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190-406: The Wanli Emperor ascended the throne at the age of nine. During the first ten years of his reign, the young emperor was assisted and effectively led by Grand Secretary and skilled administrator, Zhang Juzheng . With the support of the emperor's mother, Lady Li , and the imperial eunuchs led by Feng Bao, the country experienced economic and military prosperity, reaching a level of power not seen since

380-548: A bribe from one of his eunuchs, which shocked the emperor and caused him to withdraw from cooperating with officials. He reduced his contact with them to a minimum and canceled the morning audience. He only appeared in public at celebrations of military victories and communication with the bureaucracy was done through written reports, to which he may or may not have responded. Towards the end of his reign, he also hindered personnel changes in offices, leaving positions vacant and allowing officials to leave without his written consent–which

570-562: A combination of defensive and offensive measures to strengthen border defenses and opened up border markets, particularly in the northwest. As a result, the morale of the Ming troops reached a level not seen since the mid-15th century. As a proponent of peace with the Mongols, Zhang rejected the Minister of War Tan Lun's proposal for a pre-emptive attack and instead instructed the commander of

760-400: A combination of defensive and offensive measures to strengthen border defenses and opened up border markets, particularly in the northwest. As a result, the morale of the Ming troops reached a level not seen since the mid-15th century. As a proponent of peace with the Mongols, Zhang rejected the Minister of War Tan Lun's proposal for a pre-emptive attack and instead instructed the commander of

950-564: A distrust of local authorities and opposition to factional politics within bureaucratic cliques. Both Zhang Juzheng and the Wanli Emperor shared an interest in military affairs and the importance of capable military leaders. In 1622, the Tianqi Emperor rehabilitated Zhang Juzheng. Zhang Juzheng Zhang Juzheng (26 May 1525 – 9 July 1582), courtesy name Shuda , art name Taiyue , also known as Zhang Jiangling ,

1140-490: A few hundred kilograms per year before 1597 to an average of 3,650 kg per year in 1597–1606. In the most successful year of 1603, the revenue reached 6,650 kg, accounting for approximately 30% of mining. According to estimates by modern Chinese historians Wang Chunyu and Du Wanyan, the mining tax earned the state an additional 3 million liang (110 tons) of silver, with the eunuch commissioners retaining eight or nine times more. Another estimate suggests that in 1596–1606,

1330-526: A joint Korean-Chinese force, including 40,000 Ming soldiers, pushing the Japanese out of most of Korea and forcing them to retreat to the southeast coast by 1593. In 1597, a second Japanese invasion was thwarted, and the suppression of the Yang Yinglong rebellion in southwest China concluded in a few months from 1599 due to Ming forces concentrating there amidst the ongoing war with Japan. Over time,

1520-417: A key role in centralizing the administration, limiting various privileges, and revising land tax exemptions. However, after Zhang's death in 1582, many of his reforms and policies were reversed, and in 1584 his family was stripped of their accumulated property and wealth. It was not until more than half a century later, just before the fall of the Ming dynasty, that he was finally rehabilitated. Zhang Juzheng

1710-417: A key role in centralizing the administration, limiting various privileges, and revising land tax exemptions. However, after Zhang's death in 1582, many of his reforms and policies were reversed, and in 1584 his family was stripped of their accumulated property and wealth. It was not until more than half a century later, just before the fall of the Ming dynasty, that he was finally rehabilitated. Zhang Juzheng

1900-400: A level typically only seen in the early years of the empire. In contrast to the focus on internal self-improvement advocated by the followers of Wang Yangming 's teachings, Zhang presented an alternative program based on pragmatic pursuit of the state's interests. He believed that actions aimed at the good of the state and its people were the correct course of action. His motto was: If it

2090-400: A level typically only seen in the early years of the empire. In contrast to the focus on internal self-improvement advocated by the followers of Wang Yangming 's teachings, Zhang presented an alternative program based on pragmatic pursuit of the state's interests. He believed that actions aimed at the good of the state and its people were the correct course of action. His motto was: If it

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2280-415: A man with a stick was detained at the crown prince's palace. From the subsequent investigation, it was discovered that the man, Zhang Chai ( 張差 ), was mentally unstable and had attempted to use his stick to settle a dispute with two eunuchs. Initially, it was decided that he would be executed to resolve the issue. However, Wang Zhicai ( 王之寀 ), a prison official, intervened and disputed the claim that Zhang Chai

2470-470: A minimum. Despite these changes, taxes remained at their original levels and tax arrears were strictly enforced. As a result of these efforts, Zhang Juzheng was able to accumulate a surplus of income over expenses. This was a significant achievement, as the Ming state typically operated with little to no reserves in the 16th century. However, under Zhang Juzheng's administration, significant sums were saved through improved tax collection and savings. This surplus

2660-470: A minimum. Despite these changes, taxes remained at their original levels and tax arrears were strictly enforced. As a result of these efforts, Zhang Juzheng was able to accumulate a surplus of income over expenses. This was a significant achievement, as the Ming state typically operated with little to no reserves in the 16th century. However, under Zhang Juzheng's administration, significant sums were saved through improved tax collection and savings. This surplus

2850-455: A more aggressive stance in relations with the Mongols overall. On the northern border, the Wanli Emperor tried to replace static defense with a more offensive strategy. Zhang Juzheng died on 9 July 1582. Following his death, he was accused of the common transgressions of high-ranking officials, including bribery, indulgent living, favoring unqualified supporters, abuse of authority, and suppressing dissent. Shortly after, Zhang's supporters among

3040-455: A more aggressive stance in relations with the Mongols overall. On the northern border, the Wanli Emperor tried to replace static defense with a more offensive strategy. Zhang Juzheng died on 9 July 1582. Following his death, he was accused of the common transgressions of high-ranking officials, including bribery, indulgent living, favoring unqualified supporters, abuse of authority, and suppressing dissent. Shortly after, Zhang's supporters among

3230-404: A protective zone for the tombs, but did not cancel the mining operation. He also appointed wealthy individuals from the local gentry to manage the mines and oversee necessary investments. Confucian officials, who were concerned about the erosion of their authority, opposed the emperor's initiative on ideological grounds, as they believed that the state should not engage in business and compete with

3420-443: A regular practice. He was known to be both vulnerable and vengeful, but also generous. However, since the mid-1580s, he began to gain weight and his health deteriorated. In 1589, he cited long-term dizziness, accompanied by fevers, heatstroke, eczema, diarrhea, and general weakness as reasons for his absence from audiences. It is believed that his health issues were linked to his regular use of opium. Zhang Juzheng and his mother raised

3610-468: A result, the efficiency of the Ming state administration improved between 1572 and 1582, reaching a level that had only been achieved in the early days of the empire. Zhang Juzheng implemented a series of reforms during his time in office, including the conversion of tax payments from goods to silver (known as the Single whip reform ), changes to the military peasant system, and between 1572 and 1579, revised

3800-453: A result, the importance of public opinion ( gonglun ; 公論 ) grew and the autocratic power of the monarch was limited. During the Wanli Emperor's reign, one of the issues that was resolved collectively was the appointment of high state dignitaries. At the beginning of his reign, Zhang Juzheng successfully abolished collective debates, giving the emperor the power to appoint high officials based on his own suggestions. However, after Zhang's death,

3990-411: A sign of being an unprincipled profiteer. They also criticized the emperor for hesitating to confirm the succession of his eldest son, considering it unethical and unacceptable. The Donhlin movement promoted a system of government based on Confucian values, particularly the values of the patriarchal family, which were extended to the entire state. They believed that the local administration should be led by

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4180-555: A statesman. As a result, Zhang gradually stopped the Wanli Emperor's calligraphy lessons. From 1583 to 1588, the Wanli Emperor visited several mausoleums near Beijing and paid attention to the training of the palace guard. However, his mother, Zhang Juzheng, and high-ranking officials in Beijing were worried that he would become a ruler similar to the Zhengde Emperor (reigned 1505–1521), and discouraged him from traveling outside

4370-434: A strong centralized government. From 1585, the censors also began to criticize the emperor's private life. This criticism was fueled by the emperor's reluctance to impose harsh punishments, which emboldened the critics. In response, the Wanli Emperor tried to silence their informers among his servants and gradually stopped responding to comments about himself. However, in 1588, the Wanli Emperor's censors accused him of accepting

4560-424: A strong commitment to the well-being of his people, actively combating corruption and striving to improve border defense. His mother, a devout Buddhist, had a significant influence on him, leading him to rarely impose the death penalty. However, one punished official claimed that his leniency was sometimes excessive. Despite this, he was not afraid to use violence against offending officials, although he did not make it

4750-488: A team consisting of eunuchs, Imperial Guard officers, and representatives from the Ministry of Revenue to the outskirts of Beijing to establish new silver mines. He also sent an Imperial Guard officer to Henan province with the same task, and within a few weeks, other officers and eunuchs were sent to Shandong, Shaanxi, Zhejiang, and Shanxi provinces. There was a long-standing tradition of sending eunuchs to various regions, as

