Misplaced Pages

#191808

156-640: The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant , or WIPP , in New Mexico , US, is the world's third deep geological repository (after Germany's Repository for radioactive waste Morsleben and the Schacht Asse II salt mine) licensed to store transuranic radioactive waste for 10,000 years. The storage rooms at the WIPP are 2,150 feet (660 m) underground in a salt formation of the Delaware Basin. The waste

312-411: A half life greater than 20 years. This criterion includes plutonium , uranium , americium , and neptunium among others. The WIPP must not act as a disposal site for any high-level radioactive waste or any nuclear fuel that has already been used. Mixed waste contains both radioactive and hazardous constituents, and WIPP first received mixed waste on September 9, 2000. Mixed waste is joint-regulated by

468-619: A third of the state is covered in timberland , with heavily forested mountain wildernesses dominating the north. The Sangre de Cristo Mountains , the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains , run roughly north–south along the east side of the Rio Grande , in the rugged, pastoral north. The Great Plains extend into the eastern third of the state, most notably the Llano Estacado ("Staked Plain"), whose westernmost boundary

624-429: A characteristic geologic deposit called an evaporite is formed as different dissolved ions reach the saturation states of minerals, typically gypsum and halite . Dissolution of such salt deposits into water can produce brines as well. As seawater freezes, dissolved ions tend to remain in solution resulting in a fluid termed a cryogenic brine. At the time of formation, these cryogenic brines are by definition cooler than

780-472: A concentrated solution of replacement ions, and rinsing the flushing solution from the resin. After treatment, ion-exchange resin beads saturated with calcium and magnesium ions from the treated water, are regenerated by soaking in brine containing 6–12% NaCl. The sodium ions from brine replace the calcium and magnesium ions on the beads. In lower temperatures, a brine solution can be used to de-ice or reduce freezing temperatures on roads. Quenching

936-423: A discharge is generated, commonly called brine. The characteristics of the discharge depend on different factors, such as the desalination technology used, salinity and quality of the water used, environmental and oceanographic characteristics, desalination process carried out, among others. The discharge of desalination plants by seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO), are mainly characterized by presenting

1092-466: A highly defective control system design. On February 15, 2014, authorities ordered workers to shelter in place at the facility after air monitors had detected unusually high radiation levels at 11:30 p.m. the previous day. None of the facility's 139 workers were underground at the time of the incident. Later, trace amounts of airborne radiation consisting of americium and plutonium particles were discovered above ground, 0.5 mi (0.80 km) from

1248-637: A large neutrinoless double beta decay experiment LEGEND after the MAJORANA Demonstrator phase. Some smaller neutrino and dark matter experiments that have been mostly technology development oriented have also taken place at WIPP. There have also been a number of biology experiments in WIPP; for example, these experiments have studied the biological conditions of the deep under ground salt deposit. In one experiment, researchers were able to cultivate bacteria from 250 million year old spores found in WIPP. The Low Background Radiation Experiment studies

1404-485: A law granting all Native Americans U.S. citizenship and the right to vote in federal and state elections. However, Anglo-American arrivals into New Mexico enacted Jim Crow laws against Hispanos, Hispanic Americans, and those who did not pay taxes, targeting indigenous affiliated individuals; because Hispanics often had interpersonal relationships with indigenous peoples, they were often subject to segregation , social inequality , and employment discrimination . During

1560-409: A major reason why the area was chosen as a host medium for the WIPP project. Because drilling or excavation in the area will be hazardous long after the area is actively used, there are plans to construct markers to deter inadvertent human intrusion for the next ten thousand years. The Salado Formation is a massive bedded salt deposit (>99% NaCl) that has a simple hydrogeology . Because massive NaCl

1716-433: A more pronounced identity vis-a-vis the newer Anglo arrivals. Politically, they still controlled most town and county offices through local elections, and wealthy ranching families commanded considerable influence, preferring business, legislative , and judicial relations with fellow indigenous New Mexican groups. By contrast, Anglo Americans, who were "outnumbered, but well-organized and growing" tended to have more ties to

SECTION 10

#1732772360192

1872-525: A nearly impermeable 3,300-foot-thick (1,000 m) layer of evaporites , primarily salt, in the Salado and Castile Formations, geologically similar to other basins created by evaporitic inland seas . Over time, the salt beds were covered by an additional 980 ft (300 m) of soil and rock. As drilling in the Salado Formation salt beds began in 1975, scientists discovered that at the edge of

2028-448: A plaza, from which four streets ran outward to small, private agricultural plots and orchards; these were watered by acequias , community owned and operated irrigation canals. Just beyond the wall was the ejido , communal land for grazing, firewood, or recreation. By 1800, the population of New Mexico had reached 25,000 (not including indigenous inhabitants), far exceeding the territories of California and Texas. As part of New Spain,

2184-418: A process known as pickling . Meat and fish are typically steeped in brine for shorter periods of time, as a form of marination , enhancing its tenderness and flavor , or to enhance shelf period. Elemental chlorine can be produced by electrolysis of brine ( NaCl solution). This process also produces sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H 2 ). The reaction equations are as follows: Brine

2340-535: A prosperous empire to their north became the primary basis for the mythical Seven Cities of Gold , which spurred exploration by Spanish conquistadors following their conquest of the Aztecs in the early 16th century; prominent explorers included Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca , Andrés Dorantes de Carranza , Alonso del Castillo Maldonado , Estevanico , and Marcos de Niza . The settlement of La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís — modern day Santa Fe –

2496-460: A report on April 15, 2014 that one or more of 258 contact-handled radioactive waste containers located in room 7, panel 7 of the underground repository released radioactive and toxic chemicals. The location of the leak was estimated to be approximately 1,500 feet (460 m) from the air monitor that triggered the contaminants in the filtration system. The contaminants were spread through more than 3,000 feet (910 m) of tunnels, leading to

2652-416: A salinity concentration that can, in the worst case, double the salinity of the seawater used, and unlike of thermal desalination plants, have practically the same temperature and dissolved oxygen as the seawater used. The discharge could contain trace chemical products used during the industrial treatments applies,such as antiscalants , coagulants , flocculants which are discarded together with

2808-400: A salt haul truck caught fire, prompting an evacuation of the underground facility. Six workers were taken to a local hospital with smoke inhalation and were released by the next day. Lab tests after the fire confirmed that there was zero release of radiological material during, or as a result of, the fire. Underground air-monitoring equipment was out of commission after the truck fire. In 2020,

2964-465: A series of mandatory requirements that are mainly related to the monitoring of discharge, using a series of measurements and characterizations based on physical-chemical and biological information. In addition, the PVAs could also include different requirements related to monitoring the effects of seawater intake and those that may potentially be related to effects on the terrestrial environment . Brine

3120-451: A significant environmental hazard, both due to corrosive and sediment-forming effects of salts and toxicity of other chemicals diluted in it. Unpolluted brine from desalination plants and cooling towers can be returned to the ocean. From the desalination process, reject brine is produced, which proposes potential damages to the marine life and habitats. To limit the environmental impact, it can be diluted with another stream of water, such as

3276-411: A subcontractor at the WIPP opened a $ 32 million lawsuit claiming that "the company that runs the facility breached its contract to rebuild the nuclear waste repository's air system." Due to the 2014 incident, a Texas-based company named Critical Application Alliance LLC was hired to build a new ventilation system. The project was going to fix the flawed design in roof panels, the foundation of the WIPP, and

