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123-522: In the early 1940s, in the formative days of the Beat Generation , students including Allen Ginsberg , Jack Kerouac , and Lucien Carr spent hours at the bar discussing their studies and their futures. In the 1960s, the bar was host to student activists upset about racial discrimination in the area and US foreign policy regarding Vietnam. Mark Rudd , who led the Columbia branch of Students for

246-461: A tranquil state of mind , and avoid pain. Following Antisthenes ( c.  446—366 BCE ), the Cynics warned against the pursuit of pleasure, viewing it as an obstacle to freedom. The Stoics also dismissed a hedonistic lifestyle, focusing on virtue and integrity instead of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. Lucretius ( c.  99–55 BCE ) further expanded on Epicureanism, highlighting

369-616: A Democratic Society and was a prominent member of the Weather Underground after his expulsion from the university in 1968, spent time at the bar while a student. After closing for a year and a half, it was leased from Columbia University by a group led by Jeff Spiegel and his wife Katie Gardner, a graduate of Columbia's School of Journalism . They renovated The West End, making an effort to have it look like it might have looked as an old Victorian era bar/restaurant. They expanded one room for catering, parties and even beer pong ,

492-474: A basement room for live jazz, and a large side dining room that could be used late night, after the kitchen was closed, by drinkers and revelers. Jazz historian Phil Schaap ran a jazz program at the venue from 1973, when he was an undergraduate at Columbia, to the mid-1990s. In 2004, The West End began brewing its own beers including its very popular, nearly 10% "Ker O'Whack", named for Columbia dropout and author, Jack Kerouac. The West End in 1990 also became

615-437: A central role in all forms of hedonism. Both pleasure and pain come in degrees corresponding to their intensity. They are typically understood as a continuum ranging from positive degrees through a neutral point to negative degrees. However, some hedonists reject the idea that pleasure and pain form a symmetric pair and suggest instead that avoiding pain is more important than producing pleasure. The nature of pleasure and pain

738-402: A desire for posthumous fame . It is an open question to what extent these cases can be explained as types of pleasure-seeking behavior. Axiological or evaluative hedonism is the view that pleasure is the sole source of intrinsic value . An entity has intrinsic value or is good in itself if its worth does not depend on external factors. Intrinsic value contrasts with instrumental value , which

861-460: A form of egoism , meaning that people strive to increase their own happiness. This implies that a person is only motivated to help others if it is in their own interest because they expect a personal benefit from it. As a theory of human motivation, psychological hedonism does not imply that all behavior leads to pleasure. For example, if a person holds mistaken beliefs or lacks necessary skills, they may attempt to produce pleasure but fail to attain

984-408: A form of psychological hedonism in his early psychoanalytic theory . He stated that the pleasure principle describes how individuals seek immediate pleasure while avoiding pain whereas the reality principle represents the ability to postpone immediate gratification to avoid unpleasant long-term consequences. The 20th century saw various criticisms of hedonism. G. E. Moore (1873–1958) rejected

1107-620: A full-service restaurant, including a widely popular Sunday brunch . It installed flat screen monitors for sports events. Playboy magazine featured The West End as "College Bar of the Month" in its February 2005 issue. The West End qua West End was sold in April 2006 and was replaced in late 2006 by "Havana Central at the West End", part of the expanding "Havana Central" chain of Cuban restaurants. The Havana Central closed on May 28, 2014, when

1230-463: A game may enjoy the activity more than a tennis player who tries to maximize their enjoyment. It is controversial to what extent the paradox of hedonism is true since, at least in some cases, the pursuit of pleasure is successful. A related phenomenon, the hedonic treadmill is the theory that people return to a stable level of happiness after significant positive or negative changes to their life circumstances. This suggests that good or bad events affect

1353-555: A good life. Asceticism is a lifestyle dedicated to a program of self-discipline that renounces worldly pleasures. It can take various forms, including abstinence from sex and drugs, fasting , withdrawal from society, and practices like prayer and meditation . This lifestyle is often motivated by religious aspirations to become close to the divine, reach a heightened spiritual state, or purify oneself. Most forms of asceticism are opposed to hedonism and its pursuit of pleasure. However, there are forms of ascetic hedonism that combine

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1476-612: A highly subjective phenomenon, it is difficult to establish a standardized metric. Moreover, asking people to rate their experiences using an artificially constructed scale may not accurately reflect their subjective experiences. A closely related problem concerns comparisons between individuals since different people may use the scales differently and thus arrive at different values even if they had similar experiences. Neuroscientists avoid some of these challenges by using neuroimaging techniques such as PET scans and fMRI . However, this approach comes with new difficulties of its own since

1599-494: A low profile). Beyond style, there were changes in substance. The Beats tended to be essentially apolitical, but the hippies became actively engaged with the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement. Among the emerging novelists of the 1960s and 1970s, a few were closely connected with Beat writers, most notably Ken Kesey ( One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest ). Though they had no direct connection, other writers considered

1722-479: A method used to estimate the value of commodities based on their utility or effect on the owner's pleasure. Animal ethics is the branch of ethics studying human behavior towards other animals. Hedonism is an influential position in this field as a theory about animal welfare . It emphasizes that humans have the responsibility to consider the impact of their actions on how animals feel to minimize harm done to them. Some quantitative hedonists suggest that there

1845-454: A more ascetic lifestyle, a tendency common among Hindu , Buddhist , and Jain schools of thought. In ancient China, Yang Zhu ( c.  440–360 BCE ) argued that it is human nature to follow self-interest and satisfy personal desires. His hedonistic egoism inspired the subsequent school of Yangism . Hedonist philosophy received less attention in medieval philosophy . The early Christian philosopher Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE),

