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195-575: The genetic history of Europe includes information around the formation, ethnogenesis , and other DNA -specific information about populations indigenous , or living in Europe . European early modern human (EEMH) lineages between 40 and 26 ka ( Aurignacian ) were still part of a large Western Eurasian "meta-population", related to Central and Western Asian populations. Divergence into genetically distinct sub-populations within Western Eurasia

390-603: A creationist model (as the concept of evolution had not yet been conceived). For example, the Aurignacian Red Lady of Paviland (actually a young man) from South Wales was described by geologist Reverend William Buckland in 1822 as a citizen of Roman Britain . Subsequent authors contended the skeleton was either evidence of antediluvian (before the Great Flood ) people in Britain, or was swept far from

585-728: A liturgical language to a vernacular language with native speakers. This process began first with Eliezer Ben-Yehuda and the creation of the Ben-Yehuda Dictionary and later facilitated by Jewish immigration to Ottoman Palestine during the waves of migration known as the First- and Second Aliyot . Modern Hebrew was made one of three official languages in Mandatory Palestine , and later one of two official languages in Israel along with Arabic . In addition to

780-824: A neologism to explain the origins and evolution of so-called barbarian ethnic cultures, stripped of its metaphoric connotations drawn from biology, of "natural" birth and growth. That view is closely associated with the Austrian historian Herwig Wolfram and his followers, who argued that such ethnicity was not a matter of genuine genetic descent ("tribes"). Rather, using Reinhard Wenskus' term Traditionskerne ("nuclei of tradition"), ethnogenesis arose from small groups of aristocratic warriors carrying ethnic traditions from place to place and generation to generation. Followers would coalesce or disband around these nuclei of tradition; ethnicities were available to those who wanted to participate in them with no requirement of being born into

975-612: A "Basal Eurasian" component to the genome, nor did they find evidence of Mal'ta–Buret' introgression when looking at a wider range of Cro-Magnons from the entire Upper Palaeolithic. The study instead concluded that such a genetic makeup in present-day Europeans stemmed from Near Eastern and Siberian introgression occurring predominantly in the Neolithic and the Bronze Age (though beginning by 14,000 years ago), but all Cro-Magnons specimens including and following Kostenki-14 contributed to

1170-549: A "tribe". Thus, questions of race and place of origin became secondary. Proponents of ethnogenesis may claim it is the only alternative to the sort of ethnocentric and nationalist scholarship that is commonly seen in disputes over the origins of many ancient peoples such as the Franks , Goths , and Huns . It has also been used as an alternative to the Near East's "race history" that had supported Phoenicianism and claims to

1365-637: A Paleolithic Siberian lineage but closely related to European hunter-gatherers, first identified in Mal'ta . According to Iosif Lazaridis, "the Ancient North Eurasian ancestry is proportionally the smallest component everywhere in Europe, never more than 20 percent, but we find it in nearly every European group we’ve studied." This genetic component does not come directly from the Mal'ta lineage itself, but

1560-830: A Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto departed Cuba for Florida and the American Southeast . Although asked to practice restraint, Soto led 600 men on a violent rampage through present-day Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and East Texas. Frustrated with not finding gold or silver in the areas suspected to contain such valuable materials, they destroyed villages and decimated native populations. Despite his death in 1542, Soto's men continued their expedition until 1543 when about half of their original force reached Mexico. Their actions introduced European diseases that further weakened native populations. The population collapse forced natives to relocate from their cities into

1755-668: A century earlier – had gained popular support in European anthropology. Due to this movement and raciology's associations with Nazism, raciology fell out of practice. The beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic is thought to have been characterised by a major population increase in Europe, with the human population of western Europe possibly increasing by a factor of 10 in the Neanderthal/modern human transition. The archaeological record indicates that

1950-582: A cliff wall, a cul-de-sac, or a water body) in order to efficiently slaughter whole herds of animals ( game drive system ). They seem to have scheduled mass kills to coincide with migration patterns, in particular for red deer, horses, reindeer, bison , aurochs , and ibex, and occasionally woolly mammoths . Game drive systems became especially popular following the LGM, possibly an extension of increasing food return. There are also multiple examples of consumption of seasonally abundant fish, becoming more prevalent in

2145-671: A controversial subject. On one hand, the Moldovan Parliament adopted "The Concept on National Policy of the Republic of Moldova" in 2003. This document states that Moldovans and Romanians are two distinct peoples and speak two different languages. It also acknowledges that Romanians form an ethnic minority in Moldova, and it asserts that the Republic of Moldova is the legitimate successor to the Principality of Moldavia. On

