123-787: French victory The Hanover Expedition , also known as the Weser Expedition , was a British invasion of the Electorate of Hanover during the Napoleonic Wars . Coordinated as part of an attack on France by the nations of the Third Coalition against Napoleon by William Pitt the Younger and Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh , planning began for an invasion of French territories in July 1805. Hanover, previously
246-407: A light infantry brigade of four more infantry battalions, six brigades of Royal Horse Artillery , and ten brigades of Royal Artillery . Military historian C. T. Atkinson suggests that this force, if it had come to fruition, would have been "a really formidable effort". This large army, while viable on paper, would have been very difficult to form up and transport in reality, and so on 10 October
369-597: A British possession, was chosen as the goal of the expedition, with Swedish and Russian forces under Gustav IV Adolf and Count Pyotr Aleksandrovich Tolstoy brought in to support the endeavour. Key to the success of the invasion was the support of Prussia , a nation poised to threaten France but not as yet openly hostile to the country. Sir George Don commanded the British expedition and he arrived with an army of around 14,000 men at Cuxhaven in November. To bolster
492-516: A French force of three divisions was preparing to attack from Holland, orders were sent for Cathcart to evacuate on 19 January. Cathcart received his instructions at the end of the month, and quickly put them into effect. His army by this time had grown to 26,643 men because of recruitment by the KGL which resulted in it returning to Britain with more battalions and depots than it had left with; only around 14,000 were British infantry. The first to leave were
615-426: A brigade of Foot Guards under Major-General Edward Finch , and a brigade of line infantry under Major-General Edward Paget . This totalled between 12,000 and 14,000 men, and Don received his final orders on 16 October. Von der Decken planned the operation, ensuring that the force would be transported quickly to avoid the coming of the harsh northern winter that would freeze the ports and rivers necessary in disembarking
738-469: A consequence, a reluctant Britain was forced time and again to defend the king's German possessions. Nonetheless, Hanover remained a separately ruled territory with its own governmental bodies, and the country had to sign a treaty with Great Britain whenever Hanoverian troops fought on the British side of a war. Merged into the Napoleonic Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, it was re-established as
861-499: A constitutional anomaly in the 21st century. Both contend that such powers lack direct democratic legitimacy due to not being regulated by parliamentary statutes and raise concerns over accountability. Elliot and Thomas have pointed out that judicial intervention in cases such as Miller I and Miller II , where the Supreme Court exercised scrutiny over the use of prerogative powers by the government to prorogue parliament during
984-482: A constitutional monarchy in which the monarch "reigns but does not rule". According to Brazier, the prime minister advises the monarch on matters such as the dissolution of parliament and appointments to the House of Lords, but these decisions are often made with the consent of parliament. The prime minister leads the executive in directing government policy and maintaining coordination between government departments which
1107-413: A function of the office of prime minister. Despite this, the exercise of the prime minister's prerogative powers in these matters is under the oversight of parliament. It is often by convention that a prime minister must seek the approval of parliament before committing the nation to military action. In addition to this, the prime minister also exerts informal influence over public policy. Brazier notes this
1230-434: A gift of £2,500,000 to ensure this. Castlereagh believed that only the wavering support of Prussia could stop Don's expedition from being successful, and by the end of October it was thought that Prussia's entry into the conflict was imminent. Pitt, in turn, was of the mind that success could bring about "Bonaparte's army either cut off or driven back to France". It was expected that Don's force would sail immediately, but with
1353-692: A great loss of men or material, and Castlereagh would later write that he was well satisfied with Cathcart's actions, war-related losses having been minor. Some senior generals in the army were angered by the failure of the expedition, feeling that its control by civilian politicians trying to be military experts had caused its failure. Critics suggested that if the expedition had been sent to join Lieutenant-General Sir James Craig's Anglo-Russian occupation of Naples then Britain might have had one successful expedition instead of two failures. Positively, however, Hanover had shown that
SECTION 10
#17328013633391476-439: A large "disposable force" commanded by Lieutenant-General Lord Cathcart . This would have included two divisions of cavalry, one of light dragoons and the other of heavy cavalry , consisting of 9,600 men. Alongside the cavalry plans called for seven divisions of infantry, including four battalions of Foot Guards and forty of line infantry . These divisions would have each had around 5,000 men, and would have been supported by
1599-574: A much smaller army was hastily brought together to cross the North Sea under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir George Don , who was expected to also instigate diplomatic connections with the allied nations. While the original plan had expected the creation of multiple divisions, Don's force was instead made up of two cavalry and six infantry regiments of the King's German Legion (KGL) which were controlled by Brigadier-General Friedrich von der Decken ,
1722-547: A reliable majority of MPs who vote in support of the government's priorities. Another essential part of the parliamentary powers possessed by the prime minister is determining the composition of the Cabinet. According to Professor Robert Hazell, the prime minister not only chooses cabinet members but also dictates the collective decision-making process of members as well. The prime minister most often would chair cabinet meetings and may determine their frequency, thereby controlling
1845-671: Is a heraldic motif associated with the German provinces of Lower Saxony and Westphalia , and the Dutch region of Twente as the electorate covered large portions of the original stem Duchy of Saxony . The electorate comprised large parts of the modern German state of Lower Saxony in Northern Germany . Beside the Principality of Calenberg it also included the former princely lands of Göttingen and Grubenhagen as well as
1968-497: Is based on an uncodified constitution , meaning that it is not set out in any single document. The British constitution consists of many documents, and most importantly for the evolution of the office of the prime minister, it is based on customs known as constitutional conventions that became accepted practice. In 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs: In this country we live ... under an unwritten Constitution. It
2091-526: Is commonly referred to as the elector of Hanover after his residence. Hanover acquired Bremen-Verden in 1719. The electorate was legally bound to be indivisible: it could add to its territory, but not alienate territory or be split up among several heirs; and its succession was to follow male primogeniture. The territory assigned to the electorate included the Brunswick-Lüneburg principalities of Calenberg, Grubenhagen, and Lüneburg (even though at
2214-415: Is dependent upon the cooperation and consent of ministers. Foreign policy and national security are areas in which the prime minister has traditionally enjoyed more authority under what are known as prerogative powers. Vernon Bogdanor argues that the abilities to declare war, negotiate treaties and deploy the armed forces have historically been part of the monarch's royal authority but have slowly evolved into
2337-475: Is developed by constitutional conventions and therefore it is defined by precedent and tradition. Bogdanor notes that the prime minister's power in parliament is exhibited by their control of the executive (the Cabinet) and their ability to influence the legislative agenda. The ability of the prime minister to influence legislation, according to academic Philip Norton , is often through party discipline and having
2460-475: Is due to the prime minister often being the leader of the largest party in government, therefore having a direct impact in initiating policy both in government and during election campaigns. In the House of Commons, the prime minister guides the law-making process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. In an executive capacity, the prime minister appoints (and may dismiss) all other Cabinet members and ministers , and co-ordinates
2583-424: Is further solidified through their ability to shape policy before it reaches parliament. King further argued that the shaping of legislation, on many occasions, involves the collaborative efforts of cabinet ministers and civil servants, but the prime minister's approval is needed in order to initiate the legislative agenda. King's analysis of contemporary politcs showed that some prime ministers often bypass or overrule
SECTION 20
#17328013633392706-421: Is holding office. Historically, the prime minister has never been the first among equals at any time prior to 1868. Until now, that characterisation of the prime minister is reflective of the democratic nature of their position. The power of the prime minister depends on the support of their respective party and on the popular mandate. The appointment of cabinet ministers and granting of honours are done through
2829-457: Is not established by any statute or constitutional document, but exists only by long-established convention , whereby the monarch appoints as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons. In practice, this is the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in the Commons. The prime minister is ex officio also First Lord of
2952-613: Is therefore best understood from a historical perspective. The origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement (1688–1720) and the resulting shift of political power from the sovereign to Parliament. The prime minister is the head of the United Kingdom government . As such, the modern prime minister leads the Cabinet (the Executive). In addition,
3075-730: Is true that we have on the Statute-book great instruments like Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights which define and secure many of our rights and privileges; but the great bulk of our constitutional liberties and ... our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the formal assent of the King, Lords and Commons. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, but which in
3198-470: The 28th and 36th Regiments of Foot succeeded in arriving substantially intact, but large portions of Cathcart's reinforcements were so badly depleted that they were incapable of further operations, with over 1,000 people having been killed. Cathcart could do little with his new troops, and had further problems with the local intelligence. On 28 December Castlereagh complained that the situation in Hanover
3321-566: The Austrians to surrender and the Russians to retreat into Poland. With no large armies now protecting Cathcart's force from French attack, the situation was exacerbated when Prussia signed the Treaty of Schönbrunn with France, which created an alliance between the two nations and agreed that Prussia should control Hanover. With French and Prussian forces moving against Hanover, Cathcart's army
3444-649: The Batavian Republic alongside Tolstoy. Their plan was slowed by the reticence of the Swedish force and the continuing confusion surrounding the intentions of the Prussians. Tolstoy eventually decided that he could not invest enough men into an invasion and ensure the continued blockade of Hamelin, and no attack took place. It was afterwards decided that Don's force, then spread about, would be brought together as one field army . On 27 November this new command
3567-667: The British Army , supported by troops from Prussia, Hesse-Kassel and the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , again expelled the occupants. Hanover remained unaffected for the rest of the war. After the war ended, peace prevailed until the French Revolutionary Wars started. The War of the First Coalition against France (1792–1797) with Great Britain, Hanover and other war allies forming
3690-607: The Continental System , the French Empire annexed in late 1810 all of the continental North Sea coast (as far as Denmark) and the areas along the sections of the rivers navigable for seagoing vessels, including Bremen-Verden and Saxe-Lauenburg and some adjacent territories of Hanover proper. The government of George III did not recognise the French annexation, however, and was at war continuously with France for
3813-761: The French Empire , since 1804 France's new government, ceded Hanover, which it no longer held, to Prussia, which captured it in early 1806. On 6 August 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, thereby abolishing the function of prince-electors electing its emperors. After Prussia had turned against France in the War of the Fourth Coalition , it was defeated in the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (11 November 1806), and France recaptured Hanover. Following
Hanover Expedition - Misplaced Pages Continue
3936-535: The French invaded Hanover and defeated George II's son Prince William, Duke of Cumberland , leading the Anglo-Hanoverian army , at the Battle of Hastenbeck and drove him and his army into remote Bremen-Verden, where in the former Zeven Convent [ de ] he capitulated on 18 September ( Convention of Kloster-Zeven ). George II did not recognise the convention, however. The following year,
4059-796: The German Chancery , situated in St James's Palace in London. During the French and Indian War (1754–1763) in the North American colonies, Britain feared a French invasion of Hanover. George II formed an alliance with his Prussian cousin Frederick II combining the North American conflict with the Brandenburg-Prusso–Austrian Third Silesian, or Seven Years' War (1756–1763). In the summer of 1757,
4182-575: The House of Hanover since 1662. After Britain, this time without any allies, had declared war on France (18 May 1803), French troops invaded Hanover on 26 May . According to the Convention of Artlenburg (5 July 1803), confirming the military defeat of Hanover, the Hanoverian Army was disarmed, and its horses and ammunitions were handed over to the French. The Privy Council of Hanover, with
4305-511: The Kingdom of Hanover in 1814, and the personal union with the British crown lasted until 1837. In 1692, Emperor Leopold I of the House of Habsburg elevated Duke Ernest Augustus of the Brunswick-Lüneburg line of Calenberg , to the rank of prince-elector of the empire as a reward for aid given in the Nine Years' War . There were protests against the addition of a new elector, and
4428-620: The Lower Rhine , and bringing his army together around the Weser. Before being withdrawn, the units stationed at Hamelin briefly skirmished with the defending French on 22 December, marking the only combat engaged by any of the force. Word of the Battle of Austerlitz threw Cathcart's plans into confusion. There on 2 December a Russo-Austrian army had been soundly defeated by Napoleon, and Austria had surrendered in consequence, with both allied armies all but destroyed. The chance of Prussia entering
4551-643: The North Sea . In 1700, the territories forming the electorate introduced, like all other Protestant territories of imperial immediacy , the Improved Calendar, as the Gregorian calendar was called by Protestants to avoid mentioning the name of Pope Gregory XIII . Sunday, 18 February (Old Style) was thus followed by Monday, 1 March ( New Style ). In 1692, the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I, elevated George's son, Duke Ernest Augustus to
4674-812: The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 , which changed the Habsburgs' inheritance law. It took George II Augustus until 1733 to persuade Charles VI to enfeoff him also with the Duchy of Bremen and the Principality of Verden, colloquially called Duchies of Bremen-Verden. At both enfeoffments, George II Augustus swore that he would respect the existing privileges and constitutions of the estates in Bremen-Verden and in Hadeln, thus confirming 400-year-old traditions of estate participation in government. In Hanover ,
4797-550: The Royal Navy 's blockade of Brest as the best way to impact the French at home. This outlook changed in 1803 when Austria and Russia allied themselves to Britain as part of the Third Coalition . With more militarily impressive allies now available to take the war to France on land, the British Army would be able to do the same, safe in the knowledge that it would not be engaging the French armies alone. This combined with
4920-432: The Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, the new Kingdom of Westphalia was founded, ruled by Napoléon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte , then including territories of the former Electorate of Hesse-Kassel , the ducal Brunswick-Lüneburgian principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and formerly Prussian territories. In early 1810 Hanover proper and Bremen-Verden but not Saxe-Lauenburg were also annexed by Westphalia. In an attempt to assert
5043-556: The United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union , was successful in keeping check over the authority of both the prime minister and the government. The evolving usage of prerogative powers also has signalled tension between tradition and accountability. Authors Paul Craig and Adam Tomkins state that the absence of a written constitution gives a prime minister greater leeway in employing their given prerogative powers without limits that in turn would create uncertainty although
Hanover Expedition - Misplaced Pages Continue
5166-569: The Walcheren Expedition , would be launched in imitation of the Hanover Expedition. Castlereagh's disposable force of 30,000 men remained in existence, but by March 1807 it had dwindled to 12,000 men, with the fleet of troopships created to assist in transporting it dispersed for other uses. Opinions on the expedition have been varied. Atkinson argues that the failure of the expedition was the fault of Britain's allies on
5289-466: The world's sixth largest economy , the prime minister hold significant domestic and international leadership alongside being the leader of a prominent member state of NATO , the G7 and G20 . 58 people (55 men and 3 women) have served as prime minister, the first of whom was Robert Walpole taking office on 3 April 1721. The longest-serving prime minister was also Walpole, who served over 20 years, and
5412-489: The British expeditionary force, hoping this would entice Prussia into more warlike actions. The diplomatic situation was complicated because Prussia also coveted Hanover, and Napoleon had offered it to Prussia in return for aggression towards Austria. Despite this difficulty, Pitt and Castlereagh were encouraged by the absence of the expected harsh winter weather and continued to move forward with their plans. While Pitt decided on his next actions, Don began to plan an attack into
5535-495: The British force gone and the Russians under Prussian control, Hanover was occupied by Prussia. In Britain, the remains of Cathcart's force were split up along the south coast of England to serve as a deterrent to invasion. Prussia was forced by France to close all its north German ports to British traffic, and this caused Britain to declare war on Prussia on 21 April. The expedition was the last military endeavour planned and orchestrated by Pitt. It had achieved nothing, but had not been
5658-687: The Calenberg line further inherited the principality of Celle in 1705. Further included were the earlier-acquired counties of Diepholz and Hoya . Although the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, George III's government did not consider the dissolution to be final, and he continued to be styled "Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, Arch-treasurer and Prince-Elector of the Holy Roman Empire" until 1814. Circles est. 1500: Bavarian , Swabian , Upper Rhenish , Lower Rhenish–Westphalian , Franconian , (Lower) Saxon Prime Minister of
5781-621: The Forces , the Duke of York , relying on his experience in the Flanders campaign , arguing that expeditions that relied too much on the allies' actions would be difficult. Castlereagh estimated that the retirement of the French armies from the Channel coast had freed up between 40,000 and 60,000 British soldiers for service abroad. With this in mind, original estimates for an expedition planned for
5904-595: The French that could result in "crippling defeat". With news of the French withdrawal having reached Britain before its culmination, Castlereagh began planning in September. By taking Hanover, Britain could restore the country to its rightful rulers while also gaining a useful springboard for further operations in Europe. Not all of the establishment was in favour of the endeavour, with the Commander-in-Chief of
6027-511: The KGL and the four British battalions that had been most weakened in the crossings of the North Sea. By 12 February the last of the army had been embarked, and Cathcart left Hanover on 15 February. Von der Decken, who had served the expedition as quartermaster general to both the British and Russian forces, stayed behind to ensure that all British debts were paid. He finally returned in May. With
6150-450: The KGL and two of line infantry, were sent to join the Russians at Hamelin, while other portions of the force were split off to go to the Ems and Weser rivers. The neutral Prussian Army had also entered French-controlled lands, south of Hanover, commanded by the Duke of Brunswick , but quickly looked for their forces to be replaced by those of the coalition. Don's position on the continent
6273-454: The KGL would leave first. Pitt's health was severely declining and he had retired to Bath ; with the prime minister unavailable, the Cabinet began to send troopships to Cathcart in preparation for an evacuation. The remaining troopships at Ramsgate waiting to make the voyage to Hanover had their men disembarked on 30 December, and were instead sent as part of this force. On 5 January 1806 it
SECTION 50
#17328013633396396-579: The Napoleonic Wars against the French. French control lasted until November 1813, when the territory was overrun by Allied troops after the Battle of Leipzig spelled the definitive end to the Napoleonic client state of Westphalia, as well as the entire Confederation of the Rhine , and the rule of the House of Hanover was restored. The former electorate became the Kingdom of Hanover , which
6519-413: The North Sea. Hardly any of the battalions embarked succeeded in reaching Cathcart whole; the troopship Ariadne , carrying the headquarters party and 300 men of the 9th Regiment of Foot , was wrecked near Calais and all on board were taken as prisoners of war . The same happened to half of the 5th Regiment of Foot , while losses were also encountered in the 3rd , 30th , and 89th Regiments of Foot,
6642-680: The Prince of Calenberg to the College of Electors , creating the new Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg. The fortunes of the electorate were tied to those of Great Britain by the Act of Settlement 1701 and Act of Union 1707 , which settled the succession to the British throne on Queen Anne's nearest Protestant relative, the Electress Sophia of Hanover , and her descendants. The prince-elector of Hanover became king of Great Britain in 1714. As
6765-452: The Prussians were inclining towards neutrality in the conflict. Cathcart was issued his orders on 5 December, which expected him to work to the best of his abilities with the armies of the allied nations, but not endanger Hanover. Despite this aggressive step, Cathcart was also warned to take caution in his warlike manoeuvres; even if he put his army under the command of another force, such as that of Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden at Stralsund, he
6888-522: The Prussians, and an uneasy cooperation with the Prussian General Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth continued. The reinforcements in the Weser landed and joined Cathcart's army, despite there being no clear view of what they might be used for. This injection of new troops was not the boon it might have been for Cathcart, because on top of the decaying strategic situation, the troopships had sailed through rough weather in
7011-416: The Russians and Prussians where possible, but that the Prussians were untrustworthy and he should not go on the offensive unless Prussian assistance was guaranteed. Prussia was also suspected of plotting to force Cathcart to leave the German soldiers of the KGL in Hanover under Prussian command. Castlereagh and Cathcart were both heavily resistant to this, and the latter ensured that in the case of an evacuation
7134-748: The Treasury (prior to 1905 also the official title of the position), Minister for the Civil Service , the minister responsible for national security , and Minister for the Union . The prime minister's official residence and office, by virtue of being the First Lord of the Treasury, is 10 Downing Street in London. Early conceptions of the office of prime minister evolved as the " Primus inter pares " or "first among equals", however that does not differentiate on status and responsibility upon whoever
7257-452: The United Kingdom The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government of the United Kingdom . The prime minister advises the sovereign on the exercise of much of the royal prerogative , chairs the Cabinet , and selects its ministers . As modern prime ministers hold office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the House of Commons , they sit as members of Parliament . The office of prime minister
7380-437: The actions of Britain's allies in order to succeed has been echoed by historian Alexander Mikaberidze . Glover writes succinctly that "[The British] had enlisted a few hundred recruits for the King's German Legion, they had offended the King of Prussia, but they had not caused Napoleon a moment's worry". The Third Coalition completed its final collapse in July 1806. Hanover remained under French control until November 1813 when it
7503-558: The agenda for policy and steering decisions in their preferred direction. Additionally, the prime minister can exercise considerable control over parliamentary time. Authors Alexander Horne and Gavin Drewry state that the prime minister uses this power through the Leader of the House of Commons , by which they are able to allocate time for government bills and often ensuring access to this time over private members' bills. The prime minister's parliamentary powers also extend to foreign relations. Contemporary historian Anthony Seldon says that
SECTION 60
#17328013633397626-439: The armed neutrality. During the War of the Second Coalition against France (1799–1802), Napoléon Bonaparte urged Prussia to occupy the continental British dominions. In 1801, there was an invasion of 24,000 Prussian soldiers that surprised Hanover, which surrendered without a fight. In April they arrived at Bremen-Verden's capital, Stade , and stayed there until October. The British first ignored Prussian hostility, but when
7749-412: The army could march towards Swedish Pomerania . The army continued in its positions, awaiting official instructions from Britain. By 29 December the state of Cathcart's allies was so poor that Castlereagh admitted to him that the possibility of supporting them with the British force was now completely gone. Castlereagh was aware of Cathcart's difficulties, writing to him that he should continue to support
7872-400: The cabinet on traditional discussion and to push through their preferred agendas with notable cases such as Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair. The prime minister's influence in the Houses of Parliament is derived from longstanding conventions and statutes that have gradually evolved through the centuries. The office of prime minister itself is not explicitly mentioned in parliamentary law but
7995-402: The capital of the electorate, the Privy Council of Hanover (electoral government) installed a new ministry in charge of the Imperial Estates ruled by the electors in personal union. It was called the Department of Bremen-Verden, Hadeln, Lauenburg and Bentheim . Nonetheless, the electors spent most of their time in England. Direct contact with the electorate was maintained through the office of
8118-463: The coalition, did not affect Hanoverian territory since the first French Republic was fighting on several fronts, even on its own territory. Men were drafted to recruit the 16,000 Hanoverian soldiers fighting in the Low Countries under British command against France. In 1795, the Holy Roman Empire declared its neutrality, including Hanover, but a peace treaty with France was being negotiated until it failed in 1799. Prussia, however, ended for its part
8241-421: The conferral of peerages and some knighthoods, decorations and other important honours. Bagehot identifies the prime minister as the leader of the "efficient" part of government that functions within the government to steer legislation through both Houses of Parliament. Although the prime minister does not possess the power to introduce legislation directly, their control of the cabinet and their role as leader of
8364-616: The conflict was heavily diminished, and the remaining Russian forces began to withdraw towards Poland. Cathcart had come ahead of his reinforcements, and their ships only arrived in the Weser on 27 December, with two divisions under Lieutenant-Generals Francis Dundas and George Ludlow, 3rd Earl Ludlow . In these were four infantry brigades, commanded by Major-Generals Rowland Hill , Sir Arthur Wellesley , Alexander Mackenzie Fraser , and John Coape Sherbrooke , with three companies of Royal Artillery and some Royal Engineers attached. The news of Austerlitz reached Britain on 28 December, but it
8487-423: The constitutional hierarchy, the premiership was given little formal recognition until the 20th century; the legal fiction was maintained that the sovereign still governed directly. The position was first mentioned in statute only in 1917, in the schedule of the Chequers Estate Act . Increasingly during the 20th century, the office and role of prime minister featured in statute law and official documents; however,
8610-417: The continent, rather than the politicians who had ordered the endeavour. Pitt and Castlereagh had reacted quickly to the opportunity to attack Germany, and Atkinson says that the Austrians and Russians made enough mistakes that Napoleon was able to take advantage and defeat them; without them Cathcart's army could do, and did, nothing. On the other hand, military historian Sir John Fortescue is more critical of
8733-438: The course of time received universal observance and respect. The relationships between the prime minister and the sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the prime minister's executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still formally vested in the sovereign , who remains the head of state . Despite its growing dominance in
8856-576: The creation of the King's German Legion in 1804 produced an opportunity for new British Army operations. In around October 1805 Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom was called off and the Grande Armée left its encampments at Boulogne to march towards the Russians and Austrians. With the largest portions of the French army gone, an opening was created for a British incursion into northwest Germany, with particular interest in
8979-534: The ducal family, the change needed imperial confirmation, which Emperor Leopold I granted in 1692. In 1692, at its upgrading to the rank of electorate, its territory comprised the Brunswick-Lüneburgian principalities of Calenberg and Grubenhagen , which the line of the former had already inherited in 1665. Before the confirmation of the electorate by the Imperial Diet in 1708, however,
9102-404: The early 20th century . During the premierships of Tony Blair and Margaret Thatcher , prime ministerial power expanded substantially and their leadership in the office were described as "presidential" due to their personal yielding of power and tight control over the cabinet. The prime minister is regarded as one of the world's most powerful political leaders in modern times. As the leader of
9225-558: The electorate was ruled in personal union with Great Britain and Ireland following the Hanoverian Succession . The Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg had been split in 1269 between different branches of the House of Welf . The Principality of Calenberg , ruled by a cadet branch of the family, emerged as the largest and most powerful of the Brunswick-Lüneburg states. In 1692, the Holy Roman Emperor elevated
9348-578: The elevation did not become official until the approval of the Imperial Diet in 1708. Calenberg's capital, Hanover , became colloquially eponymous for the electorate, but it officially used the name Chur-Braunschweig-Lüneburg of the entire ducal dynasty. The electoral coat of arms and flag (see info box upper right of this article) displayed the Saxon Steed (German: Sachsenross, Niedersachsenross, Welfenross, Westfalenpferd ; Dutch : Twentse Ros / Saksische ros/paard ; Low Saxon : Witte Peerd )
9471-423: The entire period, and Hanoverian ministers continued to operate out of London . The Privy Council of Hanover maintained its own separate diplomatic service, which maintained links with countries such as Austria and Prussia. The Hanoverian Army was dissolved, but many of the officers and soldiers went to England, where they formed the King's German Legion . That was the only German army to fight continually throughout
9594-552: The expedition and to strengthen the resolve of Prussia, Don's army was reinforced by 12,000, with Lord Cathcart taking over command. Coordination between the British, Swedes, and Russians in Hanover was so poor that by December very little past the occupation of Hanover had been achieved. Cathcart grouped his force around the Weser , and soon after learned of the Austro-Russian defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz , which forced
9717-423: The expedition, describing it as an "egregious farce". However, he agrees that the plan behind the expedition was sound in theory, its execution being let down by the rulers of the allied nations; while complimentary to Pitt's attempts to strike a blow against France, he is derisory of the other leaders, calling those of Russia and Sweden "insane", that of Prussia "contemptible", and Austria "weak". This need to rely on
9840-531: The first part of the Third Coalition to enter Hanover, as a Russian force had earlier arrived to blockade Hamelin , still garrisoned by the French and the only position left to them. Despite this Don's army received a warm welcome, and they quickly secured lines of supplies, while the KGL took advantage of being back in Germany to increase their numbers with local recruits. Four infantry battalions, two of
9963-525: The first years of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars Britain found increased difficulty in engaging France in land battles. With British control of the seas and with many of the French colonies already taken because of this, France provided little opportunity for Britain to attack her apart from at sea. The small British Army was not equipped to engage in an invasion of the highly defended French mainland, and so continued to rely on
10086-477: The granting of honours. Brazier argues that prerogative powers allow the prime minister to act within the "authority of the crown" in situations where neither convention nor statutory law applies. As noted by both Bagehot and Brazier, areas in which the prime minister authorises their given prerogative powers are matters of foreign affairs. In recent occasions, the 2003 invasion of Iraq saw Prime Minister Tony Blair deploying British troops to Saudi Arabia without
10209-471: The immediate consent or approval of parliament. Brazier says the rise of parliamentary and public scrutiny has led to calls for reform and checks on the use of prerogative powers. The only prime minister who did not seek parliamentary or legal consent for military action was Anthony Eden during the Suez Crisis in 1956. Professors Mark Elliot and Robert Thomas argue that prerogative powers present
10332-434: The largest political party in the House of Commons enables them substantial influence over any legislative agenda. Bagehot points out that this power is based on the prime minister's ability to operate the "machinery of government" that allows them to guide legislation that align with their party's political and ideological priorities. Brazier argues that the legislative power of the prime minister has greatly expanded following
10455-569: The latter joined the pro-French coalition of armed neutral powers, including Denmark-Norway and Russia , Britain began to capture Prussian ships. After the Battle of Copenhagen (1801) , the coalition fell apart and Prussia withdrew its troops. As part of the German Mediatisation of 25 February 1803, the electorate received the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück in real union , which had been ruled by every second ruler of
10578-514: The latter of which lost 150 men killed and a further 150 captured. The 26th Regiment of Foot was the hardest hit in the crossing, with one troopship being wrecked on the Goodwin Sands with the loss of all on board, and another wrecked off the coast of Holland, totalling between them 500 deaths. Other units were also depleted, but not by shipwrecks, with over 1,000 men returning to Britain when ships were unable to reach their destination. Only
10701-596: The minister Friedrich Franz Dieterich von Bremer holding up the Hanoverian stake, fled to Saxe-Lauenburg , across the Elbe , which was ruled by Britain and Hanover in personal union. Soon, the French also occupied Saxe-Lauenburg. In the autumn of 1805, at the beginning of the War of the Third Coalition against France (1805), the French occupying troops left Hanover in a campaign against Austria . British, Swedish and Russian coalition forces captured Hanover . In December,
10824-449: The navy could transport large groups of soldiers across seas at short notice, and in relatively good order barring bad weather. Lessons were, however, not fully learned. Pitt died on 23 January, having been further weakened by the knowledge that Britain was alone in war against France, her allies defeated and the British once more pushed from the continent. His government was replaced, and future expeditions with equally poor results, such as
10947-419: The policies and activities of all government departments, and the staff of the Civil Service. The prime minister also acts as the public "face" and "voice" of His Majesty's Government, both at home and abroad. Solely upon the advice of the prime minister, the sovereign exercises many statutory and prerogative powers, including high judicial, political, official and Church of England ecclesiastical appointments;
11070-400: The post-war period and that as a result, the prime minister now directly authorises supervision over government bills and has a consequential role in the introduction of legislation. The prime minister is able to wield considerable power in the passing of legislation through their ability to manage party discipline and cohesion in voting patterns. Bogdanor states that this largely depends upon
11193-407: The power of the prime minister derives from their ability to command a majority in the House in order to pass legislation and continue the functions of government. If a prime minister loses the confidence of the House, which occurs in a vote of no confidence, they are often expected to resign from office or request the monarch dissolve parliament to call a general election. The prime minister acts as
11316-451: The powers of the Crown, entrusting its authority to responsible ministers (the prime minister and Cabinet), accountable for their policies and actions to Parliament, in particular the elected House of Commons . Although many of the sovereign's prerogative powers are still legally intact, constitutional conventions have removed the monarch from day-to-day governance, with ministers exercising
11439-428: The prime minister acts as the main representative of the government in the international sphere, including in parliament, where treaties are ratified and international commitments are debated. The most significant powers given to the prime minister are "prerogative powers". These are a set of constitutional privileges deriving from monarchial authority that have gradually evolved into tools of executive power managed by
11562-401: The prime minister and the government. Bagehot famously called the British system as one where "the executive power is now yielded by the prime minister" rather than the monarch, a shift from personal to political power. Prerogative powers allow the prime minister to act without the immediate or direct consent of parliament especially in circumstances such as declaring war, deployment of troops and
11685-463: The prime minister and the sovereign. The concept of " the Crown " resolves this paradox. The Crown symbolises the state's authority to govern: to make laws and execute them, impose taxes and collect them, declare war and make peace. Before the " Glorious Revolution " of 1688, the sovereign exclusively wielded the powers of the Crown; afterwards, Parliament gradually forced monarchs to assume a neutral political position. Parliament has effectively dispersed
11808-446: The prime minister being the leader of the largest party in the Commons, which can pass legislation without any or little resistance if they can command the confidence of the House. This aspect of prime ministerial power is informal and often carried out by the office of Whips, who makes sure that MPs remain loyal and vote on the government line. The political scientist Anthony King said that the prime minister's influence over legislation
11931-407: The prime minister can hold significant power over the executive, it is often exercised collectively through the Cabinet (Government). Ministerial responsibility is also an aspect of a prime minister's executive authority. The prime minister leads the cabinet which makes the holder of that office bear responsibility for the collective conduct of the government. Professor Rodney Brazier points out that
12054-409: The prime minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons (the lower chamber of Parliament). The incumbent wields both significant legislative and executive powers. Under the British system, there is a unity of powers rather than separation . Walter Bagehot described the office of prime minister as the "keystone of the Cabinet arch" that maintained while
12177-488: The prime minister's power of appointment . The prime minister alongside the cabinet proposes new legislation and decide on key policies that fit their agenda which is then passed by an act of parliament . The power of the office of prime minister has grown significantly since the first prime minister, Robert Walpole in 1721. Prime ministerial power itself evolved gradually alongside the office itself which have played an increasingly prominent role in British politics since
12300-462: The prime minister's powers and relationships with other institutions still largely continue to derive from ancient royal prerogatives and historic and modern constitutional conventions. Prime ministers continue to hold the position of First Lord of the Treasury and, since November 1968, that of Minister for the Civil Service , the latter giving them authority over the civil service . Under this arrangement, Britain might appear to have two executives:
12423-420: The principal advisor to the monarch, who is the head of state, a capacity that has evolved gradually during the history of the office. Bagehot says that despite the monarch holding certain theoretical executive powers, in practice, these powers are often executed upon the advice and recommendation of the prime minister and the cabinet. This is considered a major principle of the "unity of powers" that exists within
12546-587: The rank of elector of the empire as a reward for aid given in the War of the Grand Alliance. There were protests against the addition of a new elector, and the elevation did not become official (with the approval of the Imperial Diet) until 1708, in the person of Ernest Augustus's son, George Louis. Though the elector's titles were properly duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and elector of the Holy Roman Empire, he
12669-634: The re-taking of the Electorate of Hanover , which George III had controlled until 1803, and which had only 4,000 French troops remaining in it. The British Prime Minister , William Pitt the Younger , and his Secretary of State for War and the Colonies Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh , were strong supporters of the enterprise, having championed it from as early as July. They envisaged an amphibious army that could be landed at points across Napoleonic Europe, making "pinprick" attacks against enemy targets while avoiding large battles with
12792-423: The reason for Cathcart's continued presence on the continent, he was unimpressed with them, writing that they were "strong numerically, but not in quality". Cathcart kept his army in Hanover in the hope that Russia would continue to fight and that Prussia would finally officially enter the conflict, but he also began to plan routes of retreat, expecting that if the rivers froze and they were not able to sail home, that
12915-474: The right of him. While still not part of the Third Coalition, Prussia was on increasingly poor terms with France because of incursions made by the French into Ansbach , and Pitt hoped that Prussia would join the Coalition because of this. With Napoleon placed just to the south of Prussian lands, an advance by a Prussian army would put him in a very precarious situation. Realising this, Pitt decided to strengthen
13038-399: The shortest-serving was Liz Truss , who served seven weeks. The current prime minister is Keir Starmer , who succeeded Rishi Sunak on 5 July 2024, following the 2024 general election . The position of prime minister was not created; it evolved slowly and organically over three hundred years due to numerous Acts of Parliament , political developments, and accidents of history. The office
13161-431: The since the prime minister wields significant sway over policy, that power must be subjected to the conclusion and input of Cabinet ministers. This prevents the office of prime minister from becoming more dominant and also ensures that executive power is authorised with broader support from and within the government. The prime minister must constantly maintain the confidence of the House of Commons because, as Bagehot notes,
13284-422: The territory of the former County of Hoya . In 1705, Elector George I Louis inherited the Principality of Lüneburg with the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg upon the death of his uncle Duke George William of Brunswick-Lüneburg . In 1715, he purchased the duchies of Bremen-Verden from King Frederick IV of Denmark (confirmed by the 1719 Treaty of Stockholm ), whereby his former landlocked electorate gained access to
13407-442: The time Lüneburg was ruled by Ernest Augustus's older brother) and the counties of Diepholz and Hoya. In 1714, George Louis became king of Great Britain and Ireland and so the electorate and Great Britain and Ireland were ruled in personal union . The possessions of the electors in Germany also grew, as they de facto purchased the formerly Swedish -held duchies of Bremen and Verden in 1719. George Louis died in 1727 and
13530-415: The troops. It was initially planned that Don would go ahead of his force to ensure that they would receive a positive welcome upon their landing, but this duty was instead taken by the politician Dudley Ryder, 1st Earl of Harrowby on 25 October. Harrowby's mission was to Berlin and the court of Prussia, with the intention of enticing that nation into joining the Third Coalition. He was authorised to offer
13653-602: The use of such powers by the prime minister is often constrained by political convention than by law. King Charles III [REDACTED] William, Prince of Wales [REDACTED] Charles III ( King-in-Council ) [REDACTED] Starmer ministry ( L ) Keir Starmer ( L ) Angela Rayner ( L ) ( King-in-Parliament ) [REDACTED] Charles III [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Lord Reed The Lord Hodge Andrew Bailey Monetary Policy Committee The British system of government
13776-461: The war with France by the Treaty of Basel (1795), which stipulated that Prussia would ensure the Holy Roman Empire's neutrality in all of the latter's territories north of the demarcation line of the River Main , including the British continental dominions of Hanover, Bremen-Verden, and Saxe-Lauenburg. To that end, Hanover also had to provide troops for the so-called demarcation army maintaining
13899-530: The wind against them their troopships only succeeded in arriving at Cuxhaven on 19 November. The crossing was difficult, and at least five ships did not complete it, spending seventeen days at sea before returning to Harwich with a portion of the KGL cavalry still on board. The expedition went on despite this loss. A Swedish force of 10,000 men paid for by Britain was poised to attack from Stralsund , and they were joined by 20,000 Russians under Lieutenant-General Pyotr Aleksandrovich Tolstoy . The British were not
14022-531: Was allowed to refuse action if he deemed it too dangerous. Castlereagh even suggested that Cathcart attempt to link up with the main Russian army advancing from the east, but this was a logistically difficult proposition. Cathcart arrived at Cuxhaven on 15 December, making his headquarters at Bremen . He began to prepare for the upcoming campaign, discussing how to communicate if the rivers of Heligoland should freeze over, considering whether to advance on Holland or
14145-467: Was almost unknown to him, being reliant on French and Dutch newspapers more than anything. In some ways, Cathcart's army knew less than him; Wellesley reported around the same time that "they appear to have very little intelligence in this place, except what they receive from England". Prussian troops were still present in Hanover, dating from the period before Austerlitz when Prussia was considering more offensive actions against France. Despite Prussia being
14268-459: Was confirmed at the Congress of Vienna in 1814. The electorate was legally indivisible: it could add to its territory, but not alienate territory or be split up among several heirs, as had been the rule before, which led at times to a multitude of Brunswick-Lüneburgian principalities. Its succession was to follow male primogeniture . Since that was against Salic law , which was then valid for
14391-479: Was decided that no more troops would be sent to Hanover. Two days later it was discovered that on 14 December Prussia had ratified the Treaty of Schönbrunn , a defensive and offensive alliance with France in which Prussia was given leave to occupy Hanover. Prussia also began to withdraw Tolstoy's force, which had been left under its auspices by the retreating Alexander I of Russia . With Prussia now advancing to occupy Hanover with 50,000 men and with rumours growing that
14514-497: Was given to Cathcart, who would bring 12,000 reinforcements with him to bolster his army. Don was superseded, but continued with the army as its second in command. Cathcart, who had been preparing to serve as ambassador-extraordinary to Russia and Prussia, was titled "Commander-in-Chief of British Forces in Northern Europe", and was given control over Russian, Swedish, or Prussian troops as well. Harrowby began reporting that
14637-486: Was liberated following the Battle of Leipzig . Electorate of Hanover The Electorate of Hanover ( German : Kurfürstentum Hannover or simply Kurhannover ) was an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire located in northwestern Germany that arose from the Principality of Calenberg . Although formally known as the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg ( German : Kurfürstentum Braunschweig-Lüneburg ), it made Hanover its capital city. For most of its existence,
14760-459: Was recalled in January 1806. The evacuation was completed on 15 February, and Hanover was left to the occupation of a Prussian army. The expedition, while a total failure, had little effect on the British position because of the lack of combat. Its method of quick amphibious transportation and landings of troops on a foreign shore would go on to be imitated in the Walcheren Expedition in 1809. In
14883-417: Was still hoped that Prussia would not cease fighting against France, and that Russia might hold on in the west. Without the larger Russian and Austrian armies standing as a buffer between the French forces and Cathcart's army, the latter's position in Hanover became untenable. Despite its now increasingly precarious position, Cathcart's force was kept in Hanover in the hope that its presence might still encourage
15006-410: Was succeeded by his son George II Augustus . In 1728, Emperor Charles VI officially enfeoffed George II (gave him land in exchange for a pledge of service), with the reverted fief of Saxe-Lauenburg , which had de facto been ruled in personal union with Hanover and with one of its preceding Principality of Lüneburg since 1689. In 1731, Hanover also gained Hadeln . In return, Hanover recognised
15129-447: Was tenuous but not immediately threatened. Napoleon had beaten an Austrian army, that did not wait for Russian assistance before advancing, at the Battle of Ulm , but in doing so had stretched his lines of communication too far and was unable to advance further, giving time for Britain's allies to reinforce their armies. When fully organised, Don's force stretched in a line between the Weser and Verden , supported with Tolstoy's Russians to
#338661