SECTION 20

#1732772360192

3432-460: A trading center for existing surrounding communities such as Barelas , Isleta , Los Ranchos , and Sandia ; it was named for the viceroy of New Spain, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 10th Duke of Alburquerque . Governor Francisco Cuervo y Valdés established the villa in Tiguex to provide free trade access and facilitate cultural exchange in the region. Beyond forging better relations with

3588-567: A visual inspection that is documented to insure that all containers are in good condition. "Good condition" is described as "not having significant rusting, is of sound and structural integrity, and does not show signs of leakage." Waste is placed in rooms 2,150 feet (660 m) underground that have been excavated within a 3,000-foot (910 m) thick salt formation ( Salado and Castile Formations ) where salt tectonics have been stable for more than 250 million years. Because of plasticity effects , salt and water will flow to any cracks that develop,

3744-421: A warning system. For the case of the WIPP, the markers, called "passive institutional controls", will include an outer perimeter of thirty-two 25-foot-tall (7.6 m) granite pillars built in a four-mile (6 km) square. These pillars will surround an earthen wall, 33 feet (10 m) tall and 100 feet (30 m) wide. Enclosed within this wall will be another 16 granite pillars. At the center, directly above

3900-514: Is a byproduct of many industrial processes, such as desalination , power plant cooling towers , produced water from oil and natural gas extraction, acid mine or acid rock drainage , reverse osmosis reject, chlor-alkali wastewater treatment, pulp and paper mill effluent, and waste streams from food and beverage processing. Along with diluted salts, it can contain residues of pretreatment and cleaning chemicals, their reaction byproducts and heavy metals due to corrosion. Wastewater brine can pose

4056-426: Is a heat-treatment process when forging metals such as steel. A brine solution, along with oil and other substances, is commonly used to harden steel. When brine is used, there is an enhanced uniformity of the cooling process and heat transfer. The desalination process consists of the separation of salts from an aqueous solution to obtain fresh water from a source of seawater or brackish water ; and in turn,

4212-644: Is also evident in New Mexico's unique cuisine , music genre , and architectural styles . New Mexico received its name long before the present-day country of Mexico won independence from Spain and adopted that name in 1821. The name "Mexico" derives from Nahuatl and originally referred to the heartland of the Mexica , the rulers of the Aztec Empire , in the Valley of Mexico . Following their conquest of

4368-429: Is by far the most prominent, constituting about three-fourths of the state; it includes most of the plains, foothills, and valleys above 4,500 feet, and is defined by prairie grasses, low piñon pines, and juniper shrubs. The Llano Estacado in the east features Shortgrass Prairie with blue grama , which sustain bison . The Chihuahuan Desert in the south is characterized by shrubby creosote . The Colorado Plateau in

4524-507: Is characterized by low to moderate taxation of resident personal income by national standards, with tax credits, exemptions, and special considerations for military personnel and favorable industries. New Mexico has a significant U.S. military presence, including White Sands Missile Range , and strategically valuable federal research centers, such as the Sandia and Los Alamos National Laboratories . The state hosted several key facilities of

4680-473: Is considered by some to be instability is considered by others to be a positive aspect of salt as a host rock. As early as 1957, the National Academy of Sciences recommended salt for radioactive waste disposal because at depth it would plastically deform, a motion called "salt creep" in the salt-mining industry. This would gradually fill in and seal any openings created by the mining, and in and around

4836-585: Is continuing their activities. The planned end of the EXO operations in WIPP was December 2018, and the collaboration was planning to have the next-stage detector built in SNOLAB . This means that the two biggest experimental infrastructures (EXO and DMTPC) of WIPP intend to relocate to SNOLAB and cease their operations in WIPP before the end of 2019. This would leave the WIPP underground laboratory without any major scientific experiment. Previous experiments at WIPP include

Waste Isolation Pilot Plant - Misplaced Pages Continue

4992-500: Is from the research and production of United States nuclear weapons only. The plant started operation in 1999, and the project is estimated to cost $ 19 billion in total. It is located approximately 26 miles (42 km) east of Carlsbad , in eastern Eddy County , in an area known as the southeastern New Mexico nuclear corridor, which also includes the National Enrichment Facility near Eunice, New Mexico ,

5148-519: Is fully ionized. Other cations found in various brines include K , Mg , Ca , and Sr . The latter three are problematic because they form scale and they react with soaps. Aside from chloride, brines sometimes contain Br and I and, most problematically, SO 4 . Purification steps often include the addition of calcium oxide to precipitate solid magnesium hydroxide together with gypsum (CaSO 4 ), which can be removed by filtration. Further purification

5304-410: Is located approximately 25 mi (40 km) east of Carlsbad. Waste is placed in rooms 2,150 feet (660 m) underground that have been excavated within a 3,000-foot (910 m) thick salt formation ( Salado and Castile Formations ) where salt tectonics have been stable for more than 250 million years. Because of plasticity effects , salt will flow to any cracks that develop, a major reason why

5460-719: Is marked by the Mescalero Ridge escarpment . The northwestern quadrant of New Mexico is dominated by the Colorado Plateau , characterized by unique volcanic formations, dry grasslands and shrublands, open pinyon-juniper woodland , and mountain forests. The Chihuahuan Desert , which is the largest in North America, extends through the south. Over four–fifths of New Mexico is higher than 4,000 feet (1,200 meters) above sea level. The average elevation ranges from up to 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) above sea level in

5616-400: Is not involved in the purification process itself, but used for regeneration of ion-exchange resin on cyclical basis. The water being treated flows through the resin container until the resin is considered exhausted and water is purified to a desired level. Resin is then regenerated by sequentially backwashing the resin bed to remove accumulated solids, flushing removed ions from the resin with

5772-486: Is one of only seven majority-minority states , with the nation's highest percentage of Hispanic and Latino Americans and the second-highest percentage of Native Americans, after Alaska . The state is home to one–third of the Navajo Nation , 19 federally recognized Pueblo communities , and three federally recognized Apache tribes. Its large Hispanic population includes Hispanos descended from settlers during

5928-455: Is required, both for the construction and operational phases. During its development, the most important legal management tools are established within the local environmental regulation, to prevent and adopt mitigation measures that guarantee the sustainable development of desalination projects. This includes a series of administrative tools and periodic environmental monitoring, to adopt preventive, corrective and further monitoring measures of

6084-493: Is significantly less than forecasted. On April 10, the plant received its first shipment of waste since reopening. The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant is where the highest temperature ever recorded in New Mexico at 122 °F (50 °C) occurred during the summer of 1994. Following the interment of waste in the facility, estimated to be sometime between 2025 and 2035 the storage caverns will be collapsed and sealed with 13 layers of concrete and soil. Salt will then seep into and fill

6240-538: Is somewhat plastic, so holes close under pressure, the rock becomes non-porous by effectively closing pores and fractures. This has a significant effect on the overall hydraulic conductivities (water permeabilities) and molecular diffusion coefficients. These are on the order of ≤10 m/s and ≤10 m/s respectively. Since 1983, the DOE has been working with linguists, archaeologists, anthropologists, materials scientists, science fiction writers, and futurists to come up with

6396-467: Is the state bird, is abundant in the southeast. Endangered species include the Mexican gray wolf , which is being gradually reintroduced in the world, and Rio Grande silvery minnow . Over 500 species of birds live or migrate through New Mexico, third only to California and Mexico. New Mexico and 12 other western states together account for 93% of all federally owned land in the U.S. Roughly one–third of

Waste Isolation Pilot Plant - Misplaced Pages Continue

6552-695: Is unknown whether the Dark Matter Time Projection Chamber collaboration recovered their operations in WIPP after the February 2014 events. Currently (2018) the WIPP houses the Enriched Xenon Observatory (EXO) searching for neutrinoless double beta decay . The dark matter experiment collaboration that operated in WIPP before 2014, Dark Matter Time Projection Chamber (DMTPC), is continuing their work and aims to deploy their next detector at SNOLAB . After

6708-455: Is used as a secondary fluid in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy . Most commonly used brines are based on inexpensive calcium chloride and sodium chloride . It is used because the addition of salt to water lowers the freezing temperature of the solution and the heat transport efficiency can be greatly enhanced for the comparatively low cost of the material. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine

6864-457: Is −21.1 °C (−6.0 °F) at the concentration of 23.3% NaCl by weight. This is called the eutectic point. Because of their corrosive properties salt-based brines have been replaced by organic liquids such as ethylene glycol . Sodium chloride brine spray is used on some fishing vessels to freeze fish. The brine temperature is generally −5 °F (−21 °C). Air blast freezing temperatures are −31 °F (−35 °C) or lower. Given

7020-537: The Clovis culture of Paleo-Indians . Footprints discovered in 2017 suggest that humans may have been present in the region as long ago as 21,000–23,000 BC. Later inhabitants include the Mogollon and Ancestral Pueblo cultures, which are characterized by sophisticated pottery work and urban development; pueblos or their remnants, like those at Acoma , Taos , and Chaco Culture National Historical Park , indicate

7176-733: The Compromise of 1850 , these regions were forced by the U.S. government to drop their claims, Texas received $ 10   million in federal funds, California was granted statehood, and officially establishing the Utah Territory ; therein recognizing most of New Mexico's historically established land claims. Pursuant to the compromise, Congress established the New Mexico Territory in September of that year; it included most of present-day Arizona and New Mexico, along with

7332-765: The Las Vegas Valley and what would later become Clark County in Nevada . In 1853 the U.S. acquired the mostly desert southwestern bootheel of the state, along with Arizona's land south of the Gila River, in the Gadsden Purchase , which was needed for the right-of-way to encourage construction of a transcontinental railroad . When the U.S. Civil War broke out in 1861, both Confederate and Union governments claimed ownership and territorial rights over New Mexico Territory. The Confederacy claimed

7488-540: The Manhattan Project , which developed the world's first atomic bomb , and was the site of the first nuclear test, Trinity . In prehistoric times , New Mexico was home to Ancestral Puebloans , the Mogollon culture, and ancestral Ute . Navajos and Apaches arrived in the late 15th century and the Comanches in the early 18th century. The Pueblo peoples occupied several dozen villages, primarily in

7644-582: The Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora to the south. New Mexico's largest city is Albuquerque , and its state capital is Santa Fe , the oldest state capital in the U.S., founded in 1610 as the government seat of Nuevo México in New Spain . New Mexico is the fifth-largest of the fifty states by area, but with just over 2.1 million residents, ranks 36th in population and 45th in population density . Its climate and geography are highly varied, ranging from forested mountains to sparse deserts;

7800-557: The National Landscape Conservation System are managed by the Bureau of Land Management . Units include but are not limited to: New Mexico's National Wildlife Refuges are managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service . Units include: Brine Brines are produced in multiple ways in nature. Modification of seawater via evaporation results in the concentration of salts in the residual fluid,

7956-522: The Pecos , Canadian , San Juan , and Gila . Nearly bisecting New Mexico from north to south, the Rio Grande has played an influential role in the region's history; its fertile floodplain has supported human habitation since prehistoric times, and European settlers initially lived exclusively in its valleys and along its tributaries. The Pecos, which flows roughly parallel to the Rio Grande at its east,

SECTION 50

#1732772360192

8112-679: The Permian Period approximately 250 million years ago. It is one of three sub-basins of the Permian Basin in West Texas and Southeastern New Mexico. It contains a 4,900–9,200 ft (1,500–2,800 m) thick column of sedimentary rock that includes some of the most oil- and gas-rich rocks in the United States. An ancient shallow sea repeatedly filled the basin and evaporated while the basin slowly subsided, leaving behind

8268-515: The Spanish era , and later groups of Mexican Americans since the 19th century. The New Mexican flag , which is among the most recognizable in the U.S., reflects the state's eclectic origins, featuring the ancient sun symbol of the Zia , a Puebloan tribe, with the scarlet and gold coloration of the Spanish flag . The confluence of indigenous, Hispanic (Spanish and Mexican), and American influences

8424-522: The Taos Revolt in 1847 by Hispanos and their Pueblo allies; the insurrection led to the death of territorial governor Charles Bent and the collapse of the civilian government established by Stephen W. Kearny . In response, the U.S. government appointed local Donaciano Vigil as governor to better represent New Mexico, and also vowed to accept the land rights of Nuevomexicans and grant them citizenship. In 1864, President Abraham Lincoln symbolized

8580-588: The Union Army . The end of the war saw rapid economic development and settlement in New Mexico, which attracted homesteaders, ranchers, cowboys, businessmen, and outlaws; many of the folklore characters of the Western genre had their origins in New Mexico, most notably businesswoman Maria Gertrudis Barceló , outlaw Billy the Kid , and lawmen Pat Garrett and Elfego Baca . The influx of "Anglo Americans" from

8736-661: The United States Atomic Energy Commission , later merged into the Department of Energy (DOE), proposed a site in Lyons , Kansas for the isolation and storage of radioactive waste. Ultimately the Lyons site was deemed unusable due to local and regional opposition, and in particular the discovery of unmapped oil and gas wells located in the area. These wells were believed to potentially compromise

8892-716: The Waste Control Specialists low-level waste disposal facility just over the state line near Andrews, Texas, and the International Isotopes, Incorporated facility to be built near Eunice, New Mexico. Various mishaps at the plant in 2014 brought focus to the problem of what to do with the growing backlog of waste and whether or not WIPP would be a safe repository. The 2014 incidents involved a waste explosion and airborne release of radiological material that exposed 21 plant workers to small doses of radiation that were within safety limits. In 1970,

9048-505: The northern and eastern regions exhibit a colder alpine climate , while the west and south are warmer and more arid . The Rio Grande and its fertile valley runs from north-to-south, creating a riparian climate through the center of the state that supports a bosque habitat and distinct Albuquerque Basin climate. One-third of New Mexico's land is federally owned, and the state hosts many protected wilderness areas and national monuments, including three UNESCO World Heritage Sites ,

9204-462: The 18th century, raids by Navajo , Apache , and especially Comanche inhibited the growth and prosperity of the New Mexico. The region's harsh environment and remoteness, surrounded by hostile Native Americans, fostered a greater degree of self-reliance, as well as pragmatic cooperation, between the Pueblo peoples and colonists. Many indigenous communities enjoyed a large measure of autonomy well into