4940-466: A unified silver payment, the Single whip reform was officially implemented throughout the empire. As part of administrative reforms, insignificant activities were abolished or limited, the number of Confucian students receiving state support was reduced, and provincial authorities were urged to only require one-third of the previous labor demands. Accommodation services at postal offices were also limited to

5130-413: A unified silver payment, the Single whip reform was officially implemented throughout the empire. As part of administrative reforms, insignificant activities were abolished or limited, the number of Confucian students receiving state support was reduced, and provincial authorities were urged to only require one-third of the previous labor demands. Accommodation services at postal offices were also limited to

5320-514: Is to the benefit of the state, I would do it regardless of life or death. He presented his reforms as a return to the state at the beginning of the dynasty, positioning himself advantageously by citing the laws and decrees of the first Hongwu Emperor as an unassailable source of law. In general, Zhang advocated for the idea that more recent emperors and governments, particularly the Hongwu Emperor, should be seen as political models rather than

5510-450: Is to the benefit of the state, I would do it regardless of life or death. He presented his reforms as a return to the state at the beginning of the dynasty, positioning himself advantageously by citing the laws and decrees of the first Hongwu Emperor as an unassailable source of law. In general, Zhang advocated for the idea that more recent emperors and governments, particularly the Hongwu Emperor, should be seen as political models rather than

5700-659: The Guozijian (or Imperial University), and later at the Hanlin Academy. He never held office outside of Beijing. In 1567, the Jiajing Emperor died. The Senior Grand Secretary at the time, Xu Jie , who had been supporting Zhang's career since the late 1540s, enlisted Zhang Juzheng, a Hanlin academic, to draft the Jiajing Emperor's final edict, known as the "political testament". This was published

5890-410: The Guozijian (or Imperial University), and later at the Hanlin Academy. He never held office outside of Beijing. In 1567, the Jiajing Emperor died. The Senior Grand Secretary at the time, Xu Jie , who had been supporting Zhang's career since the late 1540s, enlisted Zhang Juzheng, a Hanlin academic, to draft the Jiajing Emperor's final edict, known as the "political testament". This was published

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6080-518: The Ministry of Rites and the Censorate , appointing his followers to important positions in central offices and regions. This gave him significant influence in the government, although he did not have the authority to issue orders or demands. Zhang also attempted to redirect the control officials from seeking revenge against each other and instead focus on collecting taxes and suppressing bandits. As

6270-431: The Single whip reform . In order to address this issue, Zhang Juzheng conducted an audit of the accounts and implemented cost-saving measures. One such measure was converting the obligation of supplying horses to the army into a silver tax. Additionally, from 1572 to 1579, the accounts of county offices regarding labor and various fees were revised. With the publication of the revised lists of obligations, now converted into

6460-431: The Single whip reform . In order to address this issue, Zhang Juzheng conducted an audit of the accounts and implemented cost-saving measures. One such measure was converting the obligation of supplying horses to the army into a silver tax. Additionally, from 1572 to 1579, the accounts of county offices regarding labor and various fees were revised. With the publication of the revised lists of obligations, now converted into

6650-620: The Temple of Heaven . Eventually, the accused officials were forced to resign, but so were the organizers of the purge, including Grand Secretary Shen Yiguan, the following year. While the Donglins were successful in dismissing their opponents, they did not have suitable candidates for top positions. And even when a candidate like Li Sancai emerged, he was thwarted in the same way—through an attack on his moral integrity—in Li's case, through bribery. This

6840-747: The 1570s and 1580s, before experiencing a sudden increase in 1587–89 due to famines in southern China. Additionally, wages and labor productivity in the Jiangnan cotton industry also declined. Contemporary commentators observed that while the market economy was thriving, state finances remained poor. Despite the luxurious lifestyle of urban elites, the majority of peasants and day laborers continued to live in poverty. These economic changes also brought about changes in values, particularly in regards to official Confucian doctrines. Zhang Juzheng Zhang Juzheng (26 May 1525 – 9 July 1582), courtesy name Shuda , art name Taiyue , also known as Zhang Jiangling ,

7030-647: The 1630s that Beijing officials began to mention tobacco. Sweet potatoes arrived in China in the early 1590s, possibly even earlier. They were brought by Chinese merchants from the Philippines to Fujian and Guangdong, and may have also been imported from Đại Việt . After a famine in Fujian in 1594, the local governor encouraged and promoted the cultivation of sweet potatoes. These crops quickly took hold in Fujian and Guangdong, and later spread to other regions of China in

7220-595: The 16th century. However, Zhang Juzheng's administration was able to save money and improve tax collection, resulting in considerable reserves. In 1582, the granaries around the capital held nine years' worth of grain, the Taicang treasury ( 太倉庫 ) of the Ministry of Revenue contained 6 million liang (about 223 tons) of silver, the Court of the Imperial Stud ( 太僕寺 ) held another 4 million, and an additional 2.5 million

7410-582: The Censorate opposed this, but the emperor ultimately agreed, sparking further protests from junior officials, including future founders of the Donglin Academy. By the time of the 1599 evaluation, the Donglin opposition had lost its influence, resulting in a more peaceful evaluation. However, in the 1605 evaluation, the Donglin movement once again attacked their opponents, and through Wen Chun ( 溫純 ),

7600-437: The Censorate to enforce stricter discipline within the bureaucracy, redirecting their focus from internal conflicts to tasks such as tax collection and suppression of bandits. To assess the effectiveness of the administration, monthly and semi-annual reports were compiled for each county and prefecture, measuring their success in these areas. This led to a period of peak efficiency in the Ming state administration from 1572 to 1582,

7790-437: The Censorate to enforce stricter discipline within the bureaucracy, redirecting their focus from internal conflicts to tasks such as tax collection and suppression of bandits. To assess the effectiveness of the administration, monthly and semi-annual reports were compiled for each county and prefecture, measuring their success in these areas. This led to a period of peak efficiency in the Ming state administration from 1572 to 1582,

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7980-538: The Directorate of Ceremonial ( 司禮監太監 ; Silijian taijian ), worked with Zhang Juzheng to depose the then Senior Grand Secretary, Gao Gong . The pretext for this was Gao Gong's disrespectful remark to the emperor. As a result, Zhang Juzheng became the head of the Grand Secretariat. Zhang Juzheng held onto his position of power for a decade, until his death in 1582. During his rule, he relied heavily on

8170-410: The Directorate of Ceremonial ( 司禮監太監 ; Silijian taijian ), worked with Zhang Juzheng to depose the then Senior Grand Secretary, Gao Gong . The pretext for this was Gao Gong's disrespectful remark to the emperor. As a result, Zhang Juzheng became the head of the Grand Secretariat. Zhang Juzheng held onto his position of power for a decade, until his death in 1582. During his rule, he relied heavily on

8360-430: The Donglin movement believed that living an exemplary life was essential for cultivating moral character, and they did not differentiate between private and public morality. They believed that one's moral cultivation should begin with the mind/heart, then extend to one's home, surroundings, and public life. This belief was exemplified by Gao Panlong. However, they viewed Zhang Juzheng's decision to not mourn for his father as

8550-461: The Donglin movement to claim that they were not pursuing selfish goals, but were united by universal and true moral principles. Although the leaders of the movement did not return to office until the end of the Wanli Emperor's reign, it had a significant influence among junior officials in Beijing. They opposed the concentration of power in the Grand Secretariat and the Ministries, advocating for

8740-496: The Forbidden City and pursuing his interests in the military, horse riding, and archery. Under their pressure, the Wanli Emperor stopped leaving Beijing after 1588 and stopped participating in public sacrifices after 1591. He also canceled the morning audience (held before dawn) and the evening study of Confucianism (after sunset). In his youth, the Wanli Emperor was obedient to his mother and showed respect towards eunuchs and

8930-507: The Grand Secretaries. However, as he grew older, he became cynical and skeptical towards rituals and bureaucrats. His opposition to ritualized royal duties linked him to his grandfather the Jiajing Emperor (reigned 1521–1567), but he lacked the Jiajing Emperor's decisiveness and flamboyance. Instead of the Jiajing Emperor's passion for Taoism, the Wanli Emperor leaned towards Buddhism. In the first period of his rule, he displayed

9120-418: The Ming dynasty were also affected. The drought and floods continued until 1620. In response to the famine, local authorities did not rely on state reserve granaries, which had mostly disappeared, but instead called on the wealthy to purchase and import grain. Officials only intervened by setting maximum prices. This meant that the state did not have to maintain a stockpile of grain when it could be purchased on

9310-450: The Ministry of War. The emperor also shared Zhang Juzheng's distrust of local and regional authorities and opposition to factional politics. Like Zhang Juzheng, the Wanli Emperor preferred to solve real problems rather than engage in "empty talk" and factional conflicts. After Zhang's death, a coalition formed between the emperor's mother, the Grand Secretaries, the Ministry of Personnel, and the Censorate to ensure efficient administration of

9500-679: The Spanish colonies in the Americas shipped 1,000 tons of silver across the Pacific, with 900 tons ending up in China. However, during this same time period, Japan sent 6–7 times more silver to China. This influx of foreign silver coincided with the commercialization of the economy, which led to growth in industries such as cotton and silk, as well as the growth of cities and trade. However, this commercialization did not result in prosperity for all. Land and rice prices remained stagnant, and even fell in

9690-407: The Wanli Emperor to be modest in material possessions and exemplary in behavior, which he saw as a humiliation that he never forgot. However, upon learning that Zhang Juzheng himself lived in luxury, the Wanli Emperor was deeply affected. This display of double standards hardened his attitude towards officials and made him cynical about moral challenges. Two years after Zhang Juzheng's death, his family

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9880-414: The Wanli Emperor took the unprecedented step of summoning all civilian and military officials employed in Beijing and appearing before them with his family–the crown prince, his sons and daughter. He scolded the officials for doubting his relationship with the crown prince, whom he trusted and relied on. The crown prince himself confirmed their close relationship and requested an end to the matter. Ultimately,

10070-499: The Wanli Emperor's actions as an "economic war against the wealthy". After the war in Korea reignited in 1597, the emperor made increased efforts to raise additional funds. Due to his lack of trust in the gentry, he began to establish an alternative eunuch regional administration. Gradually, the mining tax commissioners ( kuangshi ; 礦使 ; literally 'mining envoy') gained control over the collection of trade and other taxes, in addition to

10260-470: The Wanli era were the periods 1586–88 and 1615–17. The drought-induced famine of 1587–88 was the first major famine since the mid-1540s, followed by an epidemic. According to the historian of demography Zhao Shuqi, half of the people in northern China died during this time, causing the population of Shanxi, Zhili, and Henan provinces to decrease from 25.6 million in 1580 to 12.8 million in 1588. The Yangtze Valley

10450-569: The Zhang government was disjointed, with officials in each province making decisions based on their own judgment. For example, in Zhejiang, officials attempted to increase the use of coins by converting soldiers' salaries into coins, which ultimately led to a rebellion in Hangzhou in 1582. In Jiangxi, private exchange offices were banned, which hindered the circulation of new coins. In some provinces,

10640-405: The Zhang government was disjointed, with officials in each province making decisions based on their own judgment. For example, in Zhejiang, officials attempted to increase the use of coins by converting soldiers' salaries into coins, which ultimately led to a rebellion in Hangzhou in 1582. In Jiangxi, private exchange offices were banned, which hindered the circulation of new coins. In some provinces,

10830-435: The accounts of county offices regarding corvée labor and various fees and surcharges. In 1580–1582, a new cadastre was also created. These reforms were formalized across the empire with the publication of revised lists of taxpayers' duties, now converted to a unified payment in silver. As part of the administrative reforms, unnecessary activities were abolished or limited, the number of Confucian students receiving state support

11020-516: The administration's responsibility for tax collection. In times of military or other serious issues, he sought advice from responsible officials in Ministries and the Censorate, and was not hesitant to appoint capable individuals outside of the traditional hierarchy to handle the situation. However, he had a lack of trust in the regular administration and often found ways to bypass it. While he may have left some memoranda unanswered, he actively responded to others. Despite leaving some high positions vacant,

11210-464: The authorities were able to function under the guidance of deputies and the country's administration continued to run smoothly. Assistance was provided to those affected by famine, rebellions were suppressed, border conflicts were resolved, and infrastructure was maintained. Hundreds of memoranda arrived on the Wanli Emperor's desk daily, but he only read and decided on a handful of them. The rest were handled by commissioned eunuchs, who were equipped with

11400-457: The bounds of existing legislation, were seen by his critics as an abuse of power to promote his followers and exert illegitimate pressure on officials. However, open criticism of Zhang was rare until his father's death in 1577. According to the law, Zhang was supposed to leave his office to mourn, and it was proposed that Xu Jie, who retired in 1568, be recalled to take charge of the Grand Secretariat. Zhang requested to be relieved of his duties, but

11590-457: The bounds of existing legislation, were seen by his critics as an abuse of power to promote his followers and exert illegitimate pressure on officials. However, open criticism of Zhang was rare until his father's death in 1577. According to the law, Zhang was supposed to leave his office to mourn, and it was proposed that Xu Jie, who retired in 1568, be recalled to take charge of the Grand Secretariat. Zhang requested to be relieved of his duties, but

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11780-419: The bureaucrats—wanted the other to behave properly, but their efforts were unsuccessful and only served to paralyze each other. As a result of these disputes at the center, the state's control over the countryside weakened. In 1586, the issue of succession arose when the emperor elevated his favorite concubine, Lady Zheng , to the rank of "Imperial Noble Consort" ( Huang Guifei ), placing her only one rank below

11970-406: The business, trade, and mining industries provided opportunities for them to earn income. However, within a few days, this initiative was met with opposition from local authorities in Beijing, who raised concerns about the potential threat to imperial tombs in the mountains near Beijing and the difficulty of recruiting miners who were still engaged in illegal mining. In response, the emperor designated

12160-600: The close relationship between the commanders of the Embroidered Uniform Guard , specifically Liu Shouyou and Shi Jishu, and Zhang. These commanders owed their careers to Zhang, and in return, in 1584, they assisted the family in hiding a portion of their property. As a result, a significant amount of the confiscated property ended up in their own collections. Zhang Juzheng's reforms were only partially successful. While he did support General Qi Jiguang in implementing new recruitment, training, and tactics, he

12350-522: The close relationship between the commanders of the Embroidered Uniform Guard , specifically Liu Shouyou and Shi Jishu, and Zhang. These commanders owed their careers to Zhang, and in return, in 1584, they assisted the family in hiding a portion of their property. As a result, a significant amount of the confiscated property ended up in their own collections. Zhang Juzheng's reforms were only partially successful. While he did support General Qi Jiguang in implementing new recruitment, training, and tactics, he

12540-545: The country requesting assistance starting in the autumn of 1615. The situation was particularly dire in Shandong, where 900,000 people were starving and the civil administration was beginning to fall apart due to food shortages. The famine spread from northern China to the Yangtze River basin by the end of the year, and the following year it affected Guangdong. By the following year, the northwest and southwest regions of

12730-575: The country. Tobacco was commercially grown in Fujian and exported to the Philippines in the early 17th century, and cultivation began in Guangdong. Initially, tobacco was popular among the poor in Jiangnan , but eventually became a habit among the elite. By the beginning of the Qing period, it was reported that "every official, soldier, and eight out of ten peasants" in the region smoked. It was not until

12920-662: The day after the emperor's death and orchestrated the accession of the emperor's son, the Longqing Emperor , to the throne. Soon after, Zhang was promoted to Grand Secretary. During the Longqing Emperor's reign, Zhang's influence continued to grow. In 1572, shortly after the Longqing Emperorg's death and the accession of his son, the Wanli Emperor , to the throne, the eunuch Feng Bao, head of

13110-399: The day after the emperor's death and orchestrated the accession of the emperor's son, the Longqing Emperor , to the throne. Soon after, Zhang was promoted to Grand Secretary. During the Longqing Emperor's reign, Zhang's influence continued to grow. In 1572, shortly after the Longqing Emperorg's death and the accession of his son, the Wanli Emperor , to the throne, the eunuch Feng Bao, head of

13300-443: The debates were reinstated and the emperor's power was once again limited. Despite this, Wanli attempted to overcome these restrictions, such as in 1591 when he announced his decision to appoint the current Minister of Rites, Zhao Zhigao, as Senior Grand Secretary without consulting with other officials. This decision was met with criticism from Minister of Personnel, Lu Guangzu, who argued that it violated proper procedure and undermined

13490-533: The dismissal of 264 officials in the capital and 67 in Nanjing, which was a significant purge considering that during the late Ming period, there were over a thousand officials serving in the central government in Beijing and almost four hundred in Nanjing. In 1587, only 31 jinshi were removed by Gand Secretary Shen Shixing, but none from the Ministry of Personnel, the Hanlin Academy, and the Censorate, where factional disputes were common. However, censors also demanded

13680-401: The dismissal of the Minister of Works He Qiming ( 何起鳴 ), apparently for political reasons (as a supporter of Zhang Juzheng), just a month after his appointment, which angered the emperor. The minister was forced to leave, and the emperor also dismissed the head of the Censorate and transferred the responsible inspectors to the provinces. This sparked protests against "the emperor's interference in

13870-496: The division of the province into several currency zones. Zhang's opponents argued that the state should not interfere in market and currency affairs, and should not impose a currency that the people did not want. On the other hand, supporters of state coinage argued that while silver may serve as a store of value, coins are essential as a medium of exchange. They believed that even if the production of coins resulted in losses, it would ultimately lead to economic recovery and profit in

