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78-626: The deadly Russian famine of 1921–22 , which killed about five million people, was in part triggered by Vladimir Lenin 's war communism policies, especially food requisitioning. However, the famine was preceded by bad harvests , harsh winter, drought especially in the Volga Valley which was exacerbated by a range of factors including the war, the presence of the White Army and the methods of war communism. The outbreaks of diseases such as cholera and typhus were also contributing factors to

156-673: A day, while the International Save the Children Union fed up to 375,000. The operation was hazardous since several workers died of cholera, and it was not without its critics, including the London Daily Express , which first denied the severity of the famine and then argued that the money would better be spent in the United Kingdom. Throughout 1922 and 1923, as famine was still widespread and

234-404: A day, while the International Save the Children Union fed up to 375,000. The operation was hazardous since several workers died of cholera, and it was not without its critics, including the London Daily Express , which first denied the severity of the famine and then argued that the money would better be spent in the United Kingdom. Throughout 1922 and 1923, as famine was still widespread and

312-419: A diet of clay and leather scrapings, responded quite rapidly." According to Dr. Beeuwkes, everything was in short supply, including beds, blankets, sheets, and most medical tools and medicines. Operations were performed in unheated operating rooms without anesthetics and often with bare hands. Wounds were dressed with newspapers or rags. Water supplies were polluted, with much of the plumbing unusable. To help

390-419: A diet of clay and leather scrapings, responded quite rapidly." According to Dr. Beeuwkes, everything was in short supply, including beds, blankets, sheets, and most medical tools and medicines. Operations were performed in unheated operating rooms without anesthetics and often with bare hands. Wounds were dressed with newspapers or rags. Water supplies were polluted, with much of the plumbing unusable. To help

468-747: A full year. Other bodies such as the American Friends Service Committee , the British Friends' War Victims Relief Committee and the International Save the Children Union , with the British Save the Children Fund as the major contributor, also later took part. As the historian Douglas Smith writes, the food relief would probably help "save communist Russia from ruin." The United States

546-400: A full year. Other bodies such as the American Friends Service Committee , the British Friends' War Victims Relief Committee and the International Save the Children Union , with the British Save the Children Fund as the major contributor, also later took part. As the historian Douglas Smith writes, the food relief would probably help "save communist Russia from ruin." The United States

624-546: A medium of exchange and, by 1921, heavy industry output had fallen to 20% of 1913 levels. 90% of wages were paid with goods rather than money. 70% of locomotives were in need of repair, and food requisitioning, combined with the effects of seven years of war and a severe drought, contributed to a famine that caused between 3 and 10 million deaths. Coal production decreased from 27.5 million tons (1913) to 7 million tons (1920), while overall factory production also declined from 10,000 million roubles to 1,000 million roubles. According to

702-511: A value of over $ 98 million. To transport and distribute the food after it was collected in the U.S., the ARA used 237 ships, under the direction of 200 Americans and with the help of 125,000 Russians on location for unloading, warehousing, hauling, weighing, cooking and serving the food in more than 21,000 new kitchens. Even after the food had reached the people in need, Colonel Haskell informed Hoover of an unexpected new danger. He explained that fuel

780-462: A value of over $ 98 million. To transport and distribute the food after it was collected in the U.S., the ARA used 237 ships, under the direction of 200 Americans and with the help of 125,000 Russians on location for unloading, warehousing, hauling, weighing, cooking and serving the food in more than 21,000 new kitchens. Even after the food had reached the people in need, Colonel Haskell informed Hoover of an unexpected new danger. He explained that fuel

858-653: A year it was feeding more than 10 times that number daily. The ARA insisted on autonomy as to how the food would be distributed and stated its requirement that food would be given without regard to "race, creed or social status", a condition that was stated in Section 25 of the Riga agreement. U.S. spokesmen said that it would also want to have storage facilities built in Russia, wrote the journalist Charles Bartlett , and would expect to have full access to those to assure that food

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936-494: A year it was feeding more than 10 times that number daily. The ARA insisted on autonomy as to how the food would be distributed and stated its requirement that food would be given without regard to "race, creed or social status", a condition that was stated in Section 25 of the Riga agreement. U.S. spokesmen said that it would also want to have storage facilities built in Russia, wrote the journalist Charles Bartlett , and would expect to have full access to those to assure that food

1014-936: The Russian Civil War , mostly civilians. Historians have noted that both Tsarist Russia government councils and other opposition parties had advocated for food requisitioning prior to the ascent of the Bolsheviks. Before the famine, all sides in the Russian Civil Wars of 1918–1921 (the Bolsheviks , the Whites , the Anarchists , and the seceding nationalities) had provisioned themselves by seizing food from those who grew it, giving it to their armies and supporters, and denying it to their enemies. The Bolshevik government had requisitioned supplies from

1092-573: The Russian Civil War , mostly civilians. Historians have noted that both Tsarist Russia government councils and other opposition parties had advocated for food requisitioning prior to the ascent of the Bolsheviks. Before the famine, all sides in the Russian Civil Wars of 1918–1921 (the Bolsheviks , the Whites , the Anarchists , and the seceding nationalities) had provisioned themselves by seizing food from those who grew it, giving it to their armies and supporters, and denying it to their enemies. The Bolshevik government had requisitioned supplies from

1170-488: The Volga and Ural River regions. Many of the starving resorted to cannibalism . The outbreaks of diseases such as cholera and typhus were also contributing factors to famine casualties. Before the famine began, Russia had suffered three-and-a-half years of World War I and additionally the Russian Civil War of 1918–1920, many of the conflicts being fought inside Russia. There were 7–12 million casualties during

1248-437: The Volga and Ural River regions. Many of the starving resorted to cannibalism . The outbreaks of diseases such as cholera and typhus were also contributing factors to famine casualties. Before the famine began, Russia had suffered three-and-a-half years of World War I and additionally the Russian Civil War of 1918–1920, many of the conflicts being fought inside Russia. There were 7–12 million casualties during

1326-580: The ARA had an organization set up in Poland that relieved the Polish famine, which had begun in the winter of 1919–1920. The situation became so desperate that a considerable minority of the starving resorted to cannibalism. According to the historian Orlando Figes , "thousands of cases" were reported, with the number of cases that were never reported certainly even higher. In Samara , "ten butcher shops were closed for selling human flesh." In Pugachyov , "it

1404-475: The ARA had an organization set up in Poland that relieved the Polish famine, which had begun in the winter of 1919–1920. The situation became so desperate that a considerable minority of the starving resorted to cannibalism. According to the historian Orlando Figes , "thousands of cases" were reported, with the number of cases that were never reported certainly even higher. In Samara , "ten butcher shops were closed for selling human flesh." In Pugachyov , "it

1482-503: The ARA was still providing relief supplies, grain was exported by the Soviet government to raise funds for the revival of industry, which seriously endangered Western support for relief. The new Soviet government insisted that if the AYA suspended relief, the ARA was to arrange a foreign loan for them of about $ 10,000,000 1923 dollars; the ARA was unable to do so and continued to ship in food past

1560-401: The ARA was still providing relief supplies, grain was exported by the Soviet government to raise funds for the revival of industry, which seriously endangered Western support for relief. The new Soviet government insisted that if the AYA suspended relief, the ARA was to arrange a foreign loan for them of about $ 10,000,000 1923 dollars; the ARA was unable to do so and continued to ship in food past

1638-609: The American Relief Administration, through your person, for the substantial support which they are offering to the calamity stricken population of the Volga area. By the summer of 1923, it was estimated that the U.S. relief that was given to Russia amounted to over twice the total of relief given it by all other foreign organizations combined. European agencies co-ordinated by the ICRR also fed two million people

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1716-421: The American Relief Administration, through your person, for the substantial support which they are offering to the calamity stricken population of the Volga area. By the summer of 1923, it was estimated that the U.S. relief that was given to Russia amounted to over twice the total of relief given it by all other foreign organizations combined. European agencies co-ordinated by the ICRR also fed two million people

1794-531: The American relief kitchens. Haskell cabled Hoover that at least one million children were in extreme need of clothes. Hoover quickly initiated a plan for collecting and sending clothing packages to Russia, which would come from donations by individuals, businesses and banks. Medical needs were also paramount. As noted by Dr. Henry Beeuwkes, the chief of the Medical Division in Russia, American relief

1872-408: The American relief kitchens. Haskell cabled Hoover that at least one million children were in extreme need of clothes. Hoover quickly initiated a plan for collecting and sending clothing packages to Russia, which would come from donations by individuals, businesses and banks. Medical needs were also paramount. As noted by Dr. Henry Beeuwkes, the chief of the Medical Division in Russia, American relief

1950-441: The Bolsheviks to re-conquer most of the territory of the former Russian Empire . In the cities and surrounding countryside, the population experienced hardships as a result of the war. Peasants, because of the extreme scarcity, were beginning to refuse to co-operate in giving food for the war effort. Workers began migrating from the cities to the countryside, where the chances to feed themselves were higher, thus further decreasing

2028-755: The Bolsheviks to win the Civil War and stabilize the crisis of the nation. Trotsky had proposed the principles underlying the N.E.P. in 1921 to the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to mitigate urgent economic matters arising from war communism and reproached Lenin privately about the delayed government response in 1922-1923. A black market emerged in Russia, despite the threat of martial law against profiteering. The ruble collapsed, with barter increasingly replacing money as

2106-539: The Bolsheviks. According to David Christian , the Cheka, the state Communist Party secret police, reported 118 peasant uprisings in February 1921. David Christian, in his book Imperial and Soviet Russia , summarises the state of Russia in 1921 after years of war communism: A government claiming to represent the people now found itself on the verge of being overthrown by that same working class. The crisis had undermined

2184-765: The Germans invaded Belgium in 1914, Hoover set up the Belgian Relief Committee to alleviate the devastation and starvation that followed. As World War I expanded, the ARA grew, and it next entered northern France and assisted France and Germany from 1914 to 1919. In 1920 and 1921, it provided one meal a day to 3.2 million children in Finland, Estonia, various Russian regions, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, and Armenia. When it began its emergency feeding operation in Russia, it planned to feed about one million Russian children for

2262-578: The Germans invaded Belgium in 1914, Hoover set up the Belgian Relief Committee to alleviate the devastation and starvation that followed. As World War I expanded, the ARA grew, and it next entered northern France and assisted France and Germany from 1914 to 1919. In 1920 and 1921, it provided one meal a day to 3.2 million children in Finland, Estonia, various Russian regions, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, and Armenia. When it began its emergency feeding operation in Russia, it planned to feed about one million Russian children for

2340-551: The Moscow Soviet and deputy chairman of all Russian famine relief committees, wrote a letter to Haskell that thanked him and the ARA for its help and also paid tribute to the American people The government of the Russian nation will never forget the generous help that was afforded them in the terrible calamity and dangers visited upon them.... I wish to express, on behalf of the Soviet government, my satisfaction and thanks to

2418-433: The Moscow Soviet and deputy chairman of all Russian famine relief committees, wrote a letter to Haskell that thanked him and the ARA for its help and also paid tribute to the American people The government of the Russian nation will never forget the generous help that was afforded them in the terrible calamity and dangers visited upon them.... I wish to express, on behalf of the Soviet government, my satisfaction and thanks to

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2496-642: The Politburo, he explains that the famine provides an opportunity against the church. Richard Pipes argued that the famine was used politically as an excuse for the Bolshevik leadership to persecute the Orthodox Church, which held significant sway over much of the peasantry. Russian anti-Bolshevik white émigrés in London, Paris, and elsewhere also used the famine as a media opportunity to highlight

2574-410: The Politburo, he explains that the famine provides an opportunity against the church. Richard Pipes argued that the famine was used politically as an excuse for the Bolshevik leadership to persecute the Orthodox Church, which held significant sway over much of the peasantry. Russian anti-Bolshevik white émigrés in London, Paris, and elsewhere also used the famine as a media opportunity to highlight

2652-695: The U.S. set up its first kitchen in Petrograd , where 1.6 million people had already starved to death. For almost two years now a scant two hundred Americans, on a battle line far longer than the western front, have been fighting a foe more pitiless than any the allied armies faced. From the Baltic to the Caspian Sea, from the Crimea to the Urals, they have conquered the famine, saved more lives than were lost in

2730-421: The U.S. set up its first kitchen in Petrograd , where 1.6 million people had already starved to death. For almost two years now a scant two hundred Americans, on a battle line far longer than the western front, have been fighting a foe more pitiless than any the allied armies faced. From the Baltic to the Caspian Sea, from the Crimea to the Urals, they have conquered the famine, saved more lives than were lost in

2808-621: The Volga area ... was human flesh." Various gangs specialized in "capturing children, murdering them and selling the human flesh as horse meat or beef", with the buyers happy to have found a source of meat in a situation of extreme shortage and often willing not to "ask too many questions". In the summer of 1921, during one of the worst famines in history, Vladimir Lenin, the head of the new Soviet government, along with Maxim Gorky , appealed in an open letter to "all honest European and American people" to "give bread and medicine". In an open letter to all nations, dated 13 July 1921, Gorky described

2886-621: The Volga area ... was human flesh." Various gangs specialized in "capturing children, murdering them and selling the human flesh as horse meat or beef", with the buyers happy to have found a source of meat in a situation of extreme shortage and often willing not to "ask too many questions". In the summer of 1921, during one of the worst famines in history, Vladimir Lenin, the head of the new Soviet government, along with Maxim Gorky , appealed in an open letter to "all honest European and American people" to "give bread and medicine". In an open letter to all nations, dated 13 July 1921, Gorky described

2964-505: The World War, healed a sorely-suffering people of the diseases which threatened to sweep the whole of Europe, won the benedictions of a great, but stricken, nation, achieved the world's greatest adventure in humanity! W. Howard Ramsey, newspaper editor Over 10 million people were fed daily, with the bulk of food coming from the ARA, which had provided more than 768 million tons of flour, grain, rice, beans, pork, milk, and sugar, with

3042-448: The World War, healed a sorely-suffering people of the diseases which threatened to sweep the whole of Europe, won the benedictions of a great, but stricken, nation, achieved the world's greatest adventure in humanity! W. Howard Ramsey, newspaper editor Over 10 million people were fed daily, with the bulk of food coming from the ARA, which had provided more than 768 million tons of flour, grain, rice, beans, pork, milk, and sugar, with

3120-518: The ascent of the Bolsheviks. However, the goals of the Bolsheviks in implementing war communism are a matter of controversy. Some commentators, including a number of Bolsheviks, have argued that its sole purpose was to win the war. Vladimir Lenin, for instance, said that "the confiscation of surpluses from the peasants was a measure with which we were saddled by the imperative conditions of war-time." Other Bolsheviks, such as Yurii Larin , Lev Kritzman , Leonid Krasin , and Nikolai Bukharin , argued that it

3198-714: The country, such as the Tambov Rebellion (1920–1921), which was neutralized by the Red Army. A turning point came with the Kronstadt rebellion at the Kronstadt naval base in early March 1921, which also ended with a Bolshevik victory. The rebellion startled Lenin because Bolsheviks considered Kronstadt sailors the "reddest of the reds". The nature of these uprisings and their leadership were also of significant concern because they were generally left-wing uprisings led by opposition leftists, thus creating competition with

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3276-593: The crop failure which had brought his country to the brink of starvation. Herbert Hoover , who would later become the U.S. President , responded immediately, and negotiations with Russia took place at the Latvian capital, Riga . A European effort was led by the famous Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen through the International Committee for Russian Relief (ICRR). Hoover's ARA had already been distributing food aid throughout Europe since 1914. After

3354-462: The crop failure which had brought his country to the brink of starvation. Herbert Hoover , who would later become the U.S. President , responded immediately, and negotiations with Russia took place at the Latvian capital, Riga . A European effort was led by the famous Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen through the International Committee for Russian Relief (ICRR). Hoover's ARA had already been distributing food aid throughout Europe since 1914. After

3432-601: The early 1920s and a total population of approximately 90 million people. The film was directed by Tatyana Sorokina with Aleksandr Arkhangelsky writing the script and Maxim Kournikov providing the inspiration behind the creation of the film. On October 30, 2022, Famine was first shown at a public theater in Yekaterinburg . In November 2022, the Russian Ministry of Culture banned the distribution of Голод in Russia. In December 2022, Famine received

3510-473: The early 1920s and a total population of approximately 90 million people. The film was directed by Tatyana Sorokina with Aleksandr Arkhangelsky writing the script and Maxim Kournikov providing the inspiration behind the creation of the film. On October 30, 2022, Famine was first shown at a public theater in Yekaterinburg . In November 2022, the Russian Ministry of Culture banned the distribution of Голод in Russia. In December 2022, Famine received

3588-530: The events, and most of them have been accused by their enemies of having contributed to or even bearing sole responsibility for the famine. The Bolsheviks started a campaign of seizing church property in 1922. That year, over 4.5 million golden roubles of property were seized. Of those, one million gold roubles were spent for famine relief. In a secret March 19, 1922 letter to the Politburo, Lenin expressed an intention to seize several hundred million golden roubles for famine relief. In Lenin's secret letter to

3666-530: The events, and most of them have been accused by their enemies of having contributed to or even bearing sole responsibility for the famine. The Bolsheviks started a campaign of seizing church property in 1922. That year, over 4.5 million golden roubles of property were seized. Of those, one million gold roubles were spent for famine relief. In a secret March 19, 1922 letter to the Politburo, Lenin expressed an intention to seize several hundred million golden roubles for famine relief. In Lenin's secret letter to

3744-401: The famine casualties. War communism included the following policies: It has long been debated whether "war communism" represented an actual economic policy in the proper sense of the phrase, or merely a set of measures intended to win the civil war. Historians have noted that both Tsarist Russia government councils and other opposition parties had advocated for food requisitioning prior to

3822-443: The grain being sold abroad. As with other large-scale famines, the range of estimates is considerable. An official Soviet publication of the early 1920s concluded that about five million deaths occurred in 1921 from famine and related disease, the number that is usually quoted in textbooks. More conservative figures counted not more than a million, and another assessment, based on the ARA's medical division, spoke of two million. On

3900-443: The grain being sold abroad. As with other large-scale famines, the range of estimates is considerable. An official Soviet publication of the early 1920s concluded that about five million deaths occurred in 1921 from famine and related disease, the number that is usually quoted in textbooks. More conservative figures counted not more than a million, and another assessment, based on the ARA's medical division, spoke of two million. On

3978-553: The iniquities of the Soviet regime to prevent trade with and official recognition of the Bolshevik government. On September 24, 2022, at the Oktyabr cinema in Moscow, the Russian documentary film Hunger or Famine ( Russian : Голод ) premiered which depicts the mass famine in the Volga region, Ukraine, the Urals, Bashkiria, Samara and Chelyabinsk regions, Kazakhstan and Western Siberia affecting over 35 oblasts of Soviet Russia in

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4056-446: The iniquities of the Soviet regime to prevent trade with and official recognition of the Bolshevik government. On September 24, 2022, at the Oktyabr cinema in Moscow, the Russian documentary film Hunger or Famine ( Russian : Голод ) premiered which depicts the mass famine in the Volga region, Ukraine, the Urals, Bashkiria, Samara and Chelyabinsk regions, Kazakhstan and Western Siberia affecting over 35 oblasts of Soviet Russia in

4134-402: The loyalty of the villages, the towns and finally sections of the army. It was fully as serious as the crises faced by the tsarist government in 1905 and February 1917. The deadly Russian famine of 1921–22 , which killed about five million people battered an already war-torn Russia, Vladimir Lenin 's war communism policies took an unintended negative turn. The measure were harsh, but it did help

4212-714: The monthly journalistic award from Redkollegia and, in April 2023, it received the Audience Prize and a special mention jury diploma at the 2023 Artdocfest . Russian famine of 1921%E2%80%9322 The Russian famine of 1921–1922 , also known as the Povolzhye famine (Russian: Голод в Поволжье , ' Volga region famine') was a severe famine in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic that began early in

4290-409: The noted historian David Christian, the grain harvest was also slashed from 80.1 million tons (1913) to 46.5 million tons (1920). Russian famine of 1921%E2%80%931922 The Russian famine of 1921–1922 , also known as the Povolzhye famine (Russian: Голод в Поволжье , ' Volga region famine') was a severe famine in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic that began early in

4368-520: The other side of the scale, some sources spoke of ten million dead. According to Bertrand M. Patenaude, "such a number hardly seems extravagant after the many tens of millions of victims of war, famine, and terror in the twentieth century." The famine came at the end of six-and-a-half years of unrest and violence (World War I, the two Russian Revolutions of 1917, and the Russian Civil War). Many political and military factions were involved in

4446-452: The other side of the scale, some sources spoke of ten million dead. According to Bertrand M. Patenaude, "such a number hardly seems extravagant after the many tens of millions of victims of war, famine, and terror in the twentieth century." The famine came at the end of six-and-a-half years of unrest and violence (World War I, the two Russian Revolutions of 1917, and the Russian Civil War). Many political and military factions were involved in

4524-501: The peasantry for little or nothing in exchange, which led peasants to drastically reduce their crop production. Aid from outside Soviet Russia was initially rejected. The American Relief Administration (ARA), which Herbert Hoover formed to help the victims of starvation of World War I, offered assistance to Lenin in 1919 if it had full say over the Russian railway network and handed out food impartially to all. Lenin refused that as interference in Russian internal affairs. Lenin

4602-501: The peasantry for little or nothing in exchange, which led peasants to drastically reduce their crop production. Aid from outside Soviet Russia was initially rejected. The American Relief Administration (ARA), which Herbert Hoover formed to help the victims of starvation of World War I, offered assistance to Lenin in 1919 if it had full say over the Russian railway network and handed out food impartially to all. Lenin refused that as interference in Russian internal affairs. Lenin

4680-542: The possibility of barter of industrial goods for food and worsening the plight of the remaining urban population and further weakening the economy and industrial production. Between 1918 and 1920, Petrograd lost 70% of its population, while Moscow lost over 50%. Barrier troops were also used to enforce Bolshevik control over food supplies in areas controlled by the Red Army to protect against raids from anti-communist forces. A series of workers' strikes and peasants' rebellions against war communism policies broke out all over

4758-537: The spring of 1921 and lasted until 1922. The famine resulted from the combined effects of severe drought, the continued effects of World War I , economic disturbance from the Russian Revolution , the Russian Civil War , and failures in the government policy of war communism (especially prodrazvyorstka ). It was exacerbated by rail systems that could not distribute food efficiently. The famine killed an estimated five million people and primarily affected

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4836-469: The spring of 1921 and lasted until 1922. The famine resulted from the combined effects of severe drought, the continued effects of World War I , economic disturbance from the Russian Revolution , the Russian Civil War , and failures in the government policy of war communism (especially prodrazvyorstka ). It was exacerbated by rail systems that could not distribute food efficiently. The famine killed an estimated five million people and primarily affected

4914-596: The widespread medical emergency, the ARA distributed medical supplies, which included over 2,000 necessities, from medicines to surgical instruments. There were 125,000 medical packages, weighing 15 million pounds, sent on 69 ships. According to Dr. Shapiro, when the ARA left Russia in 1923, after two years of relief efforts, "the Russians had been pulled out of the slough of famine and death. I can say without boasting that no relief organization ever worked so hard to complete its task." In May 1922, Lev Kamenev , President of

4992-540: The widespread medical emergency, the ARA distributed medical supplies, which included over 2,000 necessities, from medicines to surgical instruments. There were 125,000 medical packages, weighing 15 million pounds, sent on 69 ships. According to Dr. Shapiro, when the ARA left Russia in 1923, after two years of relief efforts, "the Russians had been pulled out of the slough of famine and death. I can say without boasting that no relief organization ever worked so hard to complete its task." In May 1922, Lev Kamenev , President of

5070-496: Was a transitional step towards socialism. Commentators, such as the historian Richard Pipes , the philosopher Michael Polanyi , and economists, such as Paul Craig Roberts or Sheldon L. Richman, have argued that war communism was actually an attempt to immediately eliminate private property, commodity production and market exchange, and in that way to implement communist economics, and that the Bolshevik leaders expected an immediate and large-scale increase in economic output. This view

5148-518: Was also held by Bukharin, who said that "We conceived War Communism as the universal, so to say 'normal' form of the economic policy of the victorious proletariat and not as being related to the war, that is, conforming to a definite state of the civil war". War communism was largely successful at its primary purpose of aiding the Red Army in halting the advance of the White Army , and in helping

5226-400: Was dangerous for children to go out after dark since there were known to be bands of cannibals and traders who killed them to eat or sell their tender flesh." An inhabitant of a nearby village stated: "There are several cafeterias in the village — and all of them serve up young children." This was no exception – Figes estimates "that a considerable proportion of the meat in Soviet factories in

5304-400: Was dangerous for children to go out after dark since there were known to be bands of cannibals and traders who killed them to eat or sell their tender flesh." An inhabitant of a nearby village stated: "There are several cafeterias in the village — and all of them serve up young children." This was no exception – Figes estimates "that a considerable proportion of the meat in Soviet factories in

