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55-511: Wang Anshi's ideas are usually analyzed in terms of the influence the Rites of Zhou or Legalism had on him. His economic reforms included increased currency circulation, breaking up of private monopolies, and early forms of government regulation and social welfare. His military reforms expanded the use of local militias, and his government reforms expanded the education system and attempted to suppress nepotism in government. Although successful for

110-522: A decrease in government expenditures, since the local population was responsible for its own protection. The general and troops law ( jiangbingfa ), also known as the creation of commands law ( zhijiangfa ) targeted improving the relationship between high officials and common troops. The army was divided into commands units of 2,500 to 3,000 men that incorporated a mixed force of infantry, cavalry, archers, as well as tribal troops, instead of each belonging to their own individual unit. This did not include

165-492: A form of tax service with hired labor. Each prefecture calculated the funds needed for official projects in advance so that the funds could be distributed appropriately. The government also paid a premium of 20 percent in years of crop failures. Effectively, it transformed labor service to the government into a monetary payment, increasing tax revenue. However, people who were previously exempt from corvée labor were forced to pay taxes for labor on official projects, and thus protested

220-433: A letter ten thousand characters long ( Wanyanshu ; 万言书 / Yanshishu ; 言事书 / Shang Renzong Huangdi yanshi shu ; 上仁宗皇帝言事书 ) to Emperor Renzong of Song (r. 1022–1063), in which he suggested reforms to the administration in order to solve financial and organizational problems. In the letter he blamed the downfall of previous dynasties on the refusal of their emperors to deviate from traditional patterns of rule. He criticized

275-775: A number of years at Wayland Academy in Hangzhou, where she also served for a time as principal. Nourse has traditionally been considered one of the founders of Jinling College, a women's school in Nanjing, based on her having been one of the signatories of a petition circulated in 1911-1912 calling for a women's college in the Yangtze River valley. Nourse was also among the school's six-member faculty when it opened on September 17, 1915, teaching psychology and history to an entering class of 11 students. Women's education had been encouraged by an imperial decree in 1907, but Jinling

330-474: A provincial exam graduate. In 1104, the prefectural examinations were abolished in favor of the three-colleges system, which required each prefecture to send an annual quota of students to the Taixue. This drew criticism from some officials who claimed that the new system benefited the rich and young, and was less fair because the relatives of officials could enroll without being examined for their skills. In 1121,

385-405: A two-year period on which the students were graded. Those who achieved the superior grade on both exams were directly appointed to office equal to that of a metropolitan exam graduate. Those who achieved an excellent grade on one exam but slightly worse on the other could still be considered for promotion, and having a good grade in one exam but mediocre in another still awarded merit equal to that of

440-412: A view to succoring the working classes and preventing them from being ground into the dust by the rich." Wang proposed that "to manage wealth the ruler should see public and private [wealth] as a single whole." Wang believed that it was wealth that united the people and if wealth could not be administered properly, then even the lowliest men who did not possess political power would rise to take advantage of

495-572: A while, he eventually fell out of favor with the emperor. Wang Anshi was born on 8 December 1021, to a family of jinshi degree holders in Linchuan ( Fuzhou , Jiangxi province). He placed fourth in the palace exam and obtained a jinshi degree in 1042. He began his career in the Song bureaucracy as a secretary ( qianshu ) in the office of the assistant military commissioner ( jiedu panguan tinggonshi ) of Huainan ( Yangzhou , Jiangsu province). He

550-537: Is a Chinese work on bureaucracy and organizational theory. It was renamed by Liu Xin to differentiate it from a chapter in the Book of History by the same name. To replace a lost work, it was included along with the Book of Rites and the Etiquette and Ceremonial – becoming one of three ancient ritual texts (the "Three Rites") listed among the classics of Confucianism . In comparison with other works of its type,

605-584: Is not to say that they had any direct relation. The book appeared in the middle of the 2nd century BC, when it was found and included in the collection of Old Texts in the library of Prince Liu De ( 劉德 ; d. 130 BC), a younger brother of the Han emperor Wu . Its first editor was Liu Xin (c. 50 BC – AD 23), who credited it to the Duke of Zhou . Tradition since at least the Song dynasty continued this attribution, with

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660-762: The Etiquette and Ceremonial , the Rites of Zhou contain one of the earliest references to the Three Obediences and Four Virtues , a set of principles directed exclusively at women that formed a core part of female education during the Zhou . A part of the Winter Offices, the Record of Trades ( Kao Gong Ji ), contains important information on technology, architecture, city planning, and other topics. A passage records that, "The master craftsman constructs

715-634: The Ever-Normal Granaries who were managing the program were evaluated based on the revenue they could generate, this resulted in forced loans and lack of focus on the disaster relief, which was the original task of the Ever-Normal Granaries. In 1074, a famine in northern China drove many farmers off their lands. Their circumstances were made worse by the debts they had incurred from the seasonal loans granted under Wang's reform initiatives. Local officials insisted on collecting

770-607: The Song dynasty . The project was discontinued in 1085. Emperor Huizong of Song (r. 1100–1125) tried to revive it but the implementation was too impractical and gave up after 1120. The system of taxation for mining products ( kuangshi difen zhi ) was a similar project to the equal tax law, except for regulating mining projects. The green sprouts law ( qingmiaofa ) was a loan to peasants. The government loaned money to buy seeds, or seeds themselves from state granaries, in two disbursements at an interest rate of 2 percent calculated at an average of ten years. Recollections occurred in

825-482: The Financial Commission ( sansi duzhi panguan ), and finally editor of imperial edicts ( zhi zhigao ). Wang's mother died and he observed a mourning period from 1063 to 1066. In 1067, he became governor of Jiangning ( Nanjing ). During his time in the local administration, Wang Anshi gained an understanding of the difficulties experienced by local officials and the common people. In 1058, he sent

880-536: The Han and Tang dynasties, that they were only a tool for irredentism. The pro-New policies faction regained power when Emperor Zhezong came of age in 1093. The policies largely continued under the reign of Emperor Huizong until the end of the Northern Song dynasty in 1126. In addition to his political achievements, Wang Anshi was a noted poet. He wrote poems in the shi form, modeled on those of Du Fu . He

935-522: The Rite's ruler, though a sage, does not create the state, but merely organizes a bureaucracy. It could not have been composed during the Western Zhou . With a vision based on Warring States period society, Mark Edward Lewis takes it as closely linked to the major administrative reforms of the period. He and Michael Puett compare its system of duties and ranks to the "Legalism" of Shang Yang , which

990-633: The United States. She enrolled at the University of Wisconsin, where she completed her master's degree in 1919. Her thesis was on the historical development of "Open Door" diplomacy in China. After completing her master's degree, Nourse wrote widely on Far Eastern history. Her first book, The Four Hundred Million , ran to several editions in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and was translated into French, German, Polish, and Hebrew. Reviewing

1045-490: The Warring States; the small area still directly under the king's control. The book is divided into six chapters: The work consists mainly of schematic lists of Zhou dynasty bureaucrats, stating what the function of each office is and who is eligible to hold it. Sometimes though the mechanical listing is broken off by pieces of philosophical exposition on how a given office contributes to social harmony and enforces

1100-600: The aims of the three-colleges was to provide a more balanced education for students and to de-emphasize Confucian learning. Students were taught in only one of the Confucian classics, depending on the college, as well as arithmetics and medicine. Students of the Outer College who passed a public and institutional examination were allowed to enter the Inner College. At the Inner College there were two exams over

1155-806: The book in Foreign Affairs , historian William L. Langer called it "a well-written and illustrated survey of Chinese history." She authored a similar popular history of Japan, titled Kodo: The Way of the Emperor , which was published in 1940. Other works included China, Country of Contrasts (1944) and Ferment in the Far East (1949). Nourse taught history at Pine Manor Junior College in 1933–1934, and subsequently for many years at Mount Vernon Seminary in Washington, DC. She continued to write magazine articles on topics related to East Asia into

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1210-531: The claim that Liu Xin's edition was the final one. In the 12th century, it was given special recognition by being placed among the Five Classics as a substitute for the long-lost sixth work, the Classic of Music . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, following Kang Youwei , the book was often seen as a forgery by Liu Xin. Currently, a few holdouts continue to insist on a Western Zhou date while

1265-428: The development of large estates , whose owners managed to evade paying their share of taxes. This led him to seek advice from Wang in 1069. Wang was first appointed vice counsellor ( can zhizheng shi ; 参知政事 ), a key position for general administration, and a year later was made chancellor ( zaixiang ; 宰相 ). The primary objectives of Wang Anshi's New Policies ( xinfa ) were to cut government expenditure and strengthen

1320-404: The empire. One of the prominent victims of the political rivalry, the famous poet and statesman Su Shi (1037–1101), was jailed and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms. Sima and his allies opposed the reforms based on fiscal grounds, but also because they believed that the local elite families rather than the state should be the pillars of society. Fiscally, Wang made it clear that he

1375-473: The eyes and ears of the state in the country. The Green Sprouts program and the baojia system were not conceived as revenue-generating policies but soon were changed to finance new state initiatives and military campaigns. Within a few months of the start of the Green Sprouts program in 1069 the government started to charge an annual interest of 20–30% on the loans it made to farmers. As the officials of

1430-465: The government and stored for later sale at a lower price, disrupting price manipulation by merchant monopolies. Merchant guilds that cooperated with the market exchange bureau were allowed to sell goods to the government and buy commodities from government storehouses using money or credit at an interest rate of 10 percent for six months. Small or mid-sized companies and groups of five merchants could provide guarantee with their assets for credit. After 1085,

1485-420: The imperial examination system for failing to create specialized workers. Wang believed that there should not be generalists but that people should specialize in their roles and not study extraneous teachings. His letter was ignored for ten years until Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085) succeeded the throne. The new emperor faced declining taxes and an increasingly heavy burden of taxation on commoners due to

1540-504: The loans as the farmers were leaving their land. This crisis was depicted as being Wang’s fault. Wang still had the emperor's favor, though he resigned in 1076. With the emperor's death in 1085 and the return of the opposition leader Sima Guang, the New Policies were abolished under the regency of Dowager Empress Xiang . With Sima back in power, he blamed the New Policies' implementation on Shenzong's wish to extend Song borders to match

1595-472: The local three-college system was abolished but retained at the national level. The reforms created political factions in the court. Wang Anshi's faction, known as the "Reformers", were opposed by the ministers in the "Conservative" faction led by the historian and Chancellor Sima Guang (1019–1086). As one faction supplanted another in the majority position of the court ministers, it would demote rival officials and exile them to govern remote frontier regions of

1650-460: The majority follow Qian Mu and Gu Jiegang in assigning the work to about the 3rd century BC. Yu Yingshi argues for a date in the late Warring States period based on a comparison of titles in the text with extant bronze inscriptions and calendrical knowledge implicit in the work. In this view, the word "Zhou" in the title refers not to the Western Zhou but to the royal State of Zhou of

1705-537: The market exchange bureau and offices became profit making institutions, and bought cheap goods and sold at higher prices. The system stayed in place until the end of the Northern Song dynasty in 1127. The baojia system , also known as the village defense law or security group law, was a project to improve local security and relieve local government of administrative duties. It ordered groups of ten, fifty, and five hundred men security groups to be organized. Each

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1760-579: The metropolitan and palace army. The system continued until the end of the Song dynasty . The three college law ( sanshefa ), also called the Three Hall system, regulated the education of future officials in the Taixue (National University). It divided the Taixue into three colleges. Students first attended the Outer College, then the Inner College, and finally the Superior College. One of

1815-508: The military in the north. To do this, Wang advocated for policies intended to alleviate suffering among the peasantry and to prevent the consolidation of large land estates which would deprive small peasants of their livelihood. He called social elements that came between the people and the government jianbing , translated as "engrossers." By "engrossers" he meant people who monopolized land and wealth and made others their dependents in wealth and agriculture. Wang believed that suppressing jianbing

1870-511: The new law. Although officially abolished in 1086, the new labor recruitment system existed in practice until the end of the Northern Song dynasty in 1127. The balanced delivery law ( junshufa ) was meant to curb the prices of commodities purchased by the government and to control the expenditures of the local administration. To do this, circuit level financial institutions in southeast China were made responsible for government purchases and their transport. The central treasury provided funds for

1925-487: The other four ranks all have multiple holders spread across various specific professions. It was translated into French by Édouard Biot as Le Tcheou-Li ou Rites des Tcheou, traduit pour la première fois du Chinois in 1850 and a abridged English translation edition called Institutes of the Chow Dynasty Strung as Pearls by Hoo peih seang and translated by William Raymond Gingell in 1852. In addition to

1980-563: The philosophy of Wang Anshi was mostly focused on improving Yan's own popularity without holding any real power, and never became an effective alternative to military dictatorship. On the other hand, the popular scholar Lin Yutang cast Wang as the equivalent of communist totalitarian government in his biography of Wang's adversary Su Dongpo . Rites of Zhou The Rites of Zhou ( Chinese : 周禮 ; pinyin : zhōu lǐ ), originally known as "Officers of Zhou" ( 周官 ; Zhouguan ),

2035-748: The purchase of low cost goods wherever they were available, their storage, and transport to areas where they were expensive. Critics claimed that Wang was waging a price war with merchants. The market exchange law ( shiyifa ), also called the guild avoidance law ( mianshangfa ), targeted large trading companies and monopolies. A metropolitan market exchange bureau was set up in Kaifeng and 21 market exchange offices in other cities. They were headed by supervisors and office managers who dealt with merchants, merchant guilds, and brokerage houses. These institutions fixed prices for not only resident merchants but also itinerant traders. Surplus commodities were purchased by

2090-550: The reforms of Wang Anshi as either principled and measured or misguided and disastrous. The twentieth-century Chinese warlord Yan Xishan cited the reforms of Wang Anshi to justify his use of a limited form of local democracy in Shanxi . Yan believed that the focus and intent of Wang's reforms was to strengthen the Song dynasty by persuading ordinary Chinese to give the dynasty their active support, instead of merely serving it. The system of "democratic" government that Yan justified via

2145-636: The situation, take control of the economy, monopolize it, and use it to advance their unlimited greed. Under such a situation, Wang considered any claim that the emperor had control of the people to be just words. Wang Anshi was promoted to vice counselor in 1069. He introduced and promulgated a series of reforms, collectively known as the New Policies/New Laws. The reforms had three main components: 1) state finance and trade, 2) defense and social order, and 3) education and improving of governance. The equal tax law ( junshuifa ), also known as

2200-403: The square field law ( fangtianfa ) was a land registration project meant to reveal hidden land (untaxed land). Fields were divided into squares 1,000 paces in length on each side. The corners of the fields were marked by earth piles or trees. In the autumn, an official was dispatched to supervise the surveying of the land and to place the soil quality in one of five categories. This information

2255-488: The state capital. He makes a square nine li on one side; each side has three gates. Within the capital are nine north-south and nine east-west streets. The north-south streets are nine carriage tracks in width". It was translated by Jun wenren as Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology Translation and Annotation of Kaogong Ji, the Artificers' Record. Mary Nourse Mary Augusta Nourse (1880–1971)

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2310-408: The state to [warrant] enjoying such a good salary? According to Wang, "good organization of finance was the duty of the government, and the organization of finance was nothing else than to fulfill public duties." American historian Mary Nourse describes the philosophy of Wang's government that, "The state should take the entire management of commerce, industry, and agriculture into its own hands, with

2365-833: The suburbs of Chicago. Nourse attended Shimer College , which at the time was located in Mount Carroll, Illinois and served as a women's preparatory school for the University of Chicago . She graduated from Shimer in 1899 and continued to the University of Chicago, receiving her Ph.B. in 1905. Our faith in the possibilities of the institution now that the first class is really here are boundless. —Mary Nourse, 1915 After completing her college education, Nourse briefly taught high school in Rensselaer, Indiana . Soon thereafter, however, she traveled to China to work as an educator and Baptist missionary. She taught for

2420-568: The summer and winter. Public officials abused the system by forcing loans on the peasants or extracting more than 2 percent interest. The hydraulic works law ( shuilifa ) was meant to improve local organization of irrigation works. Instead of using corvée labor, each circuit was supposed to appoint officials to loan money to the people using the local treasury, so that they could hire laborers. The government also encouraged planting mulberry trees to increase silk production. The labor recruitment law ( muyifa ) aimed at replacing corvée labor as

2475-411: The universal order. The division of chapters follows the six departments of the Zhou dynasty government. The bureaucrats within a department come in five ranks: minister ( qing 卿 ), councilor ( da fu 大夫 ), senior clerk ( shang shi 上士 ), middle clerk ( zhong shi 中士 ) and junior clerk ( xia shi 下士 ). There is only one minister per department -the department head-, but

2530-415: Was a core function of the government or that it was in their best interests to help those dependent on the rich. He saw that as the breakdown of social order which would cause the eventual downfall of the state. Sima did not even like the imperial examinations and argued that only candidates recommended by court officials should be able to sit the examinations. Essentially, Sima Guang believed that government

2585-640: Was an American educator and writer on China and the Far East, and a co-founder of Jinling College in Nanjing . The best-known of her several books was her first, a popular history of China titled The Four Hundred Million . Nourse was born to Edwin Henry and Harriett Augusta Beaman Nourse of Lockport, New York on March 11, 1880. She was the sister of novelist Alice Tisdale Hobart and economist Edwin Nourse . The family later moved to Downers Grove, Illinois , in

2640-751: Was later ranked number seven among the Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song ( 唐宋八大家 ). He was an adherent of the Classical Prose Movement championed by Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan , first and second of the Eight Masters of the Tang and Song respectively. His poetry often included social themes along with the traditional observations of nature. Chinese politicians and historians have continued to look back on

2695-437: Was not concerned about deficits and promised the emperor that revenues would be adequate even without increasing taxes. Sima did not agree and did not believe that the economy could grow faster than the population. Wang was also in favor of more aggressive foreign policy such as recovering territory and assimilating people to the northwest while Sima preferred a more balanced foreign policy. Sima did not believe that managing wealth

2750-516: Was one of the most important goals. Included in the category of jianbing were owners of large estates, rural usurers, large urban businessmen, and speculators responsible for instability in the urban market. All of them had ties to bureaucrats and had representatives in the government. Today in every prefecture and subprefecture, there are jianbing [engrossing] families that annually collect interest amounting to several myriad strings of cash without doing anything... What contribution have they made to

2805-462: Was the domain of the pre-existing elite and only the elite. He argued that the empire would be better off if rich families kept more of their wealth. "If (wealth) is in the hands of the state then it is not in the hands of the people," Sima said in a debate with Wang before the emperor. Other officials argued that the baojia system would prevent local gentry from serving in their traditional roles as military commanders, raising private militias and serving

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2860-649: Was the first women's college to open in China. Of the 11 women in Jinling's 1915 entering class, 5 graduated, becoming the first women in China to receive a baccalaureate degree. Among these first graduates was Wu Yi-Fang , who later became president of the college. Under Dr. Fang's leadership, the school served as a refuge during the Nanjing Massacre in 1937–1938. Nourse taught history and psychology at Jinling College until 1918. She left on furlough, but did not return, instead continuing her education in

2915-586: Was then promoted to district magistrate ( zhixian ) of Yinxian ( Ningbo , Zhejiang province ), where he reorganized hydrological projects for irrigation and gave credits to the peasant. Later he was promoted to controller general ( tongpan ) of Shezhou ( Qianshan , Anhui province). In 1060, he was sent to Kaifeng as assistant in the herd office ( qunmusi panguan ) and then prefect ( zhizhou ) of Changzhou, commissioner for judificial affairs ( tidian xingyu gongshi ) in Jiangnan East, assistant in

2970-402: Was to be led by a headman. Initially each household with more than two male adults had to provide one security guard, but this unrealistic expectation was decreased to one per five households later on. The security groups exercised police powers, organized night watches, and trained in martial arts when no agricultural work was required. Essentially it was a local militia with the main effect being

3025-427: Was written in a ledger declared legally binding for the purposes of sale and purchase, and the taxation value assessed appropriately. The law was highly unpopular with land owners, who complained that it restricted their freedom of distribution and other purposes (avoiding tax). Although the square field system was only implemented around the region of Kaifeng , the land surveyed made up 54 percent of known arable land in

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