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2340-588: A different point where the V13 mutation happened on its way from Egypt to the Balkans via the Middle East, and (ii) a later dispersal time. The authors proposed that the V13 mutation first appeared in western Asia, where it is found in low but significant frequencies, whence it entered the Balkans sometime after 11 kYa. It later experienced a rapid dispersal which he dated to c. 5300 years ago in Europe, coinciding with

2535-475: A group before the LGM and thus were more likely to be buried and preserved. Prior to genetic analysis, it was generally assumed that Cro-Magnons, like present-day Europeans, were light skinned as an adaptation to better generate vitamin D from the less luminous sun farther north. However, of the three predominant genes responsible for lighter skin in present-day Europeans – KITLG , SLC24A5 , and SLC45A2  – the latter two, as well as

2730-530: A hamlet in the commune of Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil , Dordogne, southwestern France. In 1868, M. François Berthoumeyrou, a contractor, was commissioned to make a road along the railway connecting the new Les Eyzies train station. In March, the road workers dug up a rock shelter , around 10 m (33 ft) deep, on the left bank of the Vézère River . They found flint stone tools , animal bones, and human remains. Berthoumeyrou ordered his men to halt

2925-495: A higher proportion of traits somewhat reminiscent of Neanderthals, such as (though not limited to) a slightly flattened skullcap and consequent occipital bun protruding from the back of the skull (the latter could be quite defined). Their frequency significantly diminished in Gravettians, and in 2007, palaeoanthropologist Erik Trinkaus concluded these were remnants of Neanderthal introgression which were eventually bred out of

3120-542: A hypothetical Proto-Indo-European people, who, according to the Kurgan hypothesis , can be traced to north of the Black and Caspian Seas at about 4500 BCE. They domesticated the horse and possibly invented the wooden disk wheel , and are considered to have spread their culture and genes across Europe. The Y haplogroup R1a is a proposed marker of these "Kurgan" genes, as is the Y Haplogroup R1b , although these haplogroups as

3315-487: A hypothetically tall ancestral condition; higher-quality diet and nutrition due to the hunting of megafauna which later became uncommon or extinct; functional adaptation to increase stride length and movement efficiency while running during a hunt; increasing territorialism among later Cro-Magnons reducing gene flow between communities and increasing inbreeding rate; or statistical bias due to small sample size or because taller people were more likely to achieve higher status in

3510-468: A low success rate. The concept of "Woman the Gatherer" has since gained significant support. Nonetheless, Palaeolithic peoples are typically characterised as having had a meat-heavy diet, with an emphasis on big prey items. The LGM extirpated most European megafauna ( Quaternary extinction event ), and similarly post-LGM peoples tend to have a higher rate of nutrient-deficiency-related ailments, including

3705-474: A minority language used by the educated elite in government and administration. In line with contemporary scientific racism theories, Freudenthal believed that Finland had two races , one speaking Swedish and the other Finnish. The Svecomans claimed that the Swedish Germanic race was superior to the majority Finnish people. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Hebrew underwent a revival from

3900-478: A mono-racial African-descendant ethnic group in the United States. Still, the genetic architecture of African Americans is distinct from that of non-American Africans. This is consistent with the history of Africans, Europeans, and Native Americans intermixing during the transatlantic slave trade and race being a social construct created in the United States. But ethnogenesis is an ongoing process as shown by

4095-492: A rather complex, cross-continental social organisation system. By and following the LGM, population densities are thought to have been much higher with the marked decrease of habitable lands, resulting in more regional economies. Decreased land availability could have increased travel distance, as habitable refugia may have been few and far between, and increasing population density within these few refugia would have made long-distance travel less economic. This trend continued into

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4290-652: A reduction in average height. Probably due to the contraction of habitable territory, these bands were subsisting on a much broader food range of plants, smaller animals, and aquatic resources ( broad spectrum revolution ). It has typically been assumed that Cro-Magnons closely studied prey habits in order to maximise return depending on the season. For example, large mammals (including red deer , horses, and ibex ) congregate seasonally, and reindeer were possibly seasonally plagued by insects rendering fur sometimes unsuitable for hideworking. In particularly southwestern France, Cro-Magnons depended heavily upon reindeer, and so it

