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88-581: Newcastle was a royalist exile in continental Europe in the latter part of the First English Civil War and the Interregnum . He then returned to England and lived to 1676. His life shows many instances of cultural and intellectual patronage. A scientific interest was optics . The group involved in these studies included Charles Cavendish (William's brother), Thomas Hobbes , Robert Payne and Walter Warner . This core "academy" group

176-638: A bigger issue in Royalist areas like Cornwall and Hertfordshire . The deaths of John Pym and John Hampden in 1643 removed a unifying force within Parliament, and deepened divisions. Supported by the Scots, the 'Peace Party' were concerned by political radicals like the Levellers , and wanted an immediate, negotiated settlement. The 'War Party' fundamentally mistrusted Charles, and saw military victory as

264-428: A family or a neighborhood in a pre-modern (rural) society; Gesellschaft by a joint-stock company or a state in a modern society, i.e. the society when Tönnies lived. Gesellschaft relationships arose in an urban and capitalist setting, characterized by individualism and impersonal monetary connections between people. Social ties were often instrumental and superficial, with self-interest and exploitation increasingly

352-555: A form of constitutional monarchy . When it came to choosing sides, however, individual choices were heavily influenced by religious belief or personal loyalty. Horrified at the devastation inflicted on Europe by the Thirty Years War , many tried to remain neutral, or took up arms with great reluctance. When fighting began in August 1642, both sides believed it would be settled by a single battle, but it soon became clear this

440-746: A goal to be kept up, their members being means for this goal. Gesellschaft —often translated as society —on the other hand, refers to groups that are sustained by it being instrumental for their members' aims and goals. The equilibrium in Gemeinschaft is achieved through means of social control , such as morals, conformism , and exclusion, while Gesellschaft keeps its balance through police, laws, tribunals, and prisons. Amish and Hasidic communities are examples of Gemeinschaft , while states are types of Gesellschaft . Rules in Gemeinschaft are implicit, while Gesellschaft has explicit rules (written laws). Gemeinschaft may be exemplified historically by

528-460: A means to further his individual goals, so it is purposive and future-oriented. Groupings around the latter are called Gesellschaft. Whereas the membership in a Gemeinschaft is self-fulfilling, a Gesellschaft is instrumental for its members. In pure sociology—theoretically—these two standard types of will are to be strictly separated; in applied sociology—empirically—they are always mixed. Gender Polarity in " Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" What

616-895: A month earlier, ending plans for taking the war into Scotland. The loss of Carmarthen and Chepstow in South Wales cut connections with Royalist supporters in Ireland (see Map) and Charles made his way back to Oxford, where he spent the winter besieged by the New Model. Following the fall of Hereford in December 1645, the Royalists held only Devon, Cornwall, North Wales, and isolated garrisons in Exeter, Oxford, Newark, and Scarborough Castle . Chester surrendered in February, after which

704-427: A nineteenth-century view of the public world belonging to males, while women are relegated to the private realm, as it links together Gemeinschaft/home/woman as opposed to Gesellschaft/marketplace/man. Views on Family In his article " Funfzehn Thesen zur Erneuerung eines Familienlebens ," published in 1893, he claims that the dissolution of family life has tainted modern society's blood. Tonnies believed that one of

792-594: A proponent of atomism . Besides Hobbes, who joined them in Paris, the Cavendishes knew at this period René Descartes , Kenelm Digby , and Christiaan Huygens . Much of the latter part of their exile was spent at Antwerp ; there, though in debt, they lived in the Rubenshuis . Other associations were with Walter Charleton who came to know Margaret Cavendish (not necessarily abroad, since she returned to England for

880-664: A senior Covenanter who was deeply suspicious of Cromwell and the Independents, but these discussions ultimately went nowhere. Prince Rupert was sent to supervise the defence of Bristol and the West, while Charles made his way to Raglan Castle , then headed for the Scottish border. He reached as far north as Doncaster in Yorkshire, before retreating to Oxford in the face of superior Parliamentarian forces. In July, Fairfax lifted

968-427: A separate Church of England, as well as religious Independents who opposed any state religion. The Solemn League created a Committee of Both Kingdoms to co-ordinate strategy in all three war zones, England, Scotland and Ireland, although Pym's death in December 1643 deprived Parliament of their most important leader. The Scots under Leven were ordered to take Newcastle, securing coal supplies for London, and closing

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1056-819: A single battle and quick victory; for the Royalists, this meant capturing London, for Parliament, 'rescuing' the king from his 'evil counsellors'. After failing to capture Hull in July, Charles left York for Nottingham , chosen for its proximity to Royalist areas in the Midlands and Northern Wales . Particularly in the early stages of the conflict, locally raised troops were reluctant to serve outside their own county, and most of those recruited in Yorkshire refused to accompany him. On 22 August, Charles formally declared war on Parliamentarian 'rebels', but by early September his army still numbered less than 2,500, with much of England hoping to remain neutral. In contrast, financing from

1144-579: A time), and William Brereton, 3rd Baron Brereton . Hobbes was employed by another branch of the Cavendish family (the Devonshire Cavendishes, who owned Chatsworth House ). His association with Welbeck started at a date that is not completely clear. It was certainly by 1631, when he was tutor to a different Earl of the same name, William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire . But possibly Hobbes had met Mansfield (as he then was) by 1627, on

1232-523: A tour of the Peak District , according to surviving poems (his own and by Richard Andrews ), as related by Noel Malcolm . Hobbes himself claimed he had been in discussion with the Cavendish brothers by 1630; by 1636 he was engaging in a scientific correspondence with Newcastle. A manuscript work from the Cavendish group of this period, the so-called Short Tract on First Principles , is considered by Malcolm to be by Payne though very much influenced by

1320-410: Is by no means self-evident; he is pretty influenced by Thomas Hobbes . Following his "essential will" ("Wesenwille"), an actor will see himself as a means to serve the goals of social grouping; very often, it is an underlying, subconscious force. Groupings formed around an essential will are called a Gemeinschaft. The other will is the " arbitrary will" ("Kürwille"): An actor sees a social grouping as

1408-507: Is less well-known when discussing the work of Tönnies is that he frequently uses gender concepts to explain his main ideas. Essential will-arbitrary will, Gemeinschaft-Gesellschaft, are all thought of in terms of the polarity of feminine - masculine . Gemeinschaft, for example, is feminine: "the eternal-feminine," since motherliness is the basis of all being together. Essential will is also feminine, whereas Gesellschaft and arbitrary choice are masculine. Tönnies' theory appears to consign him to

1496-454: Is that "Roundhead" was interchangeable with " Puritan ". In reality, this term applied to anyone who wanted to "purify" the Church of England of "Papist" practices, and covered a wide range of views. Although the majority supported Parliament, some prominent Puritans like Sir William Savile backed Charles out of personal loyalty. Conversely, many Royalists objected to Laudianism , and opposed

1584-589: The American Revolution in 1776. A simple division of the opposing parties into Royalist Cavaliers and Parliamentarian Roundheads is a perspective that is now accepted as outdated, but which still informs modern perceptions. These are also influenced by the complex historical reputation of Oliver Cromwell , particularly in Ireland . The installation of his statue outside the Houses of Parliament

1672-574: The Bishops' Wars , but in return Parliament demanded a greater share in government than he was willing to concede. In its early stages, the vast majority on both sides supported the institution of monarchy, but disagreed on who held ultimate authority. Royalists generally argued both Parliament and the Church of England were subordinate to the king, while most of their Parliamentarian opponents claimed his supremacy did not extend to religion, and wanted

1760-631: The Covenanter government now broke off negotiations with the Royalists. Shortly thereafter, they signed the Solemn League and Covenant with Parliament, which provided Scottish military support in return for subsidies. Parliament also agreed to create the Westminster Assembly , whose purpose was to set up a single, Presbyterian church for England and Scotland. This in turn caused divisions with those Parliamentarians who preferred

1848-604: The Grand Remonstrance was submitted in late 1641, moderates like Edward Hyde created a Royalist political faction, arguing Parliament was trying to alter the balance too much the other way. Both sides claimed they were seeking to restore the "ancient constitution". For many supporters of Parliament, Stuart concepts of the divine right of kings and absolutism brought in by James VI and I in 1603 were "innovations" that had undermined "traditional" English freedoms and rights. However, there were different views on

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1936-531: The Hamburg dockers' strike of 1896, the conservative Prussian government considered him to be a social democrat , and Tönnies would not be called to a professorial chair until 1913. He returned to Kiel as a professor emeritus in 1921 where he took on a teaching position in sociology and taught until 1933 when he was ousted by the Nazis , due to earlier publications in which he had criticized them and had endorsed

2024-657: The Haubarg "De Reap", Oldenswort on the Eiderstedt Peninsula into a wealthy farmer's family in North Frisia , Duchy of Schleswig , then under Danish rule. Tönnies was the only sociologist of his generation who came from the countryside. He was the third child of church chief and farmer August Ferdinand Tönnies (1822–1883), and his wife Ida Frederica (born Mau, 1826–1915), came from a theological family from East Holstein. His father, of Frisian ancestry,

2112-890: The Irish Catholic Confederation , the Papacy and France. Published by Parliament in a pamphlet entitled The King's Cabinet Opened , it seriously damaged his reputation. After Naseby, Royalist strategy was to preserve their positions in Western England and Wales, while their cavalry went north to link up with Montrose in Scotland. Charles also hoped the Irish Catholic Confederation would supply him with an army of 10,000, that would land in Bristol and combine with Lord Goring to smash

2200-581: The Irish Rebellion of 1641 meant many were more concerned by reports of a planned Catholic invasion. Both sides supported raising troops to suppress the rising, but alleged Royalist conspiracies to use them against Parliament meant neither trusted the other with their control. When Charles left London after failing to arrest the Five Members in January 1642, he handed Parliament control of

2288-644: The New Model Army . Later in the war, conflicting religious and political aims resulted in the emergence within Parliament of a middle party of "Independent Royalists". These were generally religious radicals but social conservatives, led by William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele , his son Nathaniel Fiennes , and Nathaniel Rich . They were distinguished from Royalists in believing Charles had to be defeated militarily, and from moderate Presbyterians by their fervent opposition to state-mandated religion. After Parliament's victory in 1646, this group supported

2376-659: The Restoration of 1660. Initially he went to Hamburg . By 1645 Newcastle was in Paris: his circle had contacts in Marin Mersenne and Claude Mydorge , whom Charles Cavendish had met in France at least 15 years earlier. In France Newcastle met and married that year Margaret Lucas who was with the exiled court of Queen Henrietta Maria . She studied with Charles Cavendish, and became a writer on natural philosophy, initially

2464-629: The Royal Irish Army to England. Fighting continued during the winter in Yorkshire, where the Royalist Duke of Newcastle tried to secure a landing place for an arms shipment from the Dutch Republic . With insufficient troops to hold the entire area, his task was further complicated by Parliamentarian forces under Lord Fairfax and his son Thomas , which retained key towns like Hull and Leeds . Along with Henrietta Maria,

2552-536: The Self-denying Ordinance , requiring any military officers who also sat in Parliament to resign one office or the other. Manchester and Essex were automatically removed, since they could not resign their titles, although they could be re-appointed, 'if Parliament approved.' It also led to the creation of the New Model Army , a centralised, professional force, able and willing to operate wherever needed. Many of its recruits had served with Cromwell in

2640-563: The Social Democratic Party . Remaining in Kiel, he died three years later in isolation in his home in 1936. Many of his writings on sociological theories furthered pure sociology, including [Gemeinschaft] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |label= ( help ) and [Gesellschaft] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |label= ( help ) (1887). He coined the metaphysical term Voluntarism . Tönnies also contributed to

2728-515: The Treaty of Newport , and a "balanced" political solution that would leave Charles on the throne. Its members avoided participation in his trial and execution , although they did not speak against it. While Puritans were the most visible in opposing Laudian reforms and demanding the removal of bishops from the Church of England, their objections were shared by many Royalists, such as George Morley and Sir Edmund Verney . One reason

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2816-622: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms , others include the 1639 and 1640 Bishops' Wars , 1641 to 1653 Irish Confederate Wars , 1648 Second English Civil War , 1649 to 1653 Cromwellian conquest of Ireland , and 1650 to 1652 Anglo-Scottish War , previously known as the Third English Civil War. The First and Second English Civil Wars are sometimes grouped together as the 1642 to 1648 English Civil War . The underlying cause of

2904-527: The siege of Taunton ; a few days later at Langport , he destroyed Lord Goring 's Western Army, the last significant Royalist field force. At the end of August, Charles left Oxford to relieve Hereford , which was besieged by the Covenanter army ; as he approached, Leven was ordered to return to Scotland, following Montrose's victory at Kilsyth . The king moved onto Chester, where he learned Prince Rupert had surrendered Bristol on 10 September. Shocked by

2992-649: The Crown; their ousting from Parliament by the Clergy Act 1640 was a major step on the road to war, since it meant Charles could no longer prevent passage of legislation that he opposed. Their removal temporarily ended censorship, and especially in London led to an explosion in the printing of pamphlets, books and sermons, many advocating radical religious and political ideas. Even before 1642, such radicalism concerned conservative Parliamentarians like Denzil Holles . As

3080-607: The Eastern Association, or shared his views, and opponents viewed the New Model with suspicion from the outset. To offset this, they appointed the moderates Fairfax and Philip Skippon as Commander-in-Chief and head of the infantry respectively, as well as retaining some regional forces. These included the Northern and Western Associations, plus those serving in Cheshire and South Wales, all commanded by supporters of

3168-696: The Hague to raise money and purchase weapons; lack of a secure port delayed her return until February 1643, and even then, she narrowly escaped capture. On 1 June 1642, Parliament approved a list of proposals known as the Nineteen Propositions , which would give them control over ministerial appointments, the army and management of the Royal household, including the education and marriage of his children. These were presented to Charles at Newmarket , who angrily rejected them without further discussion. He

3256-543: The London mercantile community and weapons from the Tower enabled Parliament to recruit and equip an army of 20,000, commanded by the Presbyterian Earl of Essex , who left London on 3 September for Northampton . Charles relocated to Shrewsbury , further away from London but a key Royalist recruitment centre throughout the war. When Essex learned of this, he marched on Worcester , where the first major encounter of

3344-527: The Nazis . Tönnies was regarded as the first proper German sociologist and published over 900 works, contributing to many areas of sociology and philosophy. Tönnies, Max Weber , and Georg Simmel are considered the founding fathers of classical German sociology. Though there has been a resurgence of interest in Weber and Simmel, Tönnies has not drawn as much attention. Ferdinand Tönnies was born on 26 July 1855 on

3432-583: The New Model. Such hopes were illusory, and the only result was to deepen divisions among the Royalist leadership, many of whom viewed the proposed use of Catholic Irish troops in England with as much horror as their Parliamentarian opponents. Concerned by the wider implications of Royalist defeat and urged on by Henrietta Maria, French chief minister Cardinal Mazarin looked for ways to restore Charles with minimal French intervention. Talks were held between his representative, Jean de Montereul , and Lord Lothian ,

3520-645: The Northern Association Army joined the Covenanters besieging Newark. Hopton replaced Lord Goring as commander of the Western Army, and attempted to relieve Exeter. Defeated by the New Model at Torrington on 16 February, he surrendered at Truro on 12 March. Ferdinand T%C3%B6nnies Ferdinand Tönnies ( German: [ˈtœniːs] ; 26 July 1855 – 9 April 1936) was a German sociologist , economist, and philosopher. He

3608-712: The Parliamentarian alliance in June 1646 and Charles in custody. However, his refusal to agree to concessions, combined with divisions among his opponents, led to the Second English Civil War in 1648, followed by his execution in January 1649. The 1642 to 1646 First English Civil War is one of a series of civil wars fought between 1639 and 1653 in England and Wales , along with the separate kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland . Known collectively as

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3696-531: The Presbyterian faction in Parliament. Although he remained an MP, Cromwell was given command of the cavalry, under a 'temporary' three-month commission, constantly renewed. In January, representatives of both sides met at Uxbridge to discuss peace terms , but talks ended without agreement in February. Failure strengthened the pro-war parties, since it was clear Charles would never make concessions voluntarily, while divisions among their opponents encouraged

3784-424: The Royalists had recovered from the disaster at Marston Moor; of greater concern was their ability to finance the war. Unlike Parliament, which could levy taxes on imports and exports through London and other commercial centres, the Royalists simply took supplies from the areas they controlled. This led to the creation of Clubmen , or local self-defence associations; they opposed confiscations by either party, but were

3872-399: The Royalists to abandon Lyme Regis, then continued into Cornwall, ignoring orders to return to London. In September, his army was trapped at Lostwithiel ; 5,000 infantry were forced to surrender, although Essex and the cavalry escaped. At Second Newbury on 27 October, the Royalists lifted the siege of Donnington Castle , and Charles re-entered Oxford. In military terms, by the end of 1644

3960-568: The Royalists to continue fighting. In early 1645, the Royalists still controlled most of the West Country, Wales, and counties along the English border, despite losing their key supply base at Shrewsbury in February. Lord Goring 's Western Army made another attempt on Portsmouth and Farnham; although he was forced to retreat, it showed Parliament could not assume this area was secure, while Montrose's Highland Campaign opened another front in

4048-494: The University of Berlin, he traveled to London to continue his studies on the seventeenth-century English political thinker Thomas Hobbes. Tönnies earned a Privatdozent in philosophy at the University of Kiel from 1909 to 1933 after submitting a draft of his major book, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, as his Habilitationsschrift in 1881. He held this post at the University of Kiel for only three years. Because he sympathized with

4136-812: The advent of railways in the 19th century. Most of the Royal Navy declared for Parliament, allowing them to protect the trade routes vital to the London merchant community, block Royalist imports and resupply isolated Parliamentarian garrisons. It also made other countries wary of antagonising one of the strongest navies in Europe by providing support to their opponents. By September, forces loyal to Parliament held every major port in England apart from Newcastle , which prevented Royalist areas in Wales and South West and North East England from supporting each other. In February 1642, Charles sent his wife, Henrietta Maria , to

4224-455: The appointment of Catholics to senior positions, while attempts to integrate Irish Catholic troops in 1643 caused some regiments to mutiny. Parliamentarians were divided between Presbyterians like Pym who wanted to reform the Church of England, and religious Independents who rejected any form of established church and wanted it abolished. They included Congregationalists like Cromwell and Baptists , who were especially well represented in

4312-534: The army disintegrated, allowing Charles to pursue Essex into the West Country. On the same day, Prince Rupert arrived at Knaresborough , 30 kilometres from York, to find himself facing a superior force. In the largest battle of the war on 2 July, the two armies met at Marston Moor , a decisive Royalist defeat that lost them the North. York surrendered on 16 July, and the Earl of Newcastle went into exile. Essex forced

4400-411: The church. Both issues were linked, because in the 17th century 'true religion' and 'good government' were seen as mutually dependent. In general, Royalists supported a Church of England governed by bishops , appointed by, and answerable to, the king, while most Parliamentarians believed he was answerable to the leaders of the church, appointed by their congregations. Another common misperception

4488-539: The devastation caused by the Thirty Years War in Europe meant many wanted to avoid conflict at any cost. Choice of sides was often driven by personal relationships or loyalties, and in the early stages there were numerous examples of armed neutrality, or local truces, designed to force the two sides to negotiate. Over the winter of 1641 to 1642, many towns strengthened their defences, and purchased weapons, although not necessarily due to fears of civil war. Lurid details of

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4576-486: The idea of unions devoted to aid and nurture, as he would claim, "the family spirit." Two Solutions Tönnies' distinction between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft , like others between tradition and modernity , has been criticized for over-generalizing differences between societies and implying that all societies were following a similar evolutionary path, an argument which Tönnies himself never actually proclaimed. The impact that Ferdinand Tönnies left on sociology

4664-490: The issues Hobbes was addressing at the time, and his approach. But the work has also been attributed to Hobbes himself, by scholars from Ferdinand Tönnies (who christened it) onwards. First English Civil War 1643 1644 1645 1646 The First English Civil War took place in England and Wales from 1642 to 1646, and forms part of the 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms . An estimated 15% to 20% of adult males in England and Wales served in

4752-492: The largest city, port and commercial centre in England, its biggest weapons store in the Tower of London , and best equipped local militia, or trained bands . Founded in 1572, these were organised by county , controlled by lord-lieutenants appointed by the king, and constituted the only permanent military force in the country. The muster roll of February 1638 shows wide variations in size, equipment and training; Yorkshire had

4840-400: The largest, with 12,000 men, followed by London with 8,000, later increased to 20,000. 'Royalist' counties like Shropshire or Glamorgan had fewer than 500 men. In March 1642, Parliament approved the Militia Ordinance , claiming control of the trained bands; Charles responded with his own Commissions of Array . More important than the men were the local arsenals , with Parliament holding

4928-609: The loss, Charles dismissed his nephew. While one detachment from the New Model under Colonel Rainsborough secured Berkeley Castle , another under Cromwell captured Royalist strongholds at Basing House and Winchester. Having secured his rear, Fairfax began reducing remaining positions in the west; by now, Clubmen militia in Hampshire and Dorset were as big an issue as the Royalist army. When his remaining cavalry were scattered at Rowton Heath on 24 September, Charles abandoned attempts to reach Scotland and returned to Newark. On 13 October, he learned of Montrose's defeat at Philiphaugh

5016-457: The major import point for Royalist war supplies. He besieged the town in early February, but made little progress, observed by the Earl of Newcastle from his base in Durham . On 29 March, Waller ended the offensive in Southern England by defeating Hopton at Cheriton , then joined Essex to threaten Oxford. Two weeks later, the Earl of Manchester defeated a Royalist force at Selby , forcing Newcastle to leave Durham and garrison York. The city

5104-621: The military at some point between 1639 and 1653, while around 4% of the total population died from war-related causes. These figures illustrate the widespread impact of the conflict on society, and the bitterness it engendered as a result. Conflict over the role of Parliament and religious practice dated from the accession of James VI and I in 1603. These tensions culminated in the imposition of Personal Rule in 1629 by his son, Charles I , who recalled Parliament in April and November 1640. He hoped by doing so to obtain funding that would enable him to reverse his defeat by Scots Covenanters in

5192-549: The most comprehensive Royalist victory of the war, it isolated Parliament's garrisons in the west and Prince Rupert stormed Bristol on 26 July. This gave the Royalists control of the second largest city in Britain and landing point for reinforcements from Ireland. By late August, the Parliamentarian cause was close to collapse but was saved by Pym's leadership and determination, which resulted in important reforms. Both sides struggled to properly supply troops fighting outside their home regions and Parliament agreed steps to mitigate

5280-449: The most important ways to resurrect Gemeinschaft in the modern world would be to improve and prolong family life. The demise of the family is caused by modern capitalism and its consequences: low pay, excessive hours of labor for men and women alike, and terrible living conditions. He believes family life has to be revitalized since it is the foundation of all culture and morals. In this case, he proposed two solutions that revolved around

5368-402: The nature of these "rights". This caused divisions within Parliament as the war progressed, since not everyone agreed on what they were seeking to restore, or even if it were desirable. Most Parliamentarians went to war in 1642 not to depose the king but regulate his powers, while only a tiny minority sought to abolish the monarchy altogether. John Pym , Parliamentarian leader in the Commons ,

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5456-433: The need to plan for a lengthy conflict. For the Royalists, this meant fortifying their new capital in Oxford, and connecting areas of support in England and Wales; Parliament focused on consolidating control of the areas they already held. Although peace talks were held, both parties continued to negotiate for Scottish and Irish support. Charles sought to end the war in Ireland , which would enable him to transfer troops from

5544-520: The norm. Examples are corporations, states , or voluntary associations . In his book Einteilung der Soziologie (Classification of Sociology) he distinguished between three disciplines of sociology, being Pure or Theoretical ( reine, theoretische ) Sociology, Applied ( angewandte ) Sociology, and Empirical ( emprische ) Sociology. His distinction between social groupings is based on the assumption that there are only two primary forms of an actor's will to approve of other men. For Tönnies, such approval

5632-664: The only way to secure their objectives. Many were religious Independents who opposed any state church, and strongly objected to Scottish demands for a unified, Presbyterian church of England and Scotland; Oliver Cromwell claimed he would fight, rather than accept such an outcome. Failure to exploit Marston Moor, Essex' capitulation at Lostwithiel, and Manchester's alleged unwillingness to fight at Newbury led to claims some senior commanders were not committed to victory. Accusations against Manchester and Essex in particular were not confined to Cromwell, but shared by some Presbyterians, including Waller. In December, Sir Henry Vane introduced

5720-419: The problem. Seeing an opportunity to force Parliamentary moderates into a negotiated peace, in September the Royalists agreed a new three-part offensive. After taking Gloucester , Prince Rupert would advance on London, while Newcastle would tie down the Eastern Association army by advancing into East Anglia and Lincolnshire . Finally, Hopton would march into Hampshire and Sussex , threatening London from

5808-596: The social life such as morals , folkways , and public opinion . However he is best known for his published work on [Gesellschaft] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |label= ( help ) and [Gesellschaft] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |label= ( help ) because his later works applied those concepts to aspects of social life. Defunct Defunct Tönnies distinguished between two types of social groupings . Gemeinschaft —often translated as community (or left untranslated)—refers to groups based on feelings of togetherness and mutual bonds, which are felt like

5896-484: The south, and closing the iron foundries that were Parliament's main source of armaments. However, Essex forced Prince Rupert to retreat from Gloucester, then checked his advance on London at Newbury on 20 September. Although Hopton reached Winchester , Waller prevented him making further progress; in October, Newcastle abandoned the second siege of Hull , while victory at Winceby secured eastern England for Parliament. Royalist failure ended any chance of concluding

5984-462: The study of social change , particularly on public opinion , customs and technology, crime, and suicide. He also had a vivid interest in methodology, especially statistics, and sociological research, inventing his own technique of statistical association. After publishing [Gemeinschaft] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |label= ( help ) and [Gesellschaft] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |label= ( help ) , Tönnies focused aspects of

6072-426: The time to utilize his freedom to travel, exploring the academic fields of the Universities of Jena , Bonn , Leipzig , Berlin , and Tübingen . At age 22, he received a doctorate in philology at the University of Tübingen in 1877 (with a Latin thesis on the ancient Siwa Oasis ). However, by this time, his main interests had switched to political philosophy and social issues. After completing postdoctoral work at

6160-573: The two armies fought a bloody, chaotic, and indecisive battle at Edgehill . Essex continued retreating towards London; after an inconclusive encounter on 16 November at Turnham Green , west of London, operations ended for the winter. The Royalists withdrew to Oxford , which became their capital for the rest of the war. Elsewhere, Sir William Waller secured the south-east for Parliament; in December, Lord Wilmot captured Marlborough , opening communications between Oxford, and Royalist forces based at Launceston, in Cornwall . The events of 1642 showed

6248-413: The two largest in London, and Hull . These belonged to the local community, who often resisted attempts to remove them, by either side. In Royalist Cheshire , the towns of Nantwich , Knutsford and Chester declared a state of armed neutrality, and excluded both parties. Ports were vital for access to internal and external waterways, the primary method of importing and transporting bulk supplies until

6336-426: The vast majority in all three kingdoms believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was divinely mandated. His opponents argued that if Charles would not obey his own laws or keep his promises, this presented a threat to the state which required either forcing him to do so, or deposing him in favour of his eldest son. Where they disagreed was what 'well-ordered' meant, particularly in terms of the role of Parliament, and control of

6424-506: The war in England was a long-running struggle for political and religious control between the monarchy and Parliament that began when James VI and I became king in 1603. The issues arising re-surfaced after the 1660 Stuart Restoration , and were arguably only resolved by the 1688 Glorious Revolution . American historians like Kevin Phillips have identified many similarities between the principles at stake in 1642, and those which led to

6512-712: The war in the near future, leading both sides to step up the search for allies. In September, the Marquess of Ormond , Royalist Lord Lieutenant of Ireland , agreed a truce with the Catholic Confederation . The "Cessation" meant troops could be sent to England, but it cost Charles the support of many Irish Protestants , especially in Munster . At the same time, details emerged of the "Antrim scheme", an alleged plan to use 20,000 Irish troops to recapture southern Scotland for Charles. Although highly impractical,

6600-443: The war progressed, both they and their Scottish Covenanter allies came to see the Independents and New Model Army as more dangerous than the Royalists and formed the "Peace Party", seeking a negotiated end to the fighting. An alliance between Royalists and these two groups led to the Second English Civil War in 1648. Lastly, in 1642 England and Wales were part of a highly structured, socially conservative and peaceful society, while

6688-538: The war took place at Powick Bridge on 23 September. A relatively minor Royalist victory, it established the reputation of Prince Rupert , whose cavalry gained a psychological edge over their Parliamentarian opponents. The Royalist army now numbered around 15,000, although much of the infantry were armed with clubs or scythes ; while better equipped, the forces of Parliament were half-trained, poorly disciplined, and their logistics inadequate. When Charles headed for London, Essex tried to block his route, and on 23 October,

6776-468: The war. On 31 May, Prince Rupert stormed Leicester ; in response, Fairfax and the New Model Army abandoned their blockade of Oxford, and on 14 June, won a decisive victory at Naseby . Defeat cost the Royalists their most formidable field army, along with their artillery train, stores, and Charles' personal baggage. This included his private correspondence, detailing efforts to gain support from

6864-564: The weapons convoy finally managed to land at Bridlington in late February; on 4 June she left York escorted by 5,000 cavalry, arriving in Oxford in mid-July. In the south-west, Royalist commander Sir Ralph Hopton secured Cornwall with victory at Braddock Down in January. In June, he advanced into Wiltshire , inflicting a serious defeat on Waller's 'Army of the Southern Association' at Roundway Down on 13 July. Arguably

6952-680: The writer. Newcastle was called "our English Maecenas " by Gerard Langbaine the Younger ; he was a patron after the Restoration to both John Dryden and Thomas Shadwell . Other writers he supported included William Davenant , William Sampson , James Shirley and John Suckling . He bought sculptures by Francesco Fanelli for Welbeck. As a consequence of the royalist defeat at the Battle of Marston Moor in 1644, Newcastle and some of his entourage went into exile. He returned to England only with

7040-511: Was a significant contributor to sociological theory and field studies , best known for distinguishing between two types of social groups , Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft ( community and society ). He co-founded the German Sociological Association together with Max Weber and Georg Simmel and many other founders. He was president of the society from 1909 to 1933, after which he was ousted for having criticized

7128-485: Was a successful farmer and cattle rancher, while his mother hailed from a line of Lutheran ministers. The two had seven children, four sons and three daughters. On the day he was born, Ferdinand Tönnies received the baptismal name of Ferdinand Julius and moved to Husum , on the North Sea, after his father retired in 1864. Tönnies enrolled at the University of Strasbourg after graduating from high school in 1872. He took

7216-634: Was approved in 1856, but not carried out until 1895, with most of the funds supplied by Prime Minister Lord Rosebery . In 2004, a group of MPs unsuccessfully proposed a motion to have it melted down, and the debate continues. However, individual motives for choosing a side were complex, and there were wide areas of alignment between Royalists and Parliamentarians. Many tried to remain neutral, or participated with extreme reluctance, while others fought on both sides at different points. Historian Tim Harris suggests that by 1640, most agreed attempts by Charles to govern without Parliament had gone too far. After

7304-528: Was besieged by the Scots, Sir Thomas Fairfax, and Manchester's Army of the Eastern Association . In May, Prince Rupert left Shrewsbury , and marched north, capturing Liverpool and Bolton en route. To avoid being shut up in Oxford, a field army nominally commanded by Charles retreated to Worcester ; Essex ordered Waller to remain there, while he went west to relieve the siege of Lyme Regis . On 29 June, Waller clashed with Charles at Cropredy Bridge ; although losses were minimal, his men were demoralised, and

7392-541: Was disrupted when Newcastle took on responsibility for the Prince of Wales , in 1638. At a later point John Pell was in Newcastle's service. Charles Cavendish's circle included Henry Bond, Richard Reeve or Reeves the instrument-maker, John Twysden and John Wallis . He was a patron of William Oughtred . Newcastle in the 1630s became a major patron to Ben Jonson . His second wife was Margaret Cavendish , née Lucas,

7480-400: Was later persuaded to issue a more conciliatory answer, whose objective was primarily to appeal to moderates by placing blame for what now seemed an inevitable military conflict on Pym and his followers. Drafted by Hyde, this response has been seen as the origin of "mixed" or constitutional monarchy , although whether Charles himself genuinely believed in it is debatable. Both sides expected

7568-459: Was not the case. Royalist successes in 1643 led to an alliance between Parliament and the Scots, who won a series of battles in 1644, the most significant being the Battle of Marston Moor . Alleged failures to exploit these successes led Parliament in February 1645 to set up the New Model Army , the first centrally-funded and professional military force in England, whose success at Naseby in June 1645 proved decisive. The war ended with victory for

7656-657: Was one of the few who believed forcing Charles to abdicate might be the only option, since past experience showed he would not keep commitments he considered forced on him. Examples included his annulment of the 1628 Petition of Right , and the recent Bishops Wars , when he agreed peace terms with the Scots in 1639 only to provide time to plan another military campaign in 1640. These doubts were confirmed when he and his wife Henrietta Maria repeatedly told foreign ambassadors any concessions made to Parliament were temporary, and would be retrieved by force. Charles' credibility mattered because regardless of religion or political belief,

7744-490: Was that bishops held a variety of non-religious roles which impacted all levels of society; they acted as state censors, who were able to ban sermons and writings, while ordinary people could be tried by church courts for crimes including blasphemy , heresy , fornication and other 'sins of the flesh', as well as matrimonial or inheritance disputes. As members of the House of Lords , bishops often blocked legislation opposed by

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