5382-421: Was distributed properly. Hoover also demanded for Russia to use some of its gold holdings to defray the cost of the relief effort. He secured $ 18 million from the Russian leadership, $ 20 million from the U.S. Congress, $ 8 million from the U.S. military, and additional money from U.S. charities to arrive at a total of approximately $ 78 million from all those sources. After an agreement was finally signed at Riga,

5460-421: Was distributed properly. Hoover also demanded for Russia to use some of its gold holdings to defray the cost of the relief effort. He secured $ 18 million from the Russian leadership, $ 20 million from the U.S. Congress, $ 8 million from the U.S. military, and additional money from U.S. charities to arrive at a total of approximately $ 78 million from all those sources. After an agreement was finally signed at Riga,

5538-623: Was eventually convinced by the famine, the Kronstadt rebellion , large-scale peasant uprisings such as the Tambov Rebellion , and the failure of a German general strike to reverse his policy at home and abroad. He decreed the New Economic Policy on 15 March 1921. The famine also helped produce an opening to the West. Lenin now allowed relief organizations to bring aid. War relief was no longer required in Western Europe , and

5616-439: Was eventually convinced by the famine, the Kronstadt rebellion , large-scale peasant uprisings such as the Tambov Rebellion , and the failure of a German general strike to reverse his policy at home and abroad. He decreed the New Economic Policy on 15 March 1921. The famine also helped produce an opening to the West. Lenin now allowed relief organizations to bring aid. War relief was no longer required in Western Europe , and

5694-749: Was supplying over 16,000 hospitals, which were treating more than a million persons daily. Because those institutions were scattered over areas with few railroads and often poor roads, with some hospitals over a thousand miles from the main supply base in Moscow, the task was monumental. Dr. Louis L. Shapiro, an army colonel who was one of the ARA's medical directors in Russia, recalled that southern Russia had little more than "mud ruts for roads, with limitless prairies." On one trip, with few car necessities or regular gas, he drove 150 miles on tires without inner tubes, instead stuffed with straw. "After our kitchens were established and our clinics able to distribute medical supplies" said Shapiro, "children who had been eating

5772-749: Was supplying over 16,000 hospitals, which were treating more than a million persons daily. Because those institutions were scattered over areas with few railroads and often poor roads, with some hospitals over a thousand miles from the main supply base in Moscow, the task was monumental. Dr. Louis L. Shapiro, an army colonel who was one of the ARA's medical directors in Russia, recalled that southern Russia had little more than "mud ruts for roads, with limitless prairies." On one trip, with few car necessities or regular gas, he drove 150 miles on tires without inner tubes, instead stuffed with straw. "After our kitchens were established and our clinics able to distribute medical supplies" said Shapiro, "children who had been eating

5850-495: Was the first country to respond, with Hoover appointing Colonel William N. Haskell to direct the American Relief Administration (ARA) in Russia. Within a month, ships loaded with food were headed for Russia. The main contributor to the international relief effort would be the ARA, which was founded and directed by Hoover. It had agreed to provide food for a million people, mostly children, but within

5928-411: Was the first country to respond, with Hoover appointing Colonel William N. Haskell to direct the American Relief Administration (ARA) in Russia. Within a month, ships loaded with food were headed for Russia. The main contributor to the international relief effort would be the ARA, which was founded and directed by Hoover. It had agreed to provide food for a million people, mostly children, but within

6006-549: Was unavailable for heating or cooking and millions of Russian peasants had clothing consisting mostly of rags, which would lead to certain death from cold exposure during the approaching winter. The children at risk included those in orphanages and other institutions, as they usually had only one garment, often made of flour sacks, and they lacked shoes, stockings, underclothing, or any other clothing to keep warm. Also at risk were children living at home with their parents, who also lacked enough clothing, which made them unable to reach

6084-549: Was unavailable for heating or cooking and millions of Russian peasants had clothing consisting mostly of rags, which would lead to certain death from cold exposure during the approaching winter. The children at risk included those in orphanages and other institutions, as they usually had only one garment, often made of flour sacks, and they lacked shoes, stockings, underclothing, or any other clothing to keep warm. Also at risk were children living at home with their parents, who also lacked enough clothing, which made them unable to reach

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