4485-595: A related lineage that separated from the Mal'ta lineage. Up to a half of the Yamnaya component may have come from a Caucasus hunter-gatherer strand. On November 16, 2015, in a study published in the journal Nature Communications , geneticists announced that they had found a new fourth ancestral "tribe" or "strand" which had contributed to the modern European gene pool. They analysed genomes from two hunter-gatherers from Georgia which were 13,300 and 9,700 years old, and found that these Caucasus hunter-gatherers were probably

4680-689: A result of the arrival of Early European Farmer (EEF) lineages derived from mesolithic populations of West Asia ( Anatolia and the Caucasus ). In the European Bronze Age , there were again substantial population replacements in parts of Europe by the intrusion of Western Steppe Herder (WSH) lineages from the Pontic–Caspian steppes , arising from admixture between Eastern Hunter Gatherers (EHG) and peoples related to Near Easterners. These Bronze Age population replacements are associated with

4875-588: A second wave succeeded in forming a single founder population, from which all subsequent Cro-Magnons descended and which contributes ancestry to present-day Europeans. Cro-Magnons produced Upper Palaeolithic cultures, the first major one being the Aurignacian , which was succeeded by the Gravettian by 30,000 years ago. The Gravettian split into the Epi-Gravettian in the east and Solutrean in

5070-543: A series of skulls from Brno , Czech Republic, purportedly transitional between Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons; H. mentonensis for a skull from Menton , France; " H. grimaldensis " for Grimaldi man and other skeletons near Grimaldi, Monaco; and " H. aurignacensis " or " H. a. hauseri " for the Combe-Capelle skull. These fossil races, alongside Ernst Haeckel 's idea of there being backwards races which require further evolution ( social darwinism ), popularised

5265-539: A shaft to be used as javelins . It is possible that Aurignacian craftsmen further hafted bone barbs onto the spearheads, but firm evidence of such technology is recorded earliest 23,500 years ago, and does not become more common until the Mesolithic. Aurignacian craftsmen produced lozenge -shaped (diamond-like) spearheads. By 30,000 years ago, spearheads were manufactured with a more rounded-off base, and by 28,000 years ago spindle-shaped heads were introduced. During

5460-474: A significant temperature drop. Also around 37,000 years ago, the founder population of all later early modern humans existed, and Europe would remain in genetic isolation from the rest of the world for the next 23,000 years. Around 29,000 years ago, marine isotope stage 2 began and cooling intensified. This peaked about 21,000 years ago during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) when Scandinavia ,

5655-443: A single dialect as a standard language at the national level). With regard to the latter, since the late 18th century, such attempts have often been related to the promotion (or demotion) of a particular dialect ; nascent nationalists have often attempted to establish a particular dialect (or group of dialects) as a separate language, encompassing a " national literature ", out of which a founding myth may be extracted and promoted. In

5850-511: A substantial contribution to the genomes of later Europeans. Therefore, it is possible that interbreeding was common between Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons which did not contribute to the present-day genome. The percentage of Neanderthal genes gradually decreased with time, which could indicate they were maladaptive and were selected out of the gene pool. Valini et al. 2022 found that Europe was populated by three distinct lineages. The earliest inhabitants (represented by Zlaty Kun ~50kya) split from

6045-625: A third are depicted with erections.) On the other hand, most individuals which received a burial (which may have been related to social status) were men. Anatomically, the robustness of limbs (which is an indicator of strength) between Cro-Magnon men and women were consistently not appreciably different from each other. Such low levels of sexual dimorphism through the Upper Pleistocene could potentially mean that sexual division of labour , which characterises historic societies (both agricultural and hunter-gatherer), only became commonplace in

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6240-935: A time. The Cro-Magnon arsenal included spears, spear-throwers , harpoons , and possibly throwing sticks and Palaeolithic dogs . Cro-Magnons likely commonly constructed temporary huts while moving around, and Gravettian peoples notably made large huts on the East European Plain out of mammoth bones. Cro-Magnons are well renowned for creating a diverse array of artistic works, including cave paintings , Venus figurines , perforated batons , animal figurines, and geometric patterns. They also wore decorative beads, and plant-fibre clothes dyed with various plant-based dyes. For music, they produced bone flutes and whistles, and possibly also bullroarers , rasps , drums, idiophones , and other instruments. They buried their dead, though possibly only people who had achieved or were born into high status. The name "Cro-Magnon" comes from

6435-508: A two-caste system, with two broad classes: white and non-white, citizen and non-citizen (or semi-citizen). Non-white, non/semi-citizens were regarded as "Black" or "Negro" as a general term, regardless of their known ethnic/cultural background. The lives and identities of African Americans have been shaped by systems of race and slavery, resulting in a unