus , while her mother remained in Constantinople . A surviving letter from Bishop Ambrose of Milan, dated 390, refers to a younger son of Theodosius named Gratianus, who died in infancy; as Gratian must have been born in the period 388–89, it is most probable that Galla Placidia was born during the second period, 392–93. Placidia's mother Galla died some time in 394, perhaps giving birth to

6696-410: The walls of Carthage , relations between Ataulf and Honorius improved sufficiently for Ataulf to cement them by marrying Galla Placidia at Narbonne on 1 January 414. The nuptials were celebrated with high Roman festivities and magnificent gifts. Priscus Attalus gave the wedding speech, a classical epithalamium . The marriage was recorded by Hydatius and Jordanes, although the latter states that it

6789-474: The warning from Aetius, refused the summons; and, thinking his position untenable, sought an alliance with the Vandals in Spain. The Vandals subsequently crossed from Spain into Libya to join him. To friends of Bonifacius in Rome, this apparent act of hostility toward the Empire seemed entirely out of character for Bonifacius. They traveled to Carthage at Placidia's behest to intercede with him, and he showed them

6882-531: The works Synesius of Cyrene, specifically Aegyptus sive de providentia and De regno . Both works have traditionally been interpreted to support the thesis that there were anti-barbarian and pro-barbarian groups, with the Praetorian Prefect Aurelianus being the leader of the anti-barbarian faction. Recent scholarly research has revised this interpretation, and has instead favoured the interaction of personal ambition and enmities among

6975-558: Was Constantius who exploited the situation by securing the return of emperor's sister, a move historian Michael Kulikowski termed, a route "into the imperial family". Now operating in Roman service as foederati , Wallia and his Goths marched against the Alans and Vandals in both Baetica and Lusitania with "dramatic success". These exploits against the Asding Vandals and Alans were at the behest of Constantius. Between 417 and into 418, Wallia's Goths inflicted considerable defeats upon

7068-412: Was a daughter of Theodosius II and Aelia Eudocia. The year of their betrothal was recorded by Marcellinus Comes . At the time of their betrothal, Valentinian was approximately four years old, Licinia only two. The campaign against Joannes also started in the same year. Forces of the Eastern Roman army gathered at Thessaloniki , and were placed under the general command of Ardaburius, who had served in

7161-452: Was a stern, ascetic individual, who was a vocal critic of all displays of extravagant wealth. But his ire tended to focus especially on wealthy women, and their use of clothing, jewellery and makeup as being vain and frivolous. Eudoxia assumed that Chrysostom's denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at her. As the tensions between the two escalated, Chrysostom, who felt that Eudoxia had used her imperial connections to obtain

7254-442: Was arrested and executed by Honorius's order on 22 August 408. Eucherius sought refuge in Rome but he was arrested there and executed by the eunuchs Arsacius and Tarentius, on imperial orders. Honorius appointed Tarentius imperial chamberlain, and gave the next post under him to Arsacius. In the disturbances that followed the fall of Stilicho, wives and children of foederati living in the cities of Italy were killed. Most of

7347-452: Was assassinated in 430, possibly by Aetius. Conflict between Placidia and Bonifacius started in 429. Placidia appointed Bonifacius general of Libya. Procopius records that Aetius played the two against each other, warning Placidia against Bonifacius and advising her to recall him to Rome; simultaneously writing to Bonifacius, warning him that Placidia was about to summon him for no good reason in order to put him away. Bonifacius, trusting

7440-479: Was besieged at Hippo Regius in Numidia by the sea ( Augustine of Hippo was its bishop and died in this siege). Unable to take the city, the Vandals eventually raised the siege. The Romans, with reinforcements under Aspar, renewed the struggle but were routed and lost Africa to the Vandals. Bonifacius had meanwhile returned to Rome, where Placidia raised him to the rank of patrician and made him "master-general of

7533-399: Was called in early 404 where Chrysostom was condemned. Arcadius hesitated until Easter to enforce the sentence, but Chrysostom refused to go, even after Arcadius sent in a squad of soldiers to escort him into exile. Arcadius procrastinated, but by 20 June 404, the emperor finally managed to get the Archbishop to submit, and he was taken away to his place of banishment, this time to Abkhazia in