1968-572: A more balanced pursuit of pleasure that aligns with virtue and rationality. Following a similar approach, Aristotle (384–322 BCE) associated pleasure with eudaimonia or the realization of natural human capacities, like reason. Epicurus (341–271 BCE) developed a nuanced form of hedonism that contrasts with the indulgence in immediate gratification proposed by the Cyrenaics. He argued that excessive desires and anxiety result in suffering, suggesting instead that people practice moderation, cultivate

2091-427: A nine-point scale from -4 for the most unpleasant experiences, to +4 for the most pleasant ones. Some methods rely on memory and ask individuals to retrospectively assess their experiences. A different approach is for individuals to evaluate their experiences while they are happening to avoid biases and inaccuracies introduced by memory. In either form, the measurement of pleasure and pain poses various challenges. As

2214-438: A person and only consider two factors: intensity and duration. Some theorists formulate hedonism in terms of happiness rather than pleasure and pain. According to a common interpretation, happiness is the balance of pleasure over pain. This means that a person is happy if they have more pleasure than pain and unhappy if the balance is overall negative. There are also other ways to understand happiness that do not fully align with

2337-441: A person's happiness temporarily but not in the long term—their overall level of happiness tends to revert to a baseline as they get used to the changed situation. For instance, studies on lottery winners indicate that their happiness initially increases as the newly acquired wealth augments their living standards but returns to its original level after about one year. If true, this effect would undermine efforts to increase happiness in

2460-436: A person. According to a common view, pleasure is one component of well-being. It is controversial whether it is the only factor and what other factors there are, such as health, knowledge, and friendship. Another approach focuses on desires, saying that well-being consists in the satisfaction of desires. The view that the balance of pleasure over pain is the only source of well-being is called prudential hedonism . Eudaimonia

2583-414: A reason not to do so. However, a person would be free to harm others, and would even be morally required to, if they overall benefit from it. Utilitarian hedonism, also called classical utilitarianism , asserts that everyone's happiness matters. It says that a person should maximize the sum total of happiness of everybody affected by their actions. This sum total includes the person's own happiness, but it

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2706-402: A sense to bridge generations. Philip Lamantia , Michael McClure , Philip Whalen , Ginsberg and Gary Snyder read on October 7, 1955, before 100 people (including Kerouac, up from Mexico City). Lamantia read poems of his late friend John Hoffman. At his first public reading, Ginsberg performed the just finished first part of Howl . It was a success and the evening led to many more readings by

2829-502: A single theory but to a family of theories about the role of pleasure . These theories are often categorized into psychological , axiological , and ethical hedonism depending on whether they study the relation between pleasure and motivation , value , or right action. While these distinctions are common in contemporary philosophy, earlier philosophers did not always clearly differentiate between them and sometimes combined several views in their theories. The word hedonism derives from

2952-483: A specific location in the body and do not arise in isolation since they are always directed at an object that people enjoy or suffer. Both philosophers and psychologists are interested in methods of measuring pleasure and pain to guide decision-making and gain a deeper understanding of their causes. A common approach is to use self-report questionnaires in which people are asked to quantify how pleasant or unpleasant an experience is. For example, some questionnaires use

3075-471: A thing, like a landscape, a painting, or a song, has aesthetic value if people are pleased by it or get aesthetic pleasure from it. It is a subjective theory because it focuses on how people respond to aesthetically engaging things. It contrasts with objective theories, which assert that aesthetic value only depends on objective or mind-independent features of things, like symmetry or harmonic composition. Some aesthetic hedonists believe that any type of pleasure

3198-558: Is a form of well-being rooted in ancient Greek thought , serving as a foundation of many forms of moral philosophy during this period. Aristotle understood eudaimonia as a type of flourishing in which a person is happy by leading a fulfilling life and manifesting their inborn capacities. Ethical theories based on eudaimonia often share parallels with hedonism, like an interest in long-term happiness, but are distinguished from it by their emphasis of virtues , advocating an active lifestyle focused on self-realization . The paradox of hedonism

3321-453: Is a pleasure, including the joy of watching a sunset, whereas anything that feels bad is a pain, including the sorrow of losing a loved one. A traditionally influential position says that pleasure and pain are specific bodily sensations, similar to the sensations of hot and cold. A more common view in contemporary philosophy holds that pleasure and pain are attitudes of attraction or aversion toward objects. This view implies that they do not have

3444-426: Is a reduced ability to experience pleasure, and hedonophobia , which is a fear or aversion to pleasure. Positive psychology in general and hedonic psychology in particular are relevant to hedonism by providing a scientific understanding of the experiences of pleasure and pain and the processes impacting them. In the field of economics , welfare economics examines how economic activities affect social welfare . It

3567-621: Is an authentic connection between pleasure and reality. In response to these and similar criticisms, Fred Feldman (1941–present) has developed a modified form of hedonism. Drawing on Brentano's attitudinal theory of pleasure, he has defended the idea that even though pleasure is the only source of intrinsic goodness, its value must be adjusted based on whether it is appropriate or deserved. Peter Singer (1946–present) has expanded classical hedonism to include concerns about animal welfare . He has advocated effective altruism , relying on empirical evidence and reason to prioritize actions that have

3690-597: Is based on Gary Snyder. Kerouac was impressed with Snyder and they were close for several years. In the spring of 1955, they lived together in Snyder's cabin in Mill Valley, California . Most Beats were urbanites and they found Snyder almost exotic, with his rural background and wilderness experience, as well as his education in cultural anthropology and Oriental languages. Lawrence Ferlinghetti called him "the Thoreau of

3813-474: Is desirable. The idea that most pleasures are valuable in some form is relatively uncontroversial. However, the stronger claim that all pleasures are valuable and that they are the only source of intrinsic value is subject to debate. Some critics assert that certain pleasures are worthless or even bad, like disgraceful and sadistic pleasures. A different criticism comes from value pluralists , who contend that other things besides pleasure have value. To support

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3936-415: Is disputed and affects the plausibility of various versions of hedonism. In everyday language, these concepts are often understood in a narrow sense associated with specific phenomena, like the pleasure of food and sex or the pain of an injury. However, hedonists usually take a wider perspective in which pleasure and pain cover any positive or negative experiences. In this broad sense, anything that feels good

4059-470: Is good for an individual. It states that pleasure and pain are the sole factors of well-being, meaning that how good a life is for a person only depends on its balance of pleasure over pain. Prudential hedonism allows for the possibility that other things than well-being have intrinsic value, such as beauty or freedom. According to quantitative hedonism, the intrinsic value of pleasure depends solely on its intensity and duration. Qualitative hedonists hold that

4182-637: Is no significant difference between the pleasure and pain experienced by humans and other animals. As a result of this view, moral considerations about promoting the happiness of other people apply equally to all sentient animals. This position is modified by some qualitative hedonists, who argue that human experiences carry more weight because they include higher forms of pleasure and pain. While many religious traditions are critical of hedonism, some have embraced it or certain aspects of it, such as Christian hedonism . Elements of hedonism are also found in various forms of popular culture , such as consumerism ,

4305-456: Is not brute savagery, but a healthy balance, a self-regulating system.". Snyder attributed wild to Buddhism and Daoism , the interests of some Beats. "Snyder's synthesis uses Buddhist thought to encourage American social activism, relying on both the concept of impermanence and the classically American imperative toward freedom." While many authors claim to be directly influenced by the Beats,

4428-436: Is often understood as a form of consequentialism , which asserts that an act is right if it has the best consequences. It is typically combined with axiological hedonism, which links the intrinsic value of consequences to pleasure and pain. As a result, the arguments for and against axiological hedonism also apply to ethical hedonism. Aesthetic hedonism is a theory about the nature of aesthetic value or beauty. It states that

4551-508: Is often understood as a form of normative economics that uses considerations of welfare to evaluate economic processes and policies. Hedonist approaches to welfare economics state that pleasure is the main criterion of this evaluation, meaning that economic activities should aim to promote societal happiness. The economics of happiness is a closely related field studying the relation between economic phenomena, such as wealth, and individual happiness. Economists also employ hedonic regression ,

4674-403: Is one thing in life that matters but not the only thing. Another form argues that some pleasures are good while others are bad. The strongest rejection of hedonism, sometimes termed anti-hedonism , claims that all pleasures are bad. Motivations to adopt this view include the idea that pleasure is an irrational emotion and that the pursuit of pleasure is an obstacle that prevents people from leading

4797-425: Is only driven by pleasure and pain when people actively reflect on the overall consequences. Another version is genetic hedonism, which accepts that people desire various things besides pleasure but asserts that each desire has its origin in a desire for pleasure. Proponents of psychological hedonism often highlight its intuitive appeal and explanatory power, arguing that many desires directly focus on pleasure while

4920-424: Is only one factor among many without any special preference compared to the happiness of others. As a result, utilitarian hedonism sometimes requires of people to forego their own enjoyment to benefit others. For example, philosopher Peter Singer argues that good earners should donate a significant portion of their income to charities since this money can produce more happiness for people in need. Ethical hedonism

5043-410: Is pleasant is the root of all human motivation. John Locke (1632–1704) stated that pleasure and pain are the only sources of good and evil. Joseph Butler (1692–1752) formulated an objection to psychological hedonism, arguing that most desires, like wanting food or ambition, are not directed at pleasure itself but at external objects. According to David Hume (1711–1776), pleasure and pain are both

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5166-407: Is relevant to the aesthetic value of a thing. Others offer a more nuanced characterization, saying that aesthetic value is only based on how people with a well-developed taste respond to it. Outside the academic contexts of philosophy and psychology, the word hedonism is often used in a more narrow sense as a pejorative term. Sometimes called folk hedonism , it describes a lifestyle dedicated to

5289-488: Is the theory that the underlying motivation of all human behavior is to maximize pleasure and avoid pain . As a form of egoism , it suggests that people only help others if they expect a personal benefit. Axiological hedonism is the view that pleasure is the sole source of intrinsic value . It asserts that other things, like knowledge and money, only have value insofar as they produce pleasure and reduce pain. This view divides into quantitative hedonism, which only considers

5412-414: Is the thesis that the direct pursuit of pleasure is counterproductive. It says that conscious attempts to become happy usually backfire, acting as obstacles to one's personal happiness. According to one interpretation, the best way to produce pleasure is to follow other endeavors, with pleasure being a by-product rather than the goal itself. For example, this view suggests that a tennis player who tries to win

5535-445: Is the value of things that lead to other good things. According to axiological hedonism, pleasure is intrinsically valuable because it is good even when it produces no external benefit. Money, by contrast, is only instrumentally good because it can be used to obtain other good things but lacks value apart from these uses. Axiological hedonism asserts that only pleasure has intrinsic value whereas other things only have instrumental value to

5658-432: Is through a beatific vision of God. In Islamic philosophy , the problem of pleasure played a central role in the philosophy of al-Razi ( c.  864—925 or 932 CE ). Similar to Epicureanism, he recommended a life of moderation avoiding the extremes of excess and asceticism . Both al-Farabi ( c.  878–950 CE ) and Avicenna (980–1037 CE) asserted that a form of intellectual happiness, reachable only in

5781-432: Is usually identified as its earliest philosophical proponent. As a student of Socrates ( c.  469–399 BCE ), he formulated a hedonistic egoism, arguing that personal pleasure is the highest good. He and the school of Cyrenaics he inspired focused on the gratification of immediate sensory pleasures with little concern for long-term consequences. Plato ( c.  428–347 BCE ) critiqued this view and proposed