9360-663: The 2,150-foot (660 m) exhaust shaft into the surrounding above-ground environment. Air-monitoring station #107, located 0.5 miles (0.8 km) away, detected the radiotoxins. The filter from station #107 was analyzed by the Carlsbad Environmental Monitoring and Research Center (CEMRC) and found to contain 0.64  becquerels (Bq) per cubic meter of air of americium-241 and 0.014 Bq of plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 per cubic meter of air (equivalent to 0.64 and 0.014 radioactive decay events per second per cubic meter of air). The DOE agreed that there

9516-458: The 2014 events at the WIPP, the DMTPC experiments were put on hold, but are expected to resume after the building is finished and waste is done being placed in the facility. The detector that the DMTPC collaboration had at WIPP was the 10-L DMTPC prototype detector (with active volume of 10 litres, hence the name 10-L or 10L) which started operations at WIPP October 2010. Also the EXO collaboration

SECTION 60

#1732772360192

9672-736: The Aztecs in the early 16th century, the Spanish began exploring what is now the Southwestern United States calling it Nuevo México . In 1581, the Chamuscado and Rodríguez Expedition named the region north of the Rio Grande San Felipe del Nuevo México . The Spaniards had hoped to find wealthy indigenous cultures similar to the Mexica. The indigenous cultures of New Mexico, however, proved to be unrelated to

9828-621: The Department of Energy (DOE) to disregard other proposed sites and study Yucca Mountain exclusively. However, federal funding for the site was terminated in 2011 by amendment to the Department of Defense and Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act , passed on April 14, 2011. Waste that is to be disposed of at WIPP must meet certain "waste acceptance criteria". It accepts transuranic waste generated from DOE activities. The waste must have radioactivity exceeding 100 nanocuries (3.7  kBq ) per gram from TRUs that produce alpha radiation with

9984-540: The EPA and the New Mexico Environment Department . The containers may also contain a limited amount of liquids. The energy released from radioactive materials will dissociate water into hydrogen and oxygen ( radiolysis ). This could then create a potentially explosive environment inside the container. The containers must be vented, as well, to prevent this from happening. All containers must pass

10140-468: The Manhattan Project. The focus on high technology is still a top priority of the state, to the extent that it became a center for unidentified flying objects , especially following the 1947 Roswell incident . New Mexico saw its population nearly double from roughly 532,000 in 1940 to over 954,000 by 1960. In addition to federal personnel and agencies, many residents and businesses moved to

10296-420: The Mexica and lacking in riches, but the name persisted. Before statehood in 1912, the name "New Mexico" loosely applied to various configurations of territories in the same general area, which evolved throughout the Spanish, Mexican, and U.S. periods , but typically encompassed most of present-day New Mexico along with sections of neighboring states. The first known inhabitants of New Mexico were members of

10452-608: The Mexican and American militaries. The United States Congress admitted New Mexico as the 47th state on January 6, 1912. It had been eligible for statehood 60 years earlier, but was delayed due to the perception that its majority Hispanic population was "alien" to U.S. culture and political values. When the U.S. entered the First World War roughly five years later, New Mexicans volunteered in significant numbers, in part to prove their loyalty as full-fledged citizens of

10608-640: The Mexican government, culminating in the Revolt of 1837 ; at the same time, the region became more economically dependent on the U.S. Following the Mexican–American War in 1848, the U.S. annexed New Mexico as part of the larger New Mexico Territory . It played a central role in U.S. westward expansion and was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6, 1912. New Mexico's history has contributed to its unique demographic and cultural character. It

10764-630: The Pueblos, governors were forbearing in their approach to the indigenous peoples, such as was with governor Tomás Vélez Cachupín ; the comparatively large reservations in New Mexico and Arizona are partly a legacy of Spanish treaties recognizing indigenous land claims in Nuevo México. Nevertheless, relations between the various indigenous groups and Spanish settlers remained nebulous and complex, varying from trade and commerce to cultural assimilation and intermarriage to total warfare. During most of

10920-416: The Rio Grande valley of northern New Mexico. Spanish explorers and settlers arrived in the 16th century from present-day Mexico. Isolated by its rugged terrain, New Mexico was a peripheral part of the viceroyalty of New Spain dominated by Comancheria . Following Mexican independence in 1821, it became an autonomous region of Mexico, albeit increasingly threatened by the centralizing policies of

11076-488: The U.S. The state ranked fifth in the nation for military service, enlisting more than 17,000 recruits from all 33 counties; over 500 New Mexicans were killed in the war. Indigenous-Hispanic families had long been established since the Spanish and Mexican era, but most American settlers in the state had an uneasy relationship with the large Native American tribes. Most indigenous New Mexicans lived on reservations and near old placitas and villas . In 1924, Congress passed

11232-753: The U.S. reclassified the land as part of the Missouri Territory . This region of New Mexico (along with territory comprising present-day southeastern Colorado, the Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles , and southwestern Kansas ) was ceded to Spain under the Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819. When the First Mexican Republic began to transition into the Centralist Republic of Mexico , they began to centralize power ignoring

11388-461: The WIPP, verified statements, facts, and studies conducted and released by the DOE regarding the facility. The stewardship this group provided effectively lowered public fear and let the facility progress with little public opposition in comparison to similar facilities around the nation such as Yucca Mountain in Nevada. The EEG, in addition to acting as a check for the government agencies overseeing

11544-429: The WIPP. Despite apparent progress on the facility, construction still remained costly and complicated. Originally conceptualized in the 1970s as a warehouse for waste, the repository now had regulations similar to those of nuclear reactors . As of December 1991, the plant had been under construction for 20 years and was estimated to have cost over one billion dollars (equivalent to $ 1.99 billion in 2023 dollars). At

11700-495: The WIPP. The U.S. House of Representatives approved the facility on October 6, 1992 and the U.S. Senate passed a bill allowing the opening of the facility on October 8 of the same year. The bill was met with much opposition in the Senate. Senator Richard H. Bryan fought the bill based on safety issues that concerned a similar facility located in Nevada , the state for which he was serving as senator. His efforts almost prevented

11856-514: The ability of the planned facility to contain nuclear waste. In 1973, as a result of these concerns, and because of positive interest from the southern New Mexico community, the DOE relocated the site of the proposed nuclear waste repository, now called the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP), to the Delaware Basin salt beds located near Carlsbad , New Mexico . The Delaware Basin is a sedimentary basin formed largely during

12012-596: The area was chosen as a host medium for the WIPP project. As of March 2022, the WIPP has received 40% of the authorized amount of waste set by the Land Withdrawal Act. More rooms and panels are to be added to accommodate more waste. In order to address growing public unrest concerning construction of the WIPP, the New Mexico Environmental Evaluation Group (EEG) was created in 1978. This group, charged with overseeing

12168-581: The average high temperature in July ranges from 99 °F (37 °C) at the lower elevations down to 78   °F (26   °C) at the higher elevations. In the colder months of November to March, many cities in New Mexico can have nighttime temperature lows in the teens above zero, or lower. The highest temperature recorded in New Mexico was 122 °F (50 °C) at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) near Loving on June 27, 1994;

12324-519: The basin there had been geological disturbances that had moved interbed layers into a nearly vertical position. In response, the site was moved toward the more stable center of the basin where the Salado Formation salt beds are the thickest and are perfectly horizontal. Some observers suggested, early in the investigations, that the geological complexity of the basin was problematic, causing the hollowed-out caverns to be unstable. However, what

12480-575: The bill from passing. New Mexico senators Pete V. Domenici and Jeff Bingaman effectively reassured Senator Bryan that these issues would be addressed in the 103rd Congress . The final legislation provided safety standards requested by the House of Representatives and an expedited timeline requested by the Senate. The final legislation mandated that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issue revised safety standards for

12636-481: The concentration level. Using one of several classification of groundwater based on total dissolved solids (TDS), brine is water containing more than 100,000 mg/L TDS. Brine is commonly produced during well completion operations, particularly after the hydraulic fracturing of a well. Brine is a common agent in food processing and cooking. Brining is used to preserve or season the food. Brining can be applied to vegetables , cheeses , fruit and some fish in

12792-499: The construction of desalination plants with more corrosion-resistant coatings . Therefore, the concentration values of heavy metals in the discharge of SWRO plants are much lower than the acute toxicity levels to generate environmental impacts on marine ecosystems. The discharge is generally dumped back into the sea, through an underwater outfall or coastal release, due to its lower energy and economic cost compared to other discharge methods. Due to its increase in salinity,

12948-634: The desert between Socorro and Alamogordo , which is today part of the White Sands Missile Range . As a legacy of the Second World War, New Mexico continues to receive large amounts of federal government spending on major military and research institutions. In addition to the White Sands Missile Range, the state hosts three U.S. Air Force bases that were established or expanded during the war. While

13104-436: The discharge has a greater density compared to the surrounding seawater. Therefore, when the discharge reaches the sea, it can form a saline plume that can tends to follow the bathymetric line of the bottom until it is completely diluted. The distribution of the salt plume may depend on different factors, such as the production capacity of the plant, the discharge method, the oceanographic and environmental conditions of

13260-554: The discharge point, among others. Brine discharge might lead to an increase in salinity above certain threshold levels that has the potential to affect benthic communities , especially those more sensitive to osmotic pressure, finally having an effect on their abundance and diversity. However, if appropriate mitigation measures are applied, the potential environmental impacts of discharges from SWRO plants can be correctly minimized. Some examples can be found in countries such as Spain , Israel , Chile or Australia , in which

13416-493: The discharge, and which could affect the physical-chemical quality of the effluent . However, these are practically consumed during the process and the concentrations in the discharge are very low, which are practically diluted during the discharge, without affecting marine ecosystems . The materials used in SWRO plants are dominated by non-metallic components and stainless steels , since lower operating temperatures allow

13572-481: The eastern U.S. (which include African Americans and recent European immigrants) reshaped the state's economy, culture, and politics. Into the late 19th century, the majority of New Mexicans remained ethnic mestizos of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry (primarily Pueblo, Navajo, Apache, Genízaro, and Comanche), many of whom had roots going back to Spanish settlement in the 16th century; this distinctly New Mexican ethnic group became known as Hispanos and developed

13728-600: The economic development and welfare of their peoples. The Albuquerque metropolitan area is home to several casinos as a result. In the 21st century, employment growth areas in New Mexico include electronic circuitry , scientific research , information technology, casinos , art of the American Southwest , food, film , and media, particularly in Albuquerque . The state was the founding location of Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems , which led to

13884-614: The effects of reduced radiation environment to biological systems. The Low Background Radiation Experiment was stopped along with all other experiments in February 2014, but continued after summer 2016 at WIPP and has been ongoing since. The 2000 testing of actinide transport within the Culebra Dolomite from the surrounding area of Carlsbad, New Mexico, was one of many experiments at this location to address concerns for lab safety. Other geology/geophysics experiments have taken place at WIPP, as have some special experiments relating to

14040-404: The facility against the standards set forth by the EPA. Evaluation of the facility continued for four years, resulting in a cumulative total of 25 years of evaluation. In May 1998, the EPA concluded that there was "reasonable expectation" that the facility would contain the vast majority of the waste interred there. The first nuclear waste arrived to the plant on March 26, 1999. This waste shipment

14196-535: The facility. In total, 22 workers were exposed to radioactive contaminants equaling that of a standard chest x-ray. The Carlsbad Current-Argus wrote: "the radiation leak occurred on the evening of February 14, according to new information made public at a news conference [on February 20]. Joe Franco, manager of the DOE Carlsbad Field Office, said an underground air monitor detected high levels of alpha and beta radiation activity consistent [with]

14352-511: The facility. It also required the EPA to approve testing plans for the facility within ten months. The legislation stated that the security standards mandated in the bill were only applicable to the WIPP in New Mexico and not to other facilities in the United States. This clause caused Senator Bryan to oppose the bill, as he wanted safety standards mandated by the bill to apply to the facility in Nevada as well. In 1994, Congress ordered Sandia National Laboratories to begin an extensive evaluation of

14508-407: The facility’s safety. The brine could leak into the repository and either dissolve radioactivity or entrain particulate matter with radioactive waste to the surface. The contaminated brine would then need to be cleaned and properly disposed of. There is no drinking water near the site, so possible water pollution is not a concern. After deep drilling multiple times, a final site was selected. The site

14664-745: The fact that there are no long-term disposition plans for transuranic waste, including 5 tons of plutonium that are in-situ at the Savannah River Site, as well as water from the Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Washington State. In an article in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Alvarez wrote that "Wastes containing plutonium blew through the WIPP ventilation system, traveling 2,150 feet to

14820-595: The field, powerful indigenous groups such as the Navajo , Mescalero Apache, Kiowa , and Comanche were brutally pacified through a scorched earth policy, and thereafter forced into barren and remote reservations. Sporadic conflicts continued into the late 1880s, most notably the guerilla campaigns led by Apache chiefs Victorio and his son-in-law Nana . The political and cultural clashes between these competing ethnic groups sometimes culminated in mob violence, including lynchings of Native, Hispanic, and Mexican peoples, as

14976-614: The fight for women's suffrage in the United States , New Mexico's Hispano and Mexican women at the forefront included Trinidad Cabeza de Baca, Dolores "Lola" Armijo, Mrs. James Chavez, Aurora Lucero, Anita "Mrs. Secundino" Romero, Arabella "Mrs. Cleofas" Romero and her daughter, Marie. A major oil discovery in 1928 near the town of Hobbs brought greater wealth to the state, especially in surrounding Lea County . The New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources called it "the most important single discovery of oil in New Mexico's history". Nevertheless, agriculture and cattle ranching remained

15132-475: The founding of Microsoft in Albuquerque. Intel maintains their F11X in Rio Rancho , which also hosts an IT center for HP Inc. New Mexico's culinary scene became recognized and is now a source of revenue for the state. Albuquerque Studios has become a filming hub for Netflix , and it was brought international media production companies to the state like NBCUniversal . The COVID-19 pandemic

15288-506: The freezing temperature of seawater and can produce a feature called a brinicle where cool brines descend, freezing the surrounding seawater. The brine cropping out at the surface as saltwater springs are known as "licks" or "salines". The contents of dissolved solids in groundwater vary highly from one location to another on Earth, both in terms of specific constituents (e.g. halite , anhydrite , carbonates , gypsum , fluoride -salts, organic halides , and sulfate -salts) and regarding

15444-461: The high military presence brought considerable investment, it has also been the center of controversy; on May 22, 1957, a B-36 accidentally dropped a nuclear bomb 4.5 miles from the control tower while landing at Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque; only its conventional "trigger" detonated. The Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories , two of the nation's leading federal scientific research facilities , originated from

15600-441: The higher temperature of brine, the system efficiency over air blast freezing can be higher. High-value fish usually are frozen at much lower temperatures, below the practical temperature limit for brine. Brine is an auxiliary agent in water softening and water purification systems involving ion exchange technology. The most common example are household dishwashers , utilizing sodium chloride in form of dishwasher salt . Brine

15756-406: The late 19th century due to the improved governance. To encourage settlement in its vulnerable periphery, Spain awarded land grants to European settlers in Nuevo México; due to the scarcity of water throughout the region, the vast majority of colonists resided in the central valley of the Rio Grande and its tributaries. Most communities were walled enclaves consisting of adobe houses that opened onto

15912-475: The least. Higher altitudes receive around 40 inches (1,000 mm), while the lowest elevations see as little as 8 to 10 inches (200 to 250 millimetres). Annual temperatures can range from 65 °F (18 °C) in the southeast to below 40 °F (4 °C) in the northern mountains, with the average being the mid-50s °F (12 °C). During the summer, daytime temperatures can often exceed 100 °F (38 °C) at elevations below 5,000 feet (1,500 m);

16068-810: The lowest recorded temperature is −57 °F (−49 °C) at Ciniza (near Jamestown ) on January 13, 1963. New Mexico's stable climate and sparse population provides for clearer skies and less light pollution , making it a popular site for several major astronomical observatories , including the Apache Point Observatory , the Very Large Array , and the Magdalena Ridge Observatory , among others. Owing to its varied topography , New Mexico has six distinct vegetation zones that provide diverse sets of habitats for many plants and animals. The Upper Sonoran Zone

16224-608: The mitigation measures adopted reduce the area affected by the discharge, guaranteeing a sustainable development of the desalination process without significant impacts on marine ecosystems. When noticeable effects have been detected on the environment surrounding discharge areas, it generally corresponds to old desalination plants in which the correct mitigation measures were not implemented. Some examples can be found in Spain, Australia or Chile, where it has been shown that saline plumes do not exceed values of 5% with respect to

16380-401: The most of any U.S. state. New Mexico's economy is highly diversified, including cattle ranching , agriculture, lumber, scientific and technological research, tourism, and the arts; major sectors include mining, oil and gas, aerospace, media , and film. Its total gross domestic product (GDP) in 2020 was $ 95.73 billion, with a GDP per capita of roughly $ 46,300. State tax policy

16536-414: The natural salinity of the sea in a radius less than 100 m from the point of discharge when proper measures are adopted. The mitigation measures that are typically employed to prevent negatively impact sensitive marine environment are listed below: Currently, in many countries, such as Spain , Israel , Chile and Australia , the development of a rigorous environmental impact assessment process

16692-626: The neutrinoless double beta decay searching MAJORANA Project detectors called Segmented Enriched Germanium Assembly ( SEGA ) and Multiple Element Germanium Array ( MEGA ); these were prototype detectors used to develop the measurement apparatus of the collaboration that was deployed in 2004 in WIPP. Since then (2014 onwards), the MAJORANA collaboration has constructed a detector, the MAJORANA Demonstrator, at Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF) at Lead, South Dakota . The MAJORANA collaboration remained active (as of 2019) and aimed to construct

16848-493: The newly constructed caverns. Various structural and environmental tests would then be performed on the facility to verify its integrity and to prove its ability to safely contain nuclear waste. Opposition from various external organizations delayed actual testing into the early 1990s. Attempts at testing were resumed in October 1991 with US Secretary of Energy James Watkins announcing that he would begin transportation of waste to

17004-405: The northwest corner of New Mexico is high desert with cold winters, featuring sagebrush , shadescale , greasewood , and other plants adapted to the saline and seleniferous soil. The mountainous north hosts a wide array of vegetation types corresponding to elevation gradients, such as piñon-juniper woodlands near the base, through evergreen conifers , spruce - fir and aspen forests in

17160-546: The northwest, to less than 4,000 feet in the southeast. The highest point is Wheeler Peak at over 13,160 feet (4,010 meters) in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, while the lowest is the Red Bluff Reservoir at around 2,840 feet (870 meters), in the southeastern corner of the state. In addition to the Rio Grande, which is tied for the fourth-longest river in the U.S. , New Mexico has four other major river systems:

17316-679: The operations of the Plant as a repository of radioactive waste. New Mexico New Mexico is a state in the Southwestern region of the United States. It is one of the Mountain States of the southern Rocky Mountains , sharing the Four Corners region with Utah , Colorado , and Arizona . It also borders the state of Texas to the east and southeast, Oklahoma to the northeast, and shares an international border with

17472-1072: The outfall of a wastewater treatment or power plant. Since brine is heavier than seawater and would accumulate on the ocean bottom, it requires methods to ensure proper diffusion, such as installing underwater diffusers in the sewerage . Other methods include drying in evaporation ponds , injecting to deep wells, and storing and reusing the brine for irrigation, de-icing or dust control purposes. Technologies for treatment of polluted brine include: membrane filtration processes, such as reverse osmosis and forward osmosis ; ion exchange processes such as electrodialysis or weak acid cation exchange ; or evaporation processes, such as thermal brine concentrators and crystallizers employing mechanical vapour recompression and steam. New methods for membrane brine concentration, employing osmotically assisted reverse osmosis and related processes, are beginning to gain ground as part of zero liquid discharge systems (ZLD). Brine consists of concentrated solution of Na and Cl ions. Sodium chloride per se does not exist in water: it

17628-591: The primary economic activities. New Mexico was greatly transformed by the U.S. entry into the Second World War in December 1941. As in the First World War, patriotism ran high among New Mexicans, including among marginalized Hispanic and indigenous communities; on a per capita basis, New Mexico produced more volunteers, and suffered more casualties, than any other state. The war also spurred economic development, particularly in extractive industries, with

17784-571: The process of being tested. On Thursday, February 27, DOE announced that it sent out "a letter to tell people in two counties what they do know so far. Officials said it is too early to know what that means for the workers' health." Additional testing would be done on employees who were working at the site the day after the leak. Above ground, 182 employees continued to work. A February 27 update included comments on plans to discover what occurred below ground first by using unmanned probes and then people. The Southwest Research and Information Center released

17940-476: The production of nuclear fuel and weapons . Although much less potent than nuclear reactor byproducts, this waste still remains radioactive for approximately 24,000 years. This change in classification led to a decrease in safety parameters for the proposed facility, allowing construction to continue at a faster pace. The first extensive testing of the facility was due to begin in 1988. The proposed testing procedures involved interring samples of low level waste in

18096-518: The project valuable money and time by preventing a drastic relocation. In 1979, the U.S. Congress authorized construction of the facility. In addition to formal authorization, Congress redefined the level of waste to be stored in the WIPP from high temperature to transuranic , or low level, waste. Transuranic waste often consists of materials which have come in contact with radioactive substances such as plutonium and uranium . This often includes gloves, tools, rags, and assorted machinery often used in

18252-480: The project, acted as a valuable advisor. In a 1981 drilling, pressurized brine was again discovered. The site was set to be abandoned when the EEG stepped in and suggested a series of tests on the brine and the surrounding area. These tests were conducted and the results showed that the brine deposit was relatively small and was isolated from other deposits. Drilling in the area was deemed safe due to these results. This saved

18408-612: The province of New Mexico became part of the First Mexican Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence . Upon its secession from Mexico in 1836, the Republic of Texas claimed the portion east of the Rio Grande , based on the erroneous assumption that the older Hispanic settlements of the upper Rio Grande were the same as the newly established Mexican settlements of Texas. The Texan Santa Fe Expedition

18564-446: The quantity of this pre-1970 plutonium waste is 1,300 times more than the amount permitted to "leak" into the environment at WIPP; however, much of this waste is simply buried a few feet underground at DOE sites. The source of contamination was later found to be a barrel that exploded on February 14 because contractors at Los Alamos National Laboratory packed it with organic cat litter instead of clay cat litter. Other barrels with

18720-526: The question of whether or not WIPP would be a safe replacement for the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository in Nevada, as a destination for all waste generated at U.S. commercial nuclear power plants. The cost of the 2014 accident was initially expected to exceed $ 2 billion and disrupted other programs in various nuclear-industry sites. On January 9, 2017, the plant was formally reopened after three years of cleanup costing $ 500 million, which

18876-551: The recognition of Native land rights with the Lincoln Canes, sceptres of office gifted to each of the Pueblos, a tradition dating back to Spanish and Mexican eras. After the Republic of Texas was admitted as a state in 1846, it attempted to claim the eastern portion of New Mexico east of the Rio Grande, while the California Republic and State of Deseret each claimed parts of western New Mexico. Under

19032-447: The region, with additional space for translation into future languages. Pictograms are also being considered, such as stick figure images and the iconic The Scream from Edvard Munch 's painting. Complete details about the plant will not be stored on site; instead, they would be distributed to archives and libraries around the world. The team plans to submit their final plan to the U.S. Government by around 2028 and they will finalize

19188-522: The same problem were then sealed in larger containers. Anthropologist Vincent Ialenti has examined the political, social, and financial triggers to this organic cat litter error in detail, linking it to the accelerated pace of the Department of Energy's and State of New Mexico's 3706 nuclear waste cleanup campaign, which ran from 2011 to 2014. Ialenti's study was published in The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists in July 2018. The 2014 incidents raised

19344-500: The scale of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings within the area. These cultures form part of the broader Oasisamerica region of pre-Columbian North America. The vast trade networks of the Ancestral Puebloans led to legends throughout Mesoamerica and the Aztec Empire ( Mexico ) of an unseen northern empire that rivaled their own, which they called Yancuic Mexico , literally translated as "a new Mexico". Aztec legends of

19500-813: The southern tract as its own Arizona Territory , and as part of the Trans-Mississippi Theater of the war, waged the ambitious New Mexico Campaign to control the American Southwest and open up access to Union California. Confederate power in the New Mexico Territory was effectively broken after the Battle of Glorieta Pass in 1862, though the Confederate territorial government continued to operate out of Texas. More than 8,000 soldiers from New Mexico Territory served in

19656-479: The sovereignty of Santa Fe and disregarding Pueblo land rights. This led to the Chimayó Rebellion in 1837, led by genízaro José Gonzales. The death of then governor Albino Pérez during the revolt, was met with further hostility. Though José Gonzales was executed due to his involvement in the governor's death, subsequent governors Manuel Armijo and Juan Bautista Vigil y Alarid agreed with some of

19812-415: The state becoming a leading supplier of several strategic resources. New Mexico's rough terrain and geographic isolation made it an attractive location for several sensitive military and scientific installations; the most famous was Los Alamos , one of the central facilities of the Manhattan Project , where the first atomic bombs were designed and manufactured. The first bomb was tested at Trinity site in

19968-658: The state is known as the Bootheel . The 37°N parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states of New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in New Mexico's northwestern corner. Its surface water area is about 292 square miles (760 km ). Despite its popular depiction as mostly arid desert, New Mexico has one of the most diverse landscapes of any U.S. state, ranging from wide, auburn-colored deserts and verdant grasslands , to broken mesas and high, snow-capped peaks. Close to

20124-424: The state is semi-arid to arid, with areas of continental and alpine climates at higher elevations. New Mexico's statewide average precipitation is 13.7 inches (350 mm) a year, with average monthly amounts peaking in the summer, particularly in the more rugged north-central area around Albuquerque and in the south. Generally, the eastern third of the state receives the most rainfall, while the western third receives

20280-420: The state of Oklahoma , and 2.2 miles (3.5 kilometres) west of 103°W longitude with Texas due to a 19th-century surveying error. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, with Chihuahua making up about 90% of that. The western border with Arizona runs along the 109° 03'W longitude. The southwestern corner of

20436-470: The state of the surrounding marine environment. Under the context of this environmental assessment process, numerous countries require compliance with an Environmental Monitoring Program (PVA), in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the preventive and corrective measures established during the environmental assessment process, and thus guarantee the operation of desalination plants without producing significant environmental impacts. The PVAs establishes

20592-467: The state, or 24.7 million of 77.8 million acres, is held by the U.S. government, the tenth-highest percentage in the country. More than half this land is under the Bureau of Land Management as either public domain land or National Conservation Lands , while another third is managed by the U.S. Forest Service as national forests . New Mexico was central to the early–20th century conservation movement , with Gila Wilderness being designated

20748-548: The state, particularly from the northeast, often drawn by its warm climate and low taxes. The pattern continues into the 21st century, with New Mexico adding over 400,000 residents between 2000 and 2020. Native Americans from New Mexico fought for the United States in both world wars. Returning veterans were disappointed to find their civil rights limited by state discrimination. In Arizona and New Mexico, veterans challenged state laws or practices prohibiting them from voting. In 1948, after veteran Miguel Trujillo Sr. of Isleta Pueblo

20904-481: The surface, contaminating at least 17 workers, and spreading small amounts of radioactive material into the environment." The URS Corporation, who oversees WIPP, removed and demoted the contracted manager of the repository. Alvarez ponders the notion of "contract handling" of radioactive waste because it deploys conventional processing practices that do not take into consideration the tens of thousands of containers buried before 1970 at several DOE sites. Alvarez states that

21060-442: The territorial government, whose officials were appointed by the U.S. federal government; subsequently, newer residents of New Mexico generally favored maintaining territorial status, which they saw as a check on Native and Hispano influence. A consequence of the civil war was intensifying conflict with indigenous peoples, which was part of the broader American Indian Wars along the frontier. The withdrawal of troops and material for

21216-399: The time, WIPP officials reported over 28 different organizations claimed authority over operations of the facility. In November 1991, a federal judge ruled that Congress must approve WIPP before any waste, even for testing purposes, was sent to the facility. This indefinitely delayed testing until Congress gave its approval. The 102nd United States Congress passed legislation allowing use of

21372-861: The transitionary zone, and Krummholz , and alpine tundra at the very top. The Apachian zone tucked into the southwestern bootheel of the state has high-calcium soil, oak woodlands , Arizona cypress , and other plants that are not found in other parts of the state. The southern sections of the Rio Grande and Pecos valleys have 20,000 square miles (52,000 square kilometres) of New Mexico's best grazing land and irrigated farmland. New Mexico's varied climate and vegetation zones consequently support diverse wildlife. Black bears , bighorn sheep , bobcats , cougars , deer , and elk live in habitats above 7,000 feet, while coyotes , jackrabbits , kangaroo rats , javelina , porcupines , pronghorn antelope , western diamondbacks , and wild turkeys live in less mountainous and elevated regions. The iconic roadrunner , which

21528-562: The underlying sentiment. This led to New Mexico becoming financially and politically tied to the U.S., and preferring trade along the Santa Fe Trail . Following the victory of the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–48), Mexico ceded its northern territories to the U.S., including California, Texas, and New Mexico. The Americans were initially heavy-handed in their treatment of former Mexican citizens, triggering

21684-558: The various fissures and cracks surrounding the casks of waste. After approximately 75 years, the waste will be completely isolated from the environment. The Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Repository is an unfinished, currently defunct deep geological repository in Nye County, Nevada . In 1987, Congress selected Yucca Mountain to be researched as the potential first permanent repository of nuclear waste, and directed

21840-710: The war effort had prompted raids by hostile tribes, and the federal government moved to subdue the many native communities that had been effectively autonomous throughout the colonial period. Following the elimination of the Confederate threat, Brigadier General James Carleton , who had assumed command of the Military Department of New Mexico in 1862, led what he described as a "merciless war against all hostile tribes" that aimed to "force them to their knees, and then confine them to reservations where they could be Christianized and instructed in agriculture." With famed frontiersman Kit Carson placed in charge of troops in

21996-657: The warning messages by 2033. A portion of the site is used to house underground physics experiments which require shielding from cosmic rays . Although only moderately deep as such laboratories go (1585 meter water equivalent shielding), the site has several advantages. The salt is easy to excavate, dry (no water to pump out), and salt is much lower in naturally occurring radionuclides than rock. The WIPP plant suffered an accident in February 2014 that forced all scientific activities to cease; for most experiments, it took one to two years to recover, and not all experiments recovered to continue their activities in WIPP. Especially it

22152-469: The waste buried at WIPP." Regarding the elevated levels of plutonium and americium detected outside the nuclear waste repository, Ryan Flynn, New Mexico Environment Secretary stated during a news conference: "Events like this simply should never occur. From the state's perspective, one event is far too many." On February 26, 2014, the DOE announced that 13 WIPP above-ground workers had tested positive for exposure to radioactive material. Other employees were in

22308-540: The waste site, will sit a roofless, 15-foot (4.6 m) granite room providing more information. The team intends to etch warnings and informational messages into the granite slabs and pillars. This information will be recorded in the six official languages of the United Nations (English, Spanish, Russian, French, Chinese , Arabic ) as well as the Native American Navajo language native to

22464-455: The waste. Exact placement of the construction site in the Delaware Basin changed multiple times due to safety concerns. Brine deposits located below the salt deposits in the Delaware Basin posed a potential safety problem. The brine was first discovered when a 1975 drilling released a pressurized deposit of the liquid from below the repository level. Constructing the plant near one of these deposits could, under specific circumstances, compromise

22620-646: The world's first wilderness area in 1924. The state also hosts nine of the country's 84 national monuments , the most of any state after Arizona; these include the second oldest monument, El Morro , which was created in 1906, and the Gila Cliff Dwellings , proclaimed in 1907. New Mexico's national parks , together with national monuments and trails managed by the National Park Service , are listed as follows: New Mexico's national monuments, conservation areas, and other units of

22776-438: The world's great art centers. The presence of artists such as Georgia O'Keeffe attracted many others, including those along Canyon Road . In the late 20th century, Native Americans were authorized by federal law to establish gaming casinos on their reservations under certain conditions, in states which had authorized such gaming. Such facilities have helped tribes close to population centers generate revenues for reinvestment in

22932-643: Was a popular route for explorers, as was the Canadian River, which rises in the mountainous north and flows east across the arid plains. The San Juan and Gila lie west of the Continental Divide , in the northwest and southwest, respectively. With the exception of the Gila, all major rivers are dammed in New Mexico and provide a major water source for irrigation and flood control. New Mexico has long been known for its dry, temperate climate. Overall

23088-406: Was a release of radioactivity from the repository and confirmed that "The event took place starting at 14 February 2014 at 23:14 and continued to 15 February 2014 14:45." The DOE also confirmed that "A large shift in wind direction can be seen to occur around 8:30 AM on 2/15/14." The EPA reported on the radiological release on their WIPP News page. After analysis by CEMRC, the station A filter

23244-539: Was attempted at the Frisco shootout in 1884. Nevertheless, prominent figures from across these communities, and from both the Democratic and Republican parties , attempted to fight this prejudice and forge a more cohesive, multiethnic New Mexican identity; they include lawmen Baca and Garrett , and governors Curry , Hagerman , and Otero . Indeed, some territorial governors, like Lew Wallace , had served in both

23400-572: Was confirmed to have reached the U.S. state of New Mexico on March 11, 2020. On December 23, 2020, the New Mexico Department of Health reported 1,174 new COVID-19 cases and 40 deaths, bringing the cumulative statewide totals to 133,242 cases and 2,243 deaths since the start of the pandemic. With a total area of 121,590 square miles (314,900 km ), New Mexico is the fifth-largest state , after Alaska, Texas, California, and Montana. Its eastern border lies along 103°W longitude with

23556-627: Was established by Pedro de Peralta as a more permanent capital at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in 1610. Towards the end of the 17th century, the Pueblo Revolt drove out the Spanish and occupied these early cities for over a decade. After the death of Pueblo leader Popé , Diego de Vargas restored the area to Spanish rule, with Puebloans offered greater cultural and religious liberties. Returning settlers founded La Villa de Alburquerque in 1706 at Old Town Albuquerque as

23712-441: Was found on February 15, 2014 to be contaminated with 4,335.71 Bq of Am-241 per every 35 cubic feet (1 m), and 671.61 Bq of plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 per every 35 cubic feet (1 m). Bob Alvarez, former DOE official, stated that the long-term ramifications of the WIPP issue are grounded in the fact that the DOE has 66,000 m (2,300,000 cu ft) of transuranic waste that has not been disposed of due to

23868-408: Was from Los Alamos National Laboratory , a major nuclear weapons research and development facility located north of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Another shipment followed on April 6 of the same year. These shipments marked the beginning of plant operations. As of December 2010, the plant had received and stored 9,207 shipments (2,703,700 cu ft or 76,561 m) of waste. The majority of this waste

24024-550: Was launched to seize the contested territory but failed with the capture and imprisonment of the entire army by the Hispanic New Mexico militia. During the turn of the 19th century, the extreme northeastern part of New Mexico, north of the Canadian River and east of the spine of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, was still claimed by France, which sold it in 1803 as part of the Louisiana Purchase . In 1812,

24180-470: Was told by the county registrar that he could not register to vote, he filed suit against the county in federal district court. A three-judge panel overturned as unconstitutional New Mexico's provisions that Native Americans who did not pay taxes (and could not document if they had paid taxes) could not vote. In the early to mid-20th century, the art presence in Santa Fe grew, and it became known as one of

24336-401: Was transported to the facility via railroad or truck. The final facility contains a total of 56 storage rooms located approximately 2,130 ft (650 m) underground. Each room is 300 ft (90 m) in length. The plant is estimated to continue accepting waste for 25 to 35 years and is estimated to cost a grand total of 19 billion dollars. On February 5, 2014 at around 11:00 a.m.,

#191808