7626-576: Was captured by Alaric before the fall of Rome, and accompanied the Visigoths from Italy to Gaul in 412. Their ruler Ataulf , having succeeded Alaric, entered an alliance with Honorius against Jovinus and Sebastianus , rival Western Roman emperors located in Gaul, and managed to defeat and execute both in 413. After the heads of Sebastianus and Jovinus arrived at Honorius' court in Ravenna in late August, to be forwarded for display among other usurpers on

7719-448: Was chosen to replace Sigeric in 415, since the Visigoths were convinced he would end any peace negotiations with Rome undertaken by his forerunners. At the time, the Goths' main antagonist was Constantius , the magister militum of emperor Honorius . Like his predecessor Alaric, Wallia attempted to take his Gothic forces to northern Africa but ultimately "foundered in the Sea of Gibraltar",

7812-571: Was conducting a mass at the time, denounced the noisy dedication ceremonies as pagan and spoke against the Empress in harsh terms: "Again Herodias raves; again she is troubled; she dances again; and again desires to receive John's head in a charger", an allusion to the events surrounding the death of John the Baptist . This time Arcadius was unwilling to overlook the insult to his wife; a new synod

7905-451: Was designed to be inserted in a torso, but no statue, base or inscription was found. The diadem is a fillet with rows of pearls along its edges and a rectangular stone set about with pearls over the young Emperor's forehead. A more nuanced assessment of Arcadius's reign was provided by Warren Treadgold: By failing to reign, Arcadius had allowed a good deal of maladministration. But by continuing to reign—so harmlessly that nobody had taken

7998-549: Was earlier, in 411 at Forum Livii ( Forlì ) (possibly a more informal event). Placidia and Ataulf had one son, Theodosius, born in Barcelona by the end of 414, but the child died early in the following year, eliminating an opportunity for a Romano-Visigothic line; years later the corpse was exhumed and reburied in the imperial mausoleum in Old St. Peter's Basilica , Rome. In Hispania , Ataulf imprudently accepted into his service

8091-475: Was formerly the Praepositus sacri cubiculi , having stripped him of his splendour, and delivered the consulate from the foul stain of his tenure, and from the recollection of his name and the base filth thereof =; so that, all his acts having been repealed, all time may be dumb concerning him; and that the blot of our age may not appear by the mention of him; and that those who by their valour and wounds extend

8184-553: Was given the titles magister militum and "patrician". The appointments effectively left Aetius in control of the entire Western Roman army and gave him considerable influence over imperial policy. Aetius later played a pivotal role in the defense of the Western Empire against Attila . Placidia continued to act as regent until 437, though her direct influence over decisions was diminished. She would continue to exercise political influence until her death in 450—no longer, however,

8277-414: Was granted the title of " nobilissima puella" ("most noble girl") during her childhood. Placidia spent most of her early years in the household of Stilicho and his wife, Serena . She is presumed to have learned weaving and embroidery . She might have also been given a classical education . Serena was a first cousin of Arcadius, Honorius and Placidia. The poem "In Praise of Serena" by Claudian and

8370-606: Was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. Honoria was quickly married to Flavius Bassus Herculanus , though this did not prevent Attila from pressing his claim. Placidia died shortly afterwards at Rome, in November 450, and was buried in the Theodosian family mausoleum adjacent to Old St. Peter's Basilica , later the chapel of Saint Petronilla . She did not live to see Attila ravage Gaul and Italy in 451 and 452, using Honoria's letter as his "legitimate" excuse. Being

8463-485: Was probably born in 417 or 418. The history of Paul the Deacon mentions her first among the children of the marriage, suggesting that she was the eldest. Their son Valentinian III was born 2 July 419. Placidia intervened in the succession crisis following the death of Pope Zosimus on 26 December 418. Two factions of the Roman clergy had proceeded to elect their own popes, the first electing Eulalius (27 December) and

8556-405: Was succeeded by his son Theodosius II , only seven years old. Stilicho planned to proceed to Constantinople and "undertake the management of the affairs of Theodosius", convincing Honorius not to travel to the East himself. Shortly after, Olympius, magister scrinii , attempted to convince Honorius that Stilicho was in fact conspiring to depose Theodosius II, to replace him with Eucherius. Stilicho

8649-717: Was the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire . He was the only known person to hold the rank of magister militum in praesenti from 394 to 408 in both the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire . He was also titled magister equitum et peditum ("Master of the Horse and the Foot"), placing him in charge of both the cavalry and infantry forces of the Western Roman Empire. In 408, Arcadius died and

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