5904-537: The Ancient Greek word ἡδονή ( hēdonē ), meaning ' pleasure ' . Its earliest known use in the English language is from the 1850s. Psychological or motivational hedonism is the view that all human actions aim at increasing pleasure and avoiding pain . It is an empirical view about what motivates people, both on the conscious and the unconscious levels. Psychological hedonism is usually understood as

6027-533: The Charvaka school in ancient India , and Yangism in ancient China . It attracted less attention in the medieval period but became a central topic in the modern era with the rise of utilitarianism. Various criticisms of hedonism emerged in the 20th century, while its proponents suggested new versions to meet these challenges. Hedonism remains relevant to many fields, ranging from psychology and economics to animal ethics . The term hedonism refers not to

6150-530: The Protestant Cemetery, Rome . Ginsberg mentions Shelley's poem Adonais at the beginning of his poem Kaddish , and cites it as a major influence on the composition of one of his most important poems. Michael McClure compared Ginsberg's Howl to Shelley's breakthrough poem Queen Mab . Ginsberg's main Romantic influence was William Blake , and studied him throughout his life. Blake

6273-596: The counterculture of the 1960s , accompanied by a shift in terminology from " beatnik " to " hippie ". Many of the original Beats remained active participants, notably Allen Ginsberg, who became a fixture of the anti-war movement. Notably, however, Jack Kerouac broke with Ginsberg and criticized the 1960s politically radical protest movements as an excuse to be "spiteful". There were stylistic differences between beatniks and hippies—somber colors, dark sunglasses, and goatees gave way to colorful psychedelic clothing and long hair. The Beats were known for "playing it cool" (keeping

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6396-407: The hippie and larger counterculture movements. Neal Cassady , as the driver for Ken Kesey 's bus Furthur , was the primary bridge between these two generations. Ginsberg's work also became an integral element of early 1960s hippie culture, in which he actively participated. The hippie culture was practiced primarily by older members of the following generation . Although Kerouac introduced

6519-584: The African-American community of the period and had developed out of the image "beat to his socks", but Kerouac appropriated the image and altered the meaning to include the connotations "upbeat", "beatific", and the musical association of being "on the beat", and "the Beat to keep" from the Beat Generation poem. The origins of the Beat Generation can be traced to Columbia University and

6642-609: The Beat Generation phenomenon itself has had an influence on American culture leading more broadly to the hippie movements of the 1960s. In 1982, Ginsberg published a summary of "the essential effects" of the Beat Generation: The term " beatnik " was coined by Herb Caen of the San Francisco Chronicle on April 2, 1958, blending the name of the recent Russian satellite Sputnik and Beat Generation. This suggested that beatniks were (1) "far out of

6765-424: The Beat Generation, the presence of some black writers in this movement did contribute to the movement's progression. While many of the Beats briefly discussed issues of race and sexuality, they spoke from their perspectives—most being white. However, black people added a counterbalance to this; their work supplied readers with alternative views of occurrences in the world. Beats like the poet Robert "Bob" Kaufman and

6888-491: The Beat Generation." As documented in the conclusion of The Dharma Bums , Snyder moved to Japan in 1955, in large measure to intensively practice and study Zen Buddhism . He would spend most of the next 10 years there. Buddhism is one of the primary subjects of The Dharma Bums , and the book undoubtedly helped to popularize Buddhism in the West and remains one of Kerouac's most widely read books. The Beats also spent time in

7011-522: The Beat movement. The Beats were inspired by early American figures such as Henry David Thoreau , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Herman Melville and especially Walt Whitman , who is addressed as the subject of one of Ginsberg's most famous poems, " A Supermarket in California ". Edgar Allan Poe was occasionally acknowledged, and Ginsberg saw Emily Dickinson as having an influence on Beat poetry. The 1926 novel You Can't Win by outlaw author Jack Black

7134-515: The Beats to be a major influence, including Thomas Pynchon ( Gravity's Rainbow ) and Tom Robbins ( Even Cowgirls Get the Blues ). William S. Burroughs is considered a forefather of postmodern literature ; he also inspired the cyberpunk genre. One-time Beat writer LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka helped initiate the Black Arts movement. As there was a focus on live performance among

7257-419: The Beats were Guillaume Apollinaire , Arthur Rimbaud and Charles Baudelaire . Gertrude Stein was the subject of a book-length study by Lew Welch . Admitted influences for Kerouac include Marcel Proust , Ernest Hemingway and Thomas Wolfe . Gary Snyder defined wild as "whose order has grown from within and is maintained by the force of consensus and custom rather than explicit legislation". "The wild

7380-410: The Beats, many Slam poets have claimed to be influenced by the Beats. Saul Williams , for example, cites Allen Ginsberg, Amiri Baraka, and Bob Kaufman as major influences. The Postbeat Poets are direct descendants of the Beat Generation. Their association with or tutelage under Ginsberg at The Naropa University's Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics and later at Brooklyn College stressed

7503-531: The Beats. Cultural critics have written about the transition of Beat culture in the Village into the Bohemian hippie culture of the 1960s. In 1960, a presidential election year, the Beats formed a political party, the "Beat Party," and held a mock nominating convention to announce a presidential candidate: the African-American street poet Big Brown , won a majority of votes on the first ballot but fell short of

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7626-614: The Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks , concerning the murder. Beat Generation women who have been published include Edie Parker; Joyce Johnson ; Carolyn Cassady ; Hettie Jones ; Joanne Kyger ; Harriet Sohmers Zwerling ; Diane DiPrima ; Bonnie Bremser ; Lenore Kandel ; and Ruth Weiss , who also made films. Carolyn Cassady wrote her detailed account of life with her husband Neal Cassady which also included details about her affair with Jack Kerouac. She titled it Off

7749-594: The Japanese concept of yūgen . Mr. and Mrs. Jones were associated with several Beats ( Jack Kerouac , Allen Ginsberg , and Gregory Corso ). That is, until the assassination of the Civil Rights leader, Malcolm X . During this time, LeRoi Jones branched off from the other Beat writers, including his wife, to find his identity among the African-American and Islamic communities. The change in his social setting along with awakening influenced his writing and brought about

7872-819: The Northern Pacific Northwest including Washington and Oregon. Kerouac wrote about sojourns to Washington's North Cascades in The Dharma Bums and On the Road . Reed College in Portland, Oregon was also a locale for some of the Beat poets. Gary Snyder studied anthropology there, Philip Whalen attended Reed, and Allen Ginsberg held multiple readings on the campus around 1955 and 1956. Gary Snyder and Philip Whalen were students in Reed's calligraphy class taught by Lloyd J. Reynolds . Burroughs

7995-439: The Road , and it was published in 1990. Poet Elise Cowen took her own life in 1963. Poet Anne Waldman was less influenced by the Beats than by Allen Ginsberg's later turn to Buddhism . Later, female poets emerged who claimed to be strongly influenced by the Beats, including Janine Pommy Vega in the 1960s, Patti Smith in the 1970s, and Hedwig Gorski in the 1980s. Although African Americans were not widely represented in

8118-540: The absence of mental illness . On the individual level, it investigates experiences of pleasure and pain and the role of character traits . On the societal level, it examines how social institutions impact human well-being. Hedonic psychology or hedonics is one of the main pillars of positive psychology by studying pleasurable and unpleasurable experiences. It investigates and compares different states of consciousness associated with pleasure and pain, ranging from joy and satisfaction to boredom and sorrow. It also examines

8241-455: The accident and left incriminating notebooks behind. He was given the option to plead insanity to avoid a jail term and was committed for 90 days to Bellevue Hospital , where he met Carl Solomon . Solomon was arguably more eccentric than psychotic. A fan of Antonin Artaud , he indulged in self-consciously "crazy" behavior, like throwing potato salad at a college lecturer on Dadaism . Solomon

8364-529: The afterlife, is the highest human good. At the transition to the early modern period, Lorenzo Valla ( c.  1406–1457 ) synthesized Epicurean hedonism with Christian ethics , suggesting that earthly pleasures associated with the senses are stepping stones to heavenly pleasures associated with Christian virtues. Hedonism gained prominence during the Age of Enlightenment . According to Thomas Hobbes 's (1588–1679) psychological hedonism, self-interest in what

8487-550: The artist Wally Hedrick to sit in the window dressed in full beard, turtleneck, and sandals, creating improvisational drawings and paintings. By 1958 tourists who came to San Francisco could take bus tours to view the North Beach Beat scene, prophetically anticipating similar tours of the Haight-Ashbury district ten years later. A variety of other small businesses also sprang up exploiting (and/or satirizing)

8610-415: The beatniks, or at least found the parodies humorous (Ginsberg, for example, appreciated the parody in the comic strip Pogo ) others criticized the beatniks as inauthentic poseurs . Jack Kerouac feared that the spiritual aspect of his message had been lost and that many were using the Beat Generation as an excuse to be senselessly wild. During the 1960s, aspects of the Beat movement metamorphosed into

8733-421: The course with the highest overall contribution to happiness. Bentham considered several factors for each pleasurable experience: its intensity and duration, the likelihood that it occurs, its temporal distance, the likelihood that it causes further experiences of pleasure and pain, and the number of people affected. Some simplified versions of the hedonic calculus focus primarily on what is intrinsically valuable to

8856-556: The development of many of his most notable works, like Somebody Blew Up America , in which he reflected on the attacks of 9/11 and America's reaction to this incident about other occurrences in America. One of the key beliefs and practices of the Beat Generation was free love and sexual liberation, which strayed from the Christian ideals of American culture at the time. Some Beat writers were openly gay or bisexual, including two of

8979-402: The egoistic pursuit of short-term gratification. For example, a person who indulges in sex and drugs without concern for the long-term consequences of their behavior is acting hedonistically in this sense. The negative connotation of the term is associated with a lack of interest or foresight regarding the potential harm or ethical implications of such actions. Negative consequences can impact both

9102-408: The emotions they felt toward jazz. They used their pieces to discuss feelings, people, and objects they associate with jazz music, as well as life experiences that reminded them of this style of music. Kaufman's pieces listed above "were intended to be freely improvisational when read with Jazz accompaniment" (Charters 327). He and other writers found inspiration in this genre and allowed it to help fuel

9225-624: The end of 1954 and began writing Howl . Lawrence Ferlinghetti , of the new City Lights Bookstore , started to publish the City Lights Pocket Poets Series in 1955. Kenneth Rexroth 's apartment became a Friday night literary salon (Ginsberg's mentor William Carlos Williams , an old friend of Rexroth, had given him an introductory letter). When asked by Wally Hedrick To organize the Six Gallery reading , Ginsberg wanted Rexroth to serve as master of ceremonies, in

9348-617: The eventual nomination. The Associated Press reported, "Big Brown's lead startled the convention. Big, as the husky African American is called by his friends, wasn't the favorite son of any delegation, but he had one tactic that earned him votes. In a chatterbox convention, only once did he speak at length, and that was to read his poetry." Ginsberg had visited Neal and Carolyn Cassady in San Jose, California in 1954 and moved to San Francisco in August. He fell in love with Peter Orlovsky at

9471-442: The exploration of American and Eastern religions, the rejection of economic materialism , explicit portrayals of the human condition , experimentation with psychedelic drugs , and sexual liberation and exploration. Allen Ginsberg 's Howl (1956), William S. Burroughs ' Naked Lunch (1959), and Jack Kerouac 's On the Road (1957) are among the best-known examples of Beat literature. Both Howl and Naked Lunch were

9594-444: The extent that they influence pleasure and pain. Theories of ethical hedonism can be divided into egoistic and utilitarian theories. Egoistic hedonism says that each person should only pursue their own pleasure. According to this controversial view, a person only has a moral reason to care about the happiness of others if this happiness impacts their own well-being. For example, if a person feels guilty about harming others, they have

9717-433: The extent that they lead to pleasure or the avoidance of pain. The overall value of a thing depends on both its intrinsic and instrumental value. In some cases, even unpleasant things, like a painful surgery, can be overall good, according to axiological hedonism, if their positive consequences make up for the unpleasantness. Prudential hedonism is a form of axiological hedonism that focuses specifically well-being or what

9840-645: The focus of obscenity trials that ultimately helped to liberalize publishing in the United States. The members of the Beat Generation developed a reputation as new bohemian hedonists , who celebrated non-conformity and spontaneous creativity. The core group of Beat Generation authors— Herbert Huncke , Ginsberg, Burroughs, Lucien Carr , and Kerouac—met in 1944 in and around the Columbia University campus in New York City. Later, in

9963-425: The future. The emergence of positive psychology at the turn of the 21st century has led to an increased interest in the empirical exploration of various topics of hedonism. Positive psychology studies how to cultivate happiness and promote optimal human functioning. Unlike traditional psychology , which often focuses on psychopathology , positive psychology emphasizes that optimal functioning goes beyond merely

10086-542: The goal is to increase overall happiness for everyone, whereas egoistic versions state that each person should only pursue their own pleasure. Outside the academic context, hedonism is a pejorative term for an egoistic lifestyle seeking short-term gratification. Hedonists typically understand pleasure and pain broadly to include any positive or negative experience . While traditionally seen as bodily sensations, contemporary philosophers tend to view them as attitudes of attraction or aversion toward objects. Hedonists often use

10209-560: The hedonistic idea that pleasure is the only source of intrinsic value. According to his axiological pluralism , there are other sources, such as beauty and knowledge , a criticism also shared by W. D. Ross (1877–1971). Both C. D. Broad (1887–1971) and Richard Brandt (1910–1997) held that malicious pleasures, like enjoying the suffering of others, do not have inherent value. Robert Nozick (1938–2002) used his experience machine thought experiment about simulated pleasure to argue against traditional hedonism, which ignores whether there

10332-465: The idea that beauty is an additional source of value, G. E. Moore used a thought experiment involving two worlds: one exceedingly beautiful and the other a heap of filth. He argued that the beautiful world is better even if there is no one to enjoy it. Another influential thought experiment, proposed by Robert Nozick , involves an experience machine able to create artificial pleasures. Based on his observation that most people would not want to spend

10455-547: The importance of excellence and self-overcoming instead, stating that suffering is necessary to achieve greatness rather than something to be avoided. An influential view about the nature of pleasure was developed by Franz Brentano (1838–1917). He dismissed the idea that pleasure is a sensation located in a specific area of the body, proposing instead that pleasure is a positive attitude that people can have towards various objects —a position also later defended by Roderick Chisholm (1916–1999). Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) developed

10578-407: The importance of overcoming obstacles to personal happiness, such as the fear of death. In ancient India , the Charvaka school developed a hedonistic egoism, starting between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. Their belief in the non-existence of God or an afterlife led them to advocate for enjoying life in the present to the fullest. Many other Indian traditions rejected this view and recommended

10701-408: The individual and the people around them, affecting areas such as health, financial stability, relationships, and societal responsibilities. Most philosophical hedonists reject the idea that a lifestyle characterized by folk hedonism leads to long-term happiness. Pleasure and pain are fundamental experiences about what is attractive and aversive, influencing how people feel, think, and act. They play

10824-443: The intended outcome. The standard form of psychological hedonism asserts that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the only sources of all motivation. Some psychological hedonists propose weaker formulations, suggesting that considerations of pleasure and pain influence most actions to some extent or limiting their role to certain conditions. For example, reflective or rationalizing hedonism says that human motivation

10947-438: The intensity and duration of pleasures, and qualitative hedonism, which holds that the value of pleasures also depends on their quality. The closely related position of prudential hedonism states that pleasure and pain are the only factors of well-being . Ethical hedonism applies axiological hedonism to morality , arguing that people have a moral obligation to pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Utilitarian versions assert that

11070-630: The lease ended. In September 2014, the space reopened as Bernheim & Schwartz Restaurant and Hall, which was described by its owners as a tribute to brewing in Manhattan, and especially to Bernheim & Schwartz, a brewery founded in 1903 and located at 128th Street and Amsterdam Avenue. Bernheim & Schwartz closed in April 2017. In 2021, the space reopened as Hex & Co., a board game café . 40°48′23″N 73°57′55″W  /  40.80647°N 73.96533°W  / 40.80647; -73.96533 Beat Generation The Beat Generation

11193-417: The long term, including personal efforts to lead a healthy lifestyle and social efforts to create a free, just, and prosperous society. While there is some empirical support for this effect, it is controversial how strong this tendency is and whether it applies to all fields or only to certain aspects of life. Non-hedonist theories reject certain aspects of hedonism. One form of non-hedonism says that pleasure

11316-531: The mainstream of society" and (2) "possibly pro-Communist." Caen's term stuck and became the popular label associated with a new stereotype—the man with a goatee and beret reciting nonsensical poetry and playing bongo drums while free-spirited women wearing black leotards dance. An early example of the "beatnik stereotype" occurred in Vesuvio's (a bar in North Beach , San Francisco) which employed

11439-399: The measure of ethical value and the main motivators fueling the passions. The libertine novels of Marquis de Sade (1740–1814) depicted an extreme form of hedonism, emphasizing full indulgence in pleasurable activities without moral or sexual restraint . Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) developed an influential form of hedonism known as classical utilitarianism . One of his key innovations

11562-493: The meeting of Kerouac, Ginsberg, Carr, Hal Chase and others. Kerouac attended Columbia on a football scholarship. Though the beats are usually regarded as anti-academic, many of their ideas were formed in response to professors like Lionel Trilling and Mark Van Doren . Classmates Carr and Ginsberg discussed the need for a "New Vision" (a term borrowed from W. B. Yeats ), to counteract what they perceived as their teachers' conservative, formalistic literary ideals. Ginsberg

11685-567: The mid-1950s, the central figures, except Burroughs and Carr, ended up together in San Francisco, where they met and became friends of figures associated with the San Francisco Renaissance . In the 1950s, a Beatnik subculture formed around the literary movement, although this was often viewed critically by major authors of the Beat movement. In the 1960s, elements of the expanding Beat movement were incorporated into

11808-676: The most prominent (Ginsberg and Burroughs ). However, the first novel does show Cassady as frankly promiscuous. Kerouac's novels feature an interracial love affair ( The Subterraneans ), and group sex ( The Dharma Bums ). The relationships among men in Kerouac's novels are predominately homosocial . The original members of the Beat Generation used several different drugs, including alcohol, marijuana , benzedrine , morphine , and later psychedelic drugs such as peyote , Ayahuasca , and LSD . They often approached drugs experimentally, initially being unfamiliar with their effects. Their drug use

11931-421: The most significant positive impact. Inspired by the philosophy of Albert Camus (1913–1960), Michel Onfray (1959–present) has aimed to rehabilitate Epicurean hedonism in a modern form. David Pearce (1959–present) has developed a transhumanist version of hedonism, arguing for the use of modern technology, ranging from genetic engineering to nanotechnology , to reduce suffering and possibly eliminate it in

12054-422: The neurological basis of happiness is not yet fully understood. Based on the idea that individual experiences of pleasure and pain can be quantified, Jeremy Bentham proposed the hedonistic calculus as a method to combine various episodes to arrive at their total contribution to happiness. This makes it possible to quantitatively compare different courses of action based on the experiences they produce to choose

12177-607: The new craze. In 1959, Fred McDarrah started a "Rent-a-Beatnik" service in New York, taking out ads in The Village Voice and sending Ted Joans and friends out on calls to read poetry. "Beatniks" appeared in many cartoons, movies, and TV shows of the time, perhaps the most famous being the character Maynard G. Krebs in The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis (1959–1963). While some of the original Beats embraced

12300-403: The now locally famous Six Gallery poets. It was also a marker of the beginning of the Beat movement since the 1956 publication of Howl ( City Lights Pocket Poets , no. 4), and its obscenity trial in 1957 brought it to nationwide attention. The Six Gallery reading informs the second chapter of Kerouac's 1958 novel The Dharma Bums , whose chief protagonist is "Japhy Ryder", a character who

12423-453: The others have an indirect focus by aiming at the means to bring about pleasure. Critics of psychological hedonism often cite apparent counterexamples in which people act for reasons other than their personal pleasure. Proposed examples include acts of genuine altruism , such as a soldier sacrificing themselves on the battlefield to save their comrades or a parent wanting their children to be happy. Critics also mention non-altruistic cases, like

12546-469: The phrase "Beat Generation" in 1948 to characterize a perceived underground, anti-conformist youth movement in New York, fellow poet Herbert Huncke is credited with first using the word "beat". The name arose in a conversation with writer John Clellon Holmes . Kerouac allows that it was Huncke, a street hustler, who originally used the phrase "beat", in an earlier discussion with him. The adjective "beat" could colloquially mean "tired" or "beaten down" within

12669-417: The quality of pleasure is an additional factor. They argue, for instance, that subtle pleasures of the mind, like the enjoyment of fine art and philosophy, can be more valuable than simple bodily pleasures, like enjoying food and drink, even if their intensity is lower. Proponents of axiological hedonism often focus on intuitions about the relation between pleasure and value or on the observation that pleasure

12792-437: The quality of pleasures as an additional factor, arguing that higher pleasures of the mind are more valuable than lower pleasures of the body. Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900) further refined utilitarianism and clarified many of its core distinctions, such as the contrast between ethical and psychological hedonism and between egoistic and impartial hedonism. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) rejected ethical hedonism and emphasized

12915-414: The rest of their lives in this type of pleasant illusion, he argued that hedonism cannot account for the values of authenticity and genuine experience. Ethical or normative hedonism is the thesis that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the highest moral principles of human behavior. It implies that other moral considerations, like duty , justice , or virtue , are relevant only to

13038-436: The role or biological function of these states, such as signaling to individuals what to approach and avoid, and their purpose as reward and punishment to reinforce or discourage future behavioral patterns. Additionally, hedonic psychology explores the circumstances that evoke these experiences, on both the biological and social levels. It includes questions about psychological obstacles to pleasure, such as anhedonia , which

13161-466: The social-activist legacy of the Beats and created its own body of literature. Known authors are Anne Waldman , Antler , Andy Clausen, David Cope, Eileen Myles , Eliot Katz, Paul Beatty , Sapphire , Lesléa Newman , Jim Cohn , Thomas R. Peters Jr. (poet and owner of beat book shop), Sharon Mesmer, Randy Roark, Josh Smith, David Evans. Hedonism Hedonism is a family of philosophical views that prioritize pleasure . Psychological hedonism

13284-506: The term happiness for the balance of pleasure over pain. The subjective nature of these phenomena makes it difficult to measure this balance and compare it between different people. The paradox of hedonism and the hedonic treadmill are proposed psychological barriers to the hedonist goal of long-term happiness. As one of the oldest philosophical theories, hedonism was discussed by the Cyrenaics and Epicureans in ancient Greece ,

13407-421: The traditional account of hedonism. One view defines happiness as life satisfaction. This means that a person is happy if they have a favorable attitude toward their life, for example, by being satisfied with their life as a whole or by judging it to be good overall. This attitude may be affected by the balance of pleasure over pain but can also be shaped by other factors. Well-being is what is ultimately good for

13530-487: The two views, for example, by asserting that the right form of ascetic practice leads to higher overall happiness by replacing simple sensory pleasures with deeper and more meaningful spiritual pleasures. Hedonism is one of the oldest philosophical theories and some interpreters trace it back to the Epic of Gilgamesh , written around 2100–2000 BCE. A central topic in ancient Greek thought , Aristippus of Cyrene (435-356 BCE)

13653-466: The weapon. Carr turned himself in the following morning and later pleaded guilty to manslaughter. Kerouac was charged as an accessory, and Burroughs as a material witness, but neither were prosecuted. Kerouac wrote about this incident twice in his works: once in his first novel, The Town and the City , and again in one of his last, Vanity of Duluoz . He wrote a collaboration novel with Burroughs, And

13776-619: The writer LeRoi Jones (Amiri Baraka) provide through their work distinctly Black perspectives on the movement. Kaufman wrote about a number of his experiences with the racist institutions of the time. Following his time in the military, he had trouble with police officers and the criminal justice system. Like many of the Beats, Kaufman was also a fan of jazz and incorporated it into his work to describe relationships with others. LeRoi Jones ( Amiri Baraka ) married Beat writer, Hettie Cohen, who became Hettie Jones , in 1958. Together with Diane di Prima , they worked to develop Yūgen magazine, named for

13899-507: Was a big part of the scene in the Village, as was Burroughs, who lived at 69 Bedford Street. Burroughs, Ginsberg, Kerouac, and other poets frequented many bars in the area, including the San Remo Cafe at 93 MacDougal Street on the northwest corner of Bleecker, Chumley's , and Minetta Tavern . Jackson Pollock , Willem de Kooning , Franz Kline , and other abstract expressionists were also frequent visitors of and collaborators with

14022-400: Was a literary subculture movement started by a group of authors whose work explored and influenced American culture and politics in the post-World War II era. The bulk of their work was published and popularized by Silent Generationers in the 1950s , better known as Beatniks . The central elements of Beat culture are the rejection of standard narrative values, making a spiritual quest,

14145-481: Was arrested in 1949. The police attempted to stop Jack Melody (a.k.a. "little Jack") while he was driving a car in Queens with Priscella Arminger (alias, Vickie Russell or "Detroit Redhead") and Allen Ginsberg in the back seat. The car was filled with stolen items Little Jack planned to fence. Jack Melody crashed while trying to flee, rolled the car and the three of them escaped on foot. Allen Ginsberg lost his glasses in

14268-408: Was broadly inspired by intellectual interest, and many Beat writers thought that their drug experiences enhanced creativity, insight, or productivity. The use of drugs was a key influence on many of the social events of the time that were personal to the Beat generation. Gregory Corso considered English Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley a hero, and he was buried at the foot of Shelley's grave in

14391-419: Was cited as having a strong influence on Burroughs. In many ways, Surrealism was still considered a vital movement in the 1950s. Carl Solomon introduced the work of French author Antonin Artaud to Ginsberg, and the poetry of André Breton had direct influence on Ginsberg's poem Kaddish . Rexroth, Ferlinghetti, John Ashbery and Ron Padgett translated French poetry. Second-generation Beat Ted Joans

14514-416: Was critical of the hedonism found in ancient Greek philosophy, warning of the dangers of earthly pleasures as obstacles to a spiritual life dedicated to God. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE) developed a nuanced perspective on hedonism, characterized by some interpreters as spiritual hedonism. He held that humans are naturally inclined to seek happiness, arguing that the only way to truly satisfy this inclination

14637-570: Was given shock treatments at Bellevue; this became one of the main themes of Ginsberg's "Howl", which was dedicated to Solomon. Solomon later became the publishing contact who agreed to publish Burroughs' first novel, Junkie , in 1953. Beat writers and artists flocked to Greenwich Village in New York City in the late 1950s because of low rent and the "small town" element of the scene. Folksongs, readings and discussions often took place in Washington Square Park . Allen Ginsberg

14760-635: Was introduced to the group by David Kammerer . Carr had befriended Ginsberg and introduced him to Kammerer and Burroughs. Carr also knew Kerouac's girlfriend Edie Parker , through whom Burroughs met Kerouac in 1944. On August 13, 1944, Carr killed Kammerer with a Boy Scout knife in Riverside Park in what he claimed later was self-defense. He dumped the body in the Hudson River , later seeking advice from Burroughs, who suggested he turn himself in. He then went to Kerouac, who helped him dispose of

14883-591: Was named "the only Afro-American Surrealist" by Breton. Philip Lamantia introduced Surrealist poetry to the original Beats. The poetry of Gregory Corso and Bob Kaufman shows the influence of Surrealist poetry with its dream-like images and its random juxtaposition of dissociated images, and this influence can also be seen in more subtle ways in Ginsberg's poetry. As the legend goes, when meeting French Surrealist Marcel Duchamp , Ginsberg kissed his shoe and Corso cut off his tie. Other influential French poets for

15006-532: Was the rejection of egoistic hedonism, advocating instead that individuals should promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people. He introduced the idea of the hedonic calculus to assess the value of an action based on the pleasurable and painful experiences it causes, relying on factors such as intensity and duration. His student John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) feared that Bentham's quantitative focus on intensity and duration would lead to an overemphasis on simple sensory pleasures. In response, he included

15129-456: Was the subject of Ginsberg's self-defining auditory hallucination and revelation in 1948. Romantic poet John Keats was also cited as an influence. Writers of the Beat Generation were heavily influenced by jazz artists like Billie Holiday and the stories told through Jazz music. Writers like Jack Kerouac ( On the Road ), Bob Kaufman ("Round About Midnight," "Jazz Chick," and "O-Jazz-O"), and Frank O'Hara ("The Day Lady Died") incorporated

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