14060-496: The division of the province into several currency zones. Zhang's opponents argued that the state should not interfere in market and currency affairs, and should not impose a currency that the people did not want. On the other hand, supporters of state coinage argued that while silver may serve as a store of value, coins are essential as a medium of exchange. They believed that even if the production of coins resulted in losses, it would ultimately lead to economic recovery and profit in

14250-436: The dominance of civilian dignitaries over military leaders. He appointed capable military leaders such as Qi Jiguang, Wang Chonggu ( 王崇古 ), Tan Lun, Liang Menglong ( 梁夢龍 ), and Li Chengliang to positions of responsibility. Additionally, he implemented a combination of defensive and offensive measures to strengthen border defenses and fostered peaceful relations with neighboring countries by opening border markets, particularly in

14440-464: The early 15th century. The emperor held great respect and appreciation for his Grand Secretary. However, as time passed, various factions within the government openly opposed Zhang, causing his influential position in the government and at court to become a burden for the monarch. In 1582, Zhang died and within months, the emperor dismissed Feng Bao. He then gained discretion and made significant changes to Zhang's administrative arrangements. The Wanli era

14630-511: The early years of the Wanli Emperor's reign, Zhang Juzheng played a crucial role as the emperor's mentor and de facto ruler of China due to the emperor's immaturity. His decisive foreign and economic policies led to one of the most successful periods in the Ming history. Influenced by the Mongol raids of the 1650s, Zhang Juzheng aimed to "enrich the country and strengthen the army" through legalistic methods rather than Confucian principles. He played

14820-458: The early years of the Wanli Emperor's reign, Zhang Juzheng played a crucial role as the emperor's mentor and de facto ruler of China due to the emperor's immaturity. His decisive foreign and economic policies led to one of the most successful periods in the Ming history. Influenced by the Mongol raids of the 1650s, Zhang Juzheng aimed to "enrich the country and strengthen the army" through legalistic methods rather than Confucian principles. He played

15010-405: The earthquake were felt as far as Shanghai and inland areas such as Huguang and Guangxi. The worst individual disasters were the floods in the north in 1585 followed by a major epidemic the following year; a severe drought across the country in 1589; droughts in Fujian and the north in the second decade of the 17th century; and finally, widespread floods in 1613. Overall, the most difficult years of

15200-494: The educated gentry, who would guide the people. In this context, the technical aspects of governance were considered unimportant and any issues with the organization of administration were addressed by promoting Confucian virtues, preaching morality, and emphasizing self-sacrifice for higher goals. Disputes within the movement centered around moral values and qualities, with opponents being accused of immoral behavior rather than professional incompetence. The emphasis on morality allowed

15390-440: The emperor again defended himself by saying that princes were traditionally taught by eunuchs. In 1589, the emperor agreed to appoint Zhu Changluo as his successor. However, this decision was opposed by Lady Zheng, causing a wave of controversy and, two years later, even arrests when a pamphlet accusing her of conspiring with high officials against the emperor's eldest son spread in Beijing. In an attempt to improve her public image,

15580-509: The emperor and his followers, while pro-government officials were divided based on their regional origins. In the final years of the Wanli Emperor's reign, the Jurchens grew stronger on the northeastern frontiers and posed a significant threat. In 1619, they defeated the Ming armies in the Battle of Sarhu and captured part of Liaodong . Zhu Yijun was born on 4 September 1563 to Zhu Zaiji ,

15770-494: The emperor decided to execute Zhang Chai and the two eunuchs involved in the case. However, officials from the Ministry of Justice opposed the execution and demanded further investigation. A compromise was reached through the mediation of the Grand Secretaries—Zhang Chai was executed the following day, while the suspected eunuchs were to be interrogated. The interrogation did take place, but both eunuchs remained under

15960-429: The emperor disregarded the protests of officials against the mining tax and the actions of the eunuchs, he closely monitored the reports and proposals of the eunuchs and responded promptly, often on the same day they arrived in Beijing. In 1599, he dispatched eunuchs to major ports, where they took over the powers of official civil administration. The emperor finally resolved disputes with officials defending their powers in

16150-664: The emperor gave in and appointed his eldest son, Zhu Changluo (later the Taichang Emperor ), as crown prince in October 1601. In 1596, the Wanli Emperor attempted to establish a parallel administration composed of eunuchs, separate from the officials who had traditionally governed the empire. However, this effort was abandoned in 1606. As a result, the governance of the country remained in the hands of Confucian intellectuals, who were often embroiled in disputes with each other. The opposition Donglin movement continued to criticize

16340-454: The emperor grew increasingly disillusioned with the constant moralizing attacks and counterattacks from officials, causing him to become increasingly isolated. In the 1580s and 1590s, he attempted to promote his third son, Zhu Changxun (the son of his favorite concubine, Lady Zheng ), as crown prince, but faced strong opposition from officials. This led to ongoing conflicts between the emperor and his ministers for over fifteen years. Eventually,

16530-528: The emperor had expected. In Beijing and Jingzhou, properties and houses were seized, but only a relatively small amount of gold and silver was discovered. In Beijing, 2,400 liang (89.5 kg) of gold and 107,700 liang (4 tons) of silver were found, while in Jingzhou, 200,000 liang (7.5 tons) of silver and 110 boxes of valuables were seized. No art objects, such as paintings or calligraphy, were found, despite Zhang's renowned collection. This can be attributed to

16720-472: The emperor had expected. In Beijing and Jingzhou, properties and houses were seized, but only a relatively small amount of gold and silver was discovered. In Beijing, 2,400 liang (89.5 kg) of gold and 107,700 liang (4 tons) of silver were found, while in Jingzhou, 200,000 liang (7.5 tons) of silver and 110 boxes of valuables were seized. No art objects, such as paintings or calligraphy, were found, despite Zhang's renowned collection. This can be attributed to

16910-609: The emperor made efforts to portray Lady Zheng in a favorable light. This reached its peak in 1594 when he supported her efforts to aid the victims of a famine in Henan. He ordered all Beijing officials of the fifth rank and above to contribute to her cause from their incomes. The failure to appoint a successor sparked frequent protests from both opposition-minded officials and high dignitaries, such as Grand Secretaries Shen Shixing (in office 1578–91) and Wang Xijue (in office 1584–91 and 1593–94). The rights of Zhu Changluo were also supported by

17100-412: The emperor to agree. While it was not unprecedented for officials to stay in office during mourning, there was widespread criticism for disrespecting parents. This criticism was based on the belief that a person who is not a faithful son cannot be a faithful subject, and someone who cannot properly rule themselves cannot rule others. Despite punishing the most vocal critics with beatings, Zhang's prestige

17290-412: The emperor to agree. While it was not unprecedented for officials to stay in office during mourning, there was widespread criticism for disrespecting parents. This criticism was based on the belief that a person who is not a faithful son cannot be a faithful subject, and someone who cannot properly rule themselves cannot rule others. Despite punishing the most vocal critics with beatings, Zhang's prestige

17480-430: The emperor's authority at the expense of local interests by streamlining the administration and strengthening the military. This included closing local academies and placing the investigating censors under the Grand Secretariat's control. Zhang had the support of eunuchs, particularly Feng Bao, and the emperor's mother, who acted as regent. He was able to handpick his colleagues in the Grand Secretariat and informally control

17670-411: The emperor's eunuchs did not possess. To address this issue, the emperor appointed wealthy local individuals as mine managers, who were responsible for paying the mining tax and delivering the silver, regardless of the profitability of the mine. As a result, the mining of silver shifted from underground to the coffers of the wealthy, effectively taxing them. American historian Harry Miller bluntly described

17860-553: The empire, the state's finances remained in a poor state. While wealthy merchants and gentry enjoyed a life of splendor, the majority of peasants and day laborers continued to live in poverty. The closing decade of the 16th century was marked by three major campaigns. A large rebellion in Ningxia was quelled by a Ming force of 40,000 soldiers by October 1592, allowing them to shift their focus to Korea. Concurrently, Toyotomi Hideyoshi invaded Korea with 200,000 soldiers, leading to

18050-447: The empire, which was already challenging due to its size and population. The tendency to equate personal virtue with administrative talent led to morality becoming the main target in factional disputes. The regular evaluation of the capital officials was often used to eliminate opponents. In 1577, Zhang Juzheng used this type of evaluation for the first time, resulting in the removal of 51 of his opponents. Another evaluation in 1581 led to

18240-515: The empire. This alliance was opposed by the opposition, who deemed it illegal. However, with the absence of a strong statesman in the Grand Secretariat, there was no one to bring the administration under control. Both the emperor and opposition officials feared the concentration of power in the Grand Secretariat and worked to prevent it. From 1582 to 1591, the Grand Secretariat was briefly led by Zhang Siwei ( 張四維 ) and then for eight years by Shen Shixing . Shen Shixing attempted to find compromises between

18430-401: The empress and above all other concubines, including Lady Wang , mother of the emperor's eldest son Zhu Changluo (1582–1620). This made it clear to those around him that he favored the son of Lady Zheng, Zhu Changxun (1586–1641)—his third son (the second had died in infancy)—over Zhu Changluo as his successor. This caused a division among the bureaucracy; some officials defended the rights of

18620-419: The empress and the emperor's mother. However, it was not until 1601, after facing pressure from another round of protests and requests, that the Wanli Emperor finally appointed Zhu Changluo as crown prince. At the same time, Zhu Changxun was given the title of Prince of Fu, but he was kept in Beijing instead of being sent to the province as originally planned when he turned eighteen in 1604. This fueled rumors that

18810-443: The export of coins was prohibited, while in others, only coins minted within the province were allowed to circulate, often for the benefit of corrupt officials involved in private coin production. Official attempts to introduce new coins into circulation by selling them at a discount only benefited money changers, who bought the coins cheaply from the government and sold them at the regular market price. Attempts by some officials to ban

19000-443: The export of coins was prohibited, while in others, only coins minted within the province were allowed to circulate, often for the benefit of corrupt officials involved in private coin production. Official attempts to introduce new coins into circulation by selling them at a discount only benefited money changers, who bought the coins cheaply from the government and sold them at the regular market price. Attempts by some officials to ban

19190-512: The fairness and credibility of the government's decision-making processes. Lu and others believed that collective consideration of candidates in open public debate was a more impartial and fair method, as it eliminated individual bias and ignorance. In response to the criticism, the emperor partially retreated and promised to follow the proper procedure in the future. However, he continued to occasionally appoint high dignitaries without collective debate, which always sparked protests from officials. In

19380-478: The fields were measured, their borders were marked, their size was calculated, and the owners and tenants were recorded. Cadastral maps were also compiled during this time. Due to Zhang's early death, there was no final summarization of the data for the entire country. However, at the local level, the work served its purpose by unifying units of measurement and increasing the area of registered fields by including previously unregistered areas. Zhang's cadastre served as

19570-478: The fields were measured, their borders were marked, their size was calculated, and the owners and tenants were recorded. Cadastral maps were also compiled during this time. Due to Zhang's early death, there was no final summarization of the data for the entire country. However, at the local level, the work served its purpose by unifying units of measurement and increasing the area of registered fields by including previously unregistered areas. Zhang's cadastre served as

19760-420: The first son based on legal primogeniture, while others aligned themselves with Lady Zheng's son. In response to the widespread support for the eldest son's rights among officials, the emperor postponed his decision. He justified the delay by stating that he was waiting for a son from the empress. When asked to appoint Zhu Changluo as the crown prince at the age of eight so that his education could officially begin,

19950-480: The foundation for later Ming and Qing cadastres and was only surpassed in completeness and detail by modern cadastres. Zhang aimed to increase the welfare of the people by expanding the currency supply. However, he was concerned about the potential negative impact of fluctuations in imports on the economy, and therefore deemed silver to be an insufficient medium of currency. To address this issue, he established mints in Beijing, Nanjing, and eventually Yunnan in 1576. In

20140-480: The foundation for later Ming and Qing cadastres and was only surpassed in completeness and detail by modern cadastres. Zhang aimed to increase the welfare of the people by expanding the currency supply. However, he was concerned about the potential negative impact of fluctuations in imports on the economy, and therefore deemed silver to be an insufficient medium of currency. To address this issue, he established mints in Beijing, Nanjing, and eventually Yunnan in 1576. In

20330-478: The fourteen-year-old emperor decided that he could not do without him and canceled his mourning. The official reason given for Zhang's indispensability was the emperor's upcoming wedding. However, Zhang's supporters, and perhaps Zhang himself, feared that his prolonged absence would weaken their political positions. Although the emperor repeatedly rejected Zhang's resignations, there was a general consensus that if Zhang truly wanted to leave, he would be able to convince

20520-478: The fourteen-year-old emperor decided that he could not do without him and canceled his mourning. The official reason given for Zhang's indispensability was the emperor's upcoming wedding. However, Zhang's supporters, and perhaps Zhang himself, feared that his prolonged absence would weaken their political positions. Although the emperor repeatedly rejected Zhang's resignations, there was a general consensus that if Zhang truly wanted to leave, he would be able to convince

20710-411: The government did not view it as a threat. The academy attracted hundreds of intellectuals and soon became a significant intellectual center in all of China. It also inspired the creation of similar centers in nearby prefectures, forming a network of associations and circles. According to the academy, they was a group of officials who advocated for strict adherence to Confucian morality. The supporters of

20900-425: The government, despite lacking the authority to give orders or make demands due to his position. Instead, he could only issue orders or instructions in the name of the emperor or informally. He sought to consolidate the power of the central government and elevate the role of the emperor by streamlining the administration and bolstering the military, often at the expense of local interests. He wielded his influence in

21090-425: The government, despite lacking the authority to give orders or make demands due to his position. Instead, he could only issue orders or instructions in the name of the emperor or informally. He sought to consolidate the power of the central government and elevate the role of the emperor by streamlining the administration and bolstering the military, often at the expense of local interests. He wielded his influence in

21280-541: The happenings in the empire. Zhang Juzheng assigned eight teachers to educate the Wanli Emperor in Confucianism, history, and calligraphy. The history lessons focused on teaching him about good and bad examples of governance, and Zhang Juzheng personally compiled a collection of historical stories for the emperor to learn from. However, the Wanli Emperor's fascination with calligraphy concerned Zhang, who feared that this "empty pastime" would distract him from his duties as

21470-501: The head of the Censorate, and Yang Shiqiao ( 楊時喬 ), Vice Minister of Personnel, demanded the dismissal of 207 officials from the capital and 73 from Nanjing. However, the emperor did not agree to such a large-scale purge and explicitly stated that several of the accused officials should remain in their positions. This was an unprecedented refusal and sparked sharp criticism, leading to a months-long debate filled with mutual recriminations. Even Heaven seemed to intervene when lightning struck

21660-410: The heir to the throne of the Ming dynasty, and one of his concubines, Lady Li. He had two older brothers, both of whom died in early childhood before 1563, and a younger brother, Zhu Yiliu ( 朱翊鏐 ; 1568–1614), who was created Prince of Lu in 1571. Zhu Zaiji became emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1567 and reigned as the Longqing Emperor, but he died five years later on 5 July 1572. Zhu Yijun then ascended

21850-427: The imperial "red brush". These eunuchs mostly confirmed the recommendations and proposals of the Grand Secretaries, but occasionally made different decisions if they believed the emperor would not agree with the Grand Secretaries' proposals. Despite his desire to reform the civil service, the emperor was unable to do so, and he also did not want to simply confirm the decisions of the officials. Both sides—the emperor and

22040-418: The imperial palace), worked with Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng to depose Gao Gong. Zhang Juzheng then took over as head of the Grand Secretariat and remained in power for ten years until his death in 1582. In response to the Mongol raids in the 1550s, Zhang aimed to "enrich the country and strengthen the army", using legalistic methods rather than Confucian ones. He sought to centralize the government and increase

22230-455: The importation of coins from neighboring provinces through traders. However, these coins were often of low quality and were privately (and illegally) produced. Additionally, there was a lack of money changers in Jiangxi, making it difficult for people to obtain the new coins. A similar situation existed in Fujian, where silver was already widely used as a form of currency. The monetary policy of

22420-400: The importation of coins from neighboring provinces through traders. However, these coins were often of low quality and were privately (and illegally) produced. Additionally, there was a lack of money changers in Jiangxi, making it difficult for people to obtain the new coins. A similar situation existed in Fujian, where silver was already widely used as a form of currency. The monetary policy of

22610-413: The independence of the Censorate". In the 1593 evaluation, the Donglins utilized their positions in the Ministry of Personnel and the Censorate to eliminate the followers of the Grand Secretaries. The newly appointed Senior Grand Secretary, Wang Xijue, was unable to support his party members. He did, however, request the dismissal of several organizers of the purge during additional evaluations. The head of

22800-438: The independence of the Censorate. They also called for limitations on the activities of eunuchs within the imperial palace. Their stance on succession was based on principles, arguing that the ruler does not have the right to unilaterally change fundamental laws of the empire, including succession rules. However, their emphasis on decentralization and prioritizing morality and ideology over pragmatism hindered effective governance of

22990-487: The individual's recklessness through the survey. The reform of civil servant evaluations resulted in their careers being dependent on their reputation, as determined by the ministry and censors through anonymous surveys filled out by their colleagues. This shift, along with collective debates, elevated the significance of public opinion during the Wanli Emperor's reign, leading to intense public debates and conflicts as groups of officials vied for control of public opinion while

23180-459: The late Ming period, there was a widespread belief that public opinion held more weight than individual opinions. This was evident in the way political and administrative issues were addressed, with decision-making being based on gathering information and opinions from officials through questionnaires and voting ballots. This also had an impact on the evaluation of officials, as their performance began to be judged not only by their superiors but also by

23370-413: The long run. Zhang Juzheng not only rejected the notion that military affairs were less important than civilian ones, but also challenged the dominance of civilian dignitaries over military leaders. He strategically placed capable military leaders, such as Qi Jiguang , Wang Chonggu ( 王崇古 ), Tan Lun , Liang Menglong ( 梁夢龍 ), and Li Chengliang , in positions of responsibility. Additionally, he implemented

23560-413: The long run. Zhang Juzheng not only rejected the notion that military affairs were less important than civilian ones, but also challenged the dominance of civilian dignitaries over military leaders. He strategically placed capable military leaders, such as Qi Jiguang , Wang Chonggu ( 王崇古 ), Tan Lun , Liang Menglong ( 梁夢龍 ), and Li Chengliang , in positions of responsibility. Additionally, he implemented

23750-406: The main criteria for evaluation and that no one should be accused of criminal offenses based on unverified information from anonymous sources. Sun defended himself by stating that solid evidence against the individual was not necessary, as they were not being accused or standing trial. He believed that in evaluating officials, it was sufficient for him to impartially discover the widely held opinion of

23940-517: The major cities, high-quality coins with a copper content of 93.8% were produced, while in the provinces, the coins had a slightly lower copper content but a higher weight. Additionally, Zhang attempted to gain control of the currency from money changers by producing his own coins. Mints were opened in both northern provinces where coins were commonly used, such as Shanxi, Shandong, and Henan, as well as in provinces where they were not as commonly used, such as Shaanxi, Jiangxi, Fujian, and Huguang. However,

24130-517: The major cities, high-quality coins with a copper content of 93.8% were produced, while in the provinces, the coins had a slightly lower copper content but a higher weight. Additionally, Zhang attempted to gain control of the currency from money changers by producing his own coins. Mints were opened in both northern provinces where coins were commonly used, such as Shanxi, Shandong, and Henan, as well as in provinces where they were not as commonly used, such as Shaanxi, Jiangxi, Fujian, and Huguang. However,

24320-510: The market. However, even in fertile years, regions such as Jiangnan still struggled due to their dependence on rice imports. In the first third of the 16th century, Europeans brought new agricultural crops to China, including maize , sweet potatoes , and groundnuts . These crops were documented to have been cultivated in China during the second third of the 16th century. During the Wanli era, other originally American species such as tobacco and sweet potatoes were introduced and spread throughout

24510-413: The mine commissioners supplied the state with at least 5.96 million liang of silver, but kept 40–50 million for themselves. While officials commonly profited from their positions, eunuchs were known to pocket a significantly larger portion of the collected funds. At the turn of the years 1605/1606, the emperor realized that not only gentry officials, but also eunuchs, were corrupt. He also recognized that

24700-440: The mining tax ( kuangshui ; 礦稅 ) which was officially approved by the emperor in 1598–1599. The emperor granted these commissioners the authority to supervise the county and prefectural authorities, and even the grand coordinators. As a result, the imperial commissioners no longer had to consider the opinions of local civil or military authorities. Instead, they could assign tasks to them and even imprison them if they resisted. While

24890-457: The mining tax was causing more harm than good. As a result, in January 1606, he made the decision to abandon the attempt at alternative administration and issued an edict to abolish state mining operations. Tax collection was then returned to the traditional authorities. The gentry not only suffered financially from the eunuchs' actions, but also lost control over the financial transactions between

25080-451: The monarch and the bureaucracy, while also tolerating criticism and respecting the decisions of ministries and the censors. However, his efforts to create a cooperative and cohesive atmosphere were unsuccessful. In 1590, the Grand Secretariat's alliance with the leadership of the Ministry of Personnel and the Censorate fell apart, causing Shen Shixing to lose much of his influence. He was eventually forced to resign in 1591 due to his approach to

25270-533: The monarch's authority and the weight of his voice declined. In 1604, Gu Xiancheng , with the suggestion of his friend Gao Panlong ( 高攀龍 ), established the Donglin Academy in Wuxi , located in Jiangnan . The academy served as a hub for discussions and meetings. With the support of local authorities and the gentry, the academy quickly gained prominence. As the founders had been out of politics for many years,

25460-408: The northern border, Qi Jiguang, to maintain an armed peace. This decision ultimately led to a reduction in the northern border army and the return of surplus soldiers to their family farms. The Wanli Emperor's more aggressive military policy was based on Zhang's successes. After Zhang Juzheng's death, his supporters were removed from office, but the emperor protected the officers. They then adopted

25650-408: The northern border, Qi Jiguang, to maintain an armed peace. This decision ultimately led to a reduction in the northern border army and the return of surplus soldiers to their family farms. The Wanli Emperor's more aggressive military policy was based on Zhang's successes. After Zhang Juzheng's death, his supporters were removed from office, but the emperor protected the officers. They then adopted

25840-519: The northwest also caused sandstorms, which covered Beijing in clouds of dust in 1618 and 1619. The most significant natural disaster during the Wanli era was the earthquake that struck China in December 1604. Its epicenter was located 30 km off the coast of Fujian, resulting in the destruction of the port cities of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, as well as damage to buildings in Moon Port. The effects of

26030-458: The northwest. Zhang Juzheng's actions were within the bounds of existing legislation, but critics viewed them as an abuse of power to promote his followers and exert illegitimate pressure on officials. However, open criticism was rare until his father's death in 1577. According to the law, Zhang was supposed to leave office due to mourning, but the emperor chose to keep him in office. This was not unprecedented, but criticism of disrespect for parents

26220-428: The officials were dismissed, and in the beginning of 1583, Feng Bao also lost his position. However, the emperor protected the officers, which boosted their morale to a level not seen since the mid-15th century. The Wanli Emperor's more aggressive military policy was based on Zhang's successes, as he attempted to replace static defense with more offensive tactics and appointed only officials with military experience to lead

26410-445: The officials were removed from their positions, and in early 1583, his former ally Feng Bao was relocated to a lower-ranking position in Nanjing, where he eventually died. The emperor, whom Zhang led to a modest life, was deeply affected by his life of luxury. Zhang Juzheng's double morality angered him, for which the entire Zhang's family paid the price, causing the emperor to look suspiciously at all officials. In April 1584, Zhang

26600-445: The officials were removed from their positions, and in early 1583, his former ally Feng Bao was relocated to a lower-ranking position in Nanjing, where he eventually died. The emperor, whom Zhang led to a modest life, was deeply affected by his life of luxury. Zhang Juzheng's double morality angered him, for which the entire Zhang's family paid the price, causing the emperor to look suspiciously at all officials. In April 1584, Zhang

26790-478: The people and the state. This loss of control was a significant blow to their perceived dominance over the people. It was a humiliating experience and disrupted the natural order of things. However, by 1606, the gentry regained their dominance over both the people and the state as a whole. In the Ming administrative system, ultimate authority rested with the monarch. However, it required an energetic and competent ruler to effectively carry out this power. In cases where

26980-452: The people for profit. They also objected to the emperor's involvement in the mining industry, as it required the employment of miners who were considered untrustworthy and derogatorily referred to as "mining bandits". Another reason for the gentry and officials opposition was the fact that eunuchs, a rival power group, were in charge of the mining operations. Furthermore, mining for silver was a complex task that required expertise and skills that

27170-664: The previous half century. However, the weather was also drier, leading to occasional flooding. This trend was particularly evident in the years 1585–1589 and 1614–1619, which experienced severe droughts. On the other hand, cold winters were recorded in 1595–1598 and 1616–1620, resulting in an increase in snowy landscapes depicted in Chinese paintings. In addition to these weather patterns, China also faced other natural disasters during this time period. In 1586, extensive flooding occurred, while locust raids destroyed crops in 1587, 1609, and 1615–1619, following periods of drought. Deforestation in

27360-438: The price of state coinage rose by approximately 70% due to a shortage of copper. This resulted in an increase in the cost of coinage from 0.9-0.98 liang (37.3 grams) of silver per 1,000 coins (officially costing just 1 liang ) to 1.35 liang. In 1579, Zhang acknowledged the failure of the attempt to introduce coins. Although coins minted in Beijing were accepted by the market, private coins of poor quality continued to dominate in

27550-438: The price of state coinage rose by approximately 70% due to a shortage of copper. This resulted in an increase in the cost of coinage from 0.9-0.98 liang (37.3 grams) of silver per 1,000 coins (officially costing just 1 liang ) to 1.35 liang. In 1579, Zhang acknowledged the failure of the attempt to introduce coins. Although coins minted in Beijing were accepted by the market, private coins of poor quality continued to dominate in

27740-447: The proposal of Minister of War Tan Lun for a pre-emptive strike against them. Instead, he ordered Qi Jiguang , commander of the northeastern border, to maintain an armed peace. This decision not only allowed for a reduction in the border army, but also resulted in the return of surplus soldiers to their family farms. Zhang Juzheng not only rejected the notion that military affairs were less important than civilian ones, but also challenged

27930-489: The provincial mints were managed by entrepreneurs chosen by regional authorities, resulting in the production of coins of poor quality. The production of coins faced immediate challenges, including a shortage of copper for casting and difficulties in hiring qualified personnel. As a result, the mint in Jiangxi was only able to produce 5% of the planned amount of coins. In response, local authorities mandated that at least 70% of tax payments must be made in new coins and organized

28120-489: The provincial mints were managed by entrepreneurs chosen by regional authorities, resulting in the production of coins of poor quality. The production of coins faced immediate challenges, including a shortage of copper for casting and difficulties in hiring qualified personnel. As a result, the mint in Jiangxi was only able to produce 5% of the planned amount of coins. In response, local authorities mandated that at least 70% of tax payments must be made in new coins and organized

28310-423: The question of succession was still unresolved. It was not until 1614, after numerous appeals and protests against inaction, that the emperor finally sent the prince to his provincial seat. This decision was only made after the emperor's mother firmly advocated for it. Related to the succession debates was the "case of the attack with the stick" ( 梃擊案 ), which greatly damaged the ruler's reputation. In late May 1615,

28500-473: The ruler was not capable, the system of checks and balances resulted in collective leadership. This was due to the dispersion of power among various authorities. In the mid-15th century, a system of collective debates ( huiguan tuiju ; literally 'to rally officials and to recommend collectively') was established to address issues that were beyond the scope of one department. These gatherings involved dozens of officials discussing political and personnel matters. As

28690-531: The second half of the 17th century. During the Wanli era, there was a significant boom in industry, particularly in the production of silk, cotton, and porcelain. The textile industry in Shaanxi employed a large number of people, while Guangdong saw the emergence of large ironworks with thousands of workers. This period also saw the development of specialization in agricultural production and a significant increase in interregional trade. The impact of this development

28880-558: The south. This was partly due to the state's inability to circulate high-quality coins from Beijing, as a significant portion remained in the treasuries of the Ministry of Revenue and the emperor. In 1580, the Yunnan mint was closed, and after Zhang's death in 1582, his successors and opponents abolished most of the other provincial mints due to inefficiency. Three mints in Huguang continued to operate, producing different coins and leading to

29070-450: The south. This was partly due to the state's inability to circulate high-quality coins from Beijing, as a significant portion remained in the treasuries of the Ministry of Revenue and the emperor. In 1580, the Yunnan mint was closed, and after Zhang's death in 1582, his successors and opponents abolished most of the other provincial mints due to inefficiency. Three mints in Huguang continued to operate, producing different coins and leading to

29260-478: The spring of 1599 by officially transferring the collection of taxes to mining commissioners. This expansion of eunuch powers and their operations earned the emperor a reputation among Confucian-oriented intellectuals as one of the most avaricious rulers in Chinese history, constantly seeking ways to fill his personal coffers at the expense of government revenue. According to American historian Richard von Glahn, tax revenue from silver mines increased significantly from

29450-626: The succession issue, which had lost him the confidence of opposition officials. After 1582, the emperor chose the leaders of the Grand Secretariat from among the opponents of Zhang Juzheng (after Shen Shixing, the position was held by Wang Jiaping ( 王家屏 ), Wang Xijue, and Zhao Zhigao ( 趙志皋 ) until 1601). Except for the short-lived Wang Jiaping, all of Zhang's successors—including Shen Yiguan ( 沈一貫 ), Zhu Geng ( 朱賡 ), Li Tingji ( 李廷機 ), Ye Xianggao , and Fang Congzhe ( 方從哲 )—fell out of favor and were either accused by censors during their lifetime or posthumously. The anti-Zhang opposition, led by Gu Xiancheng ,

29640-560: The supervision of the emperor's eunuchs. On the fifth day after the emperor's speech, the officials were informed that the eunuchs had died. The case then quieted down. In August 1596, due to poor tax collection and the depletion of the treasury from the costly restoration of the Forbidden City palaces destroyed by fire in April of that year, the Wanli Emperor made the decision to accept proposals for silver mining that had been suggested by lower-level administrators for several years. He dispatched

29830-488: The support of eunuchs, particularly Feng Bao, and the emperor's mother, Empress Dowager Li , who acted as regent. This allowed him to personally select his colleagues in the Grand Secretariat; he also exerted informal control over the Ministry of Rites and the Censorate , appointing his followers to important positions in both central offices and regional areas. These individuals were typically ambitious and driven. Through these tactics, Zhang gained significant influence in

30020-488: The support of eunuchs, particularly Feng Bao, and the emperor's mother, Empress Dowager Li , who acted as regent. This allowed him to personally select his colleagues in the Grand Secretariat; he also exerted informal control over the Ministry of Rites and the Censorate , appointing his followers to important positions in both central offices and regional areas. These individuals were typically ambitious and driven. Through these tactics, Zhang gained significant influence in

30210-462: The throne two weeks later on 19 July 1572. He apdopted the era name Wanli , which means "ten thousand calendars". Before his death, the Longqing Emperor instructed minister Zhang Juzheng to take charge of state affairs and become a devoted adviser to the young emperor. The Wanli Emperor was known for his restless and energetic nature during his youth. He was described as a quick learner, intelligent, and perceptive, always staying well-informed about

30400-411: The use of illegal private coins resulted in violent protests and the lifting of the bans. Despite officials' efforts to promote the use of new coins, they were unable to produce enough of them and distribute them effectively outside of provincial capitals. As a result, within a few years, the population reverted back to using silver and grain as the primary forms of currency. During the years 1577–1581,

30590-411: The use of illegal private coins resulted in violent protests and the lifting of the bans. Despite officials' efforts to promote the use of new coins, they were unable to produce enough of them and distribute them effectively outside of provincial capitals. As a result, within a few years, the population reverted back to using silver and grain as the primary forms of currency. During the years 1577–1581,

30780-462: The wider community. In 1595, Minister of Personnel Sun Piyang conducted a questionnaire survey on the conditions of several offices and used the results to persuade the Wanli Emperor to dismiss a certain official from Zhejiang. The survey had received a large number of negative comments, including accusations of corruption and other crimes. This unprecedented event sparked a heated debate, with Zhao Zhigao arguing that anonymous questionnaires should not be

30970-713: The wise rulers of antiquity. He even brought up this topic at the metropolitan examinations of 1571, where he served as the chief examiner. Zhang justified his actions against intellectuals who were preoccupied with debates about morality and introspection by claiming that he was defending the interests of the empire rather than seeking personal gain. He viewed these individuals not as moral role models, but as irresponsible slackers, and thus attempted to suppress government-uncontrolled discussion gatherings of opposition-minded educated people. However, Wang Yangming's followers responded with resistance, seizing every opportunity to criticize Zhang's rule. Zhang Juzheng's actions, while within

31160-713: The wise rulers of antiquity. He even brought up this topic at the metropolitan examinations of 1571, where he served as the chief examiner. Zhang justified his actions against intellectuals who were preoccupied with debates about morality and introspection by claiming that he was defending the interests of the empire rather than seeking personal gain. He viewed these individuals not as moral role models, but as irresponsible slackers, and thus attempted to suppress government-uncontrolled discussion gatherings of opposition-minded educated people. However, Wang Yangming's followers responded with resistance, seizing every opportunity to criticize Zhang's rule. Zhang Juzheng's actions, while within

31350-543: Was a prominent Grand Secretary during the reigns of Ming emperors Longqing and Wanli . In 1547, he passed the highest level of official examinations and was granted the rank of jinshi . He then served at the Hanlin Academy . In 1567, he was appointed as the Grand Secretary to the Longqing Emperor, and upon the ascension of the Wanli Emperor in 1572, he became the head of the Grand Secretaries. During

31540-415: Was a prominent Grand Secretary during the reigns of Ming emperors Longqing and Wanli . In 1547, he passed the highest level of official examinations and was granted the rank of jinshi . He then served at the Hanlin Academy . In 1567, he was appointed as the Grand Secretary to the Longqing Emperor, and upon the ascension of the Wanli Emperor in 1572, he became the head of the Grand Secretaries. During

31730-529: Was accused by the concubine of Zhu Xianjie ( 朱憲㸅 ; d. 1582), a member of the imperial family and prince of Liao, of embezzling the prince's property. The emperor responded by confiscating Zhang Juzheng's family property and Zhang himself was posthumously stripped of all titles and ranks. Zhang's eldest son, Zhang Jingxiu ( 張敬修 ), and his wife, as well as his fourth son, committed suicide, while ten of Zhang's descendants were imprisoned in an empty house and died of starvation. The confiscation did not yield as much as

31920-529: Was accused by the concubine of Zhu Xianjie ( 朱憲㸅 ; d. 1582), a member of the imperial family and prince of Liao, of embezzling the prince's property. The emperor responded by confiscating Zhang Juzheng's family property and Zhang himself was posthumously stripped of all titles and ranks. Zhang's eldest son, Zhang Jingxiu ( 張敬修 ), and his wife, as well as his fourth son, committed suicide, while ten of Zhang's descendants were imprisoned in an empty house and died of starvation. The confiscation did not yield as much as

32110-464: Was accused of illegal land dealings, and the Wanli Emperor severely punished them by confiscating their property and sending Zhang's sons to the border troops. At the end of the Longqing Emperor's reign, the Grand Secretariat and Government were headed by Senior Grand Secretary and Minister of Rites Gao Gong . However, after the Wanli Emperor's accession, the eunuch Feng Bao ( 馮保 ), head of the Directorate of Ceremonial (the most important eunuch office in

32300-532: Was also affected by these disasters. The disasters in the years 1586–88 shocked the government, however, the reserves accumulated by Zhang Juzheng helped overcome the difficulties. The authorities learned from this crisis and were able to intervene when the Henan famine broke out six years later, preventing it from spreading. The second series of natural disasters began in 1615, preceded by two years of flooding in northern China. This combination of floods and drought greatly impacted agriculture, leading to regions across

32490-482: Was also ruined. In the 1617 evaluation, three cliques based on regional origin were in conflict, formed by anti-Donglin censors. In the last decade of the Wanli Emperor's reign, the spineless bureaucrat Fang Congzhe led the Grand Secretariat, while the emperor left many high administrative positions vacant for long periods and simply ignored polemical memoranda. The years 1570–1620 were relatively warm, especially in winter, with an average temperature one degree higher than

32680-511: Was also the first instance where a connection to the Donglin movement was used as an argument against a candidate. In the 1611 evaluation, two anti-Donglin factions clashed, resulting in the downfall of their leaders (Tang Binyin ( 湯賓尹 ), Chancellor of Nanking University, and Gu Tianjun ( 顧天俊 ), teacher of the heir apparent). The career of the highest-ranking Donglin sympathizer, Vice Minister of Personnel and Hanlin Academy scholar, Wang Tu ( 王圖 ),

32870-484: Was available in Nanjing. Smaller reserves were also available to provincial administrations in Sichuan , Zhejiang , and Guangxi . Despite these achievements, there were no institutional changes during Zhang Juzheng's time in office. He simply made existing processes more efficient under the slogan of returning to the order from the beginnings of the empire. As a proponent of peace with the Mongols, Zhang Juzheng rejected

33060-557: Was born in 1525 in Jiangling (present-day Jingzhou , Hubei ). He studied Confucianism and successfully passed the provincial examinations in 1540. However, he failed the metropolitan examinations in 1544. Three years later, at an unusually young age, he passed the metropolitan examinations and also passed the palace examinations, receiving the rank of jinshi . He then joined the Hanlin Academy . In 1554, he resigned due to illness. After six years, he returned to service, this time at

33250-501: Was born in 1525 in Jiangling (present-day Jingzhou , Hubei ). He studied Confucianism and successfully passed the provincial examinations in 1540. However, he failed the metropolitan examinations in 1544. Three years later, at an unusually young age, he passed the metropolitan examinations and also passed the palace examinations, receiving the rank of jinshi . He then joined the Hanlin Academy . In 1554, he resigned due to illness. After six years, he returned to service, this time at

33440-511: Was evident in the nine years' worth of grain stored in granaries around the capital, 6 million liang (approximately 223 tons) of silver in the treasury of the Ministry of Revenue , 4 million liang in the Court of the Imperial Stud, and an additional 2.5 million liang in Nanjing. Smaller reserves were also available to provincial administrations in Sichuan , Zhejiang , and Guangxi . Despite these achievements, there were no institutional changes made under Zhang Juzheng's leadership. His approach

33630-511: Was evident in the nine years' worth of grain stored in granaries around the capital, 6 million liang (approximately 223 tons) of silver in the treasury of the Ministry of Revenue , 4 million liang in the Court of the Imperial Stud, and an additional 2.5 million liang in Nanjing. Smaller reserves were also available to provincial administrations in Sichuan , Zhejiang , and Guangxi . Despite these achievements, there were no institutional changes made under Zhang Juzheng's leadership. His approach

33820-636: Was illegal, but went unpunished. As a result, by 1603, nine positions of regional inspectors (out of 13) were vacant for a long time, and in 1604, almost half of the prefects and over half of the ministers and deputy ministers in both capitals were vacant. The emperor also deliberately left many positions vacant in the eunuch offices of the palace, particularly the position of head of the Directorate of Ceremonial, in an attempt to weaken communication between eunuchs and officials. This also resulted in significant financial savings from unoccupied seats. The emperor's lack of involvement in official positions did not affect

34010-424: Was insane. He pushed for a public investigation involving the Ministry of Justice. This new version of events suggested that Zhang Chai was actually of sound mind and had been invited into the palace by two eunuchs close to Lady Zheng and her brother. This raised suspicions that their true intention was to assassinate the crown prince and replace him with Lady Zheng's son. This caused quite a stir at court. In response,

34200-403: Was marked by a significant boom in industry, particularly in the production of silk, cotton, and porcelain. Agriculture also experienced growth, and there was a notable increase in both interregional and foreign trade. This development had the strongest impact in Jiangnan, where cities such as Suzhou , Songjiang , Jiaxing , and Nanjing flourished. However, despite the overall economic growth of

34390-406: Was most strongly felt in Jiangnan, where cities such as Suzhou , Songjiang , Jiaxing , and Nanjing flourished. Suzhou, known for its silk and financial industries, saw its population grow to over half a million by the end of the 16th century, while Songjiang became a center for cotton cultivation. A significant portion of the production was exported in exchange for silver. Between 1560 and 1640,

34580-452: Was reduced, and provincial authorities were urged to only require one-third of the previous amount of corvée labor. Additionally, the services provided by post offices were reduced. Despite these changes, taxes remained at their original level and tax arrears were strictly enforced. Zhang Juzheng was able to accumulate a surplus of income over expenditure. This was a significant achievement, as the Ming state typically operated without reserves in

34770-418: Was shaken. In an effort to suppress the opposition, Zhang enforced an extraordinary self-evaluation of all high-ranking officials, which allowed him to eliminate around fifty opponents. When the Wanli Emperor ascended to the throne, state finances were in disarray. The traditional system of natural taxes and mandatory labor at the county level was being replaced by silver payments and additional fees, known as

34960-418: Was shaken. In an effort to suppress the opposition, Zhang enforced an extraordinary self-evaluation of all high-ranking officials, which allowed him to eliminate around fifty opponents. When the Wanli Emperor ascended to the throne, state finances were in disarray. The traditional system of natural taxes and mandatory labor at the county level was being replaced by silver payments and additional fees, known as

35150-403: Was successful in condemning him and purging his followers from the bureaucracy after his death. However, this also created an opportunity for the censors to criticize higher-ranking officials, which angered the monarch and caused dissatisfaction because the critics did not offer any positive solutions. As a result, Zhang's opponents became embroiled in numerous disputes, hindering the restoration of

35340-470: Was to streamline existing processes and return to the order of the early empire. While this was effective in improving state finances, it did not address any underlying issues or create lasting change. In an effort to bring order to the collection of land tax in 1581, Zhang enforced the creation of a new cadastre. This was the first nationwide survey of fields since the Song period. Over the course of 1581–1582,

35530-419: Was to streamline existing processes and return to the order of the early empire. While this was effective in improving state finances, it did not address any underlying issues or create lasting change. In an effort to bring order to the collection of land tax in 1581, Zhang enforced the creation of a new cadastre. This was the first nationwide survey of fields since the Song period. Over the course of 1581–1582,

35720-478: Was unable to extend these changes to other Ming armies. Additionally, he was able to accumulate a significant amount of financial reserves, but was unable to effectively utilize them. Although he gained control over the state administration, his control was based on personal relationships and authority rather than being institutionalized. The Wanli Emperor, despite agreeing to Zhang Juzheng's posthumous condemnation, adopted many of Zhang's political views. These included

35910-478: Was unable to extend these changes to other Ming armies. Additionally, he was able to accumulate a significant amount of financial reserves, but was unable to effectively utilize them. Although he gained control over the state administration, his control was based on personal relationships and authority rather than being institutionalized. The Wanli Emperor, despite agreeing to Zhang Juzheng's posthumous condemnation, adopted many of Zhang's political views. These included

36100-577: Was widespread. Despite the fact that the most vocal critics were punished with beatings, Zhang Juzheng's reputation was damaged. In an attempt to suppress opposition, Zhang then enforced an extraordinary self-evaluation of all high-ranking officials, resulting in the elimination of around fifty opponents. Zhang Juzheng died on 9 July 1582. After his death, he was accused of the typical offenses of high officials, including bribery, living in luxury, promoting unqualified supporters, abusing power, and silencing critics. After Zhang Juzheng's death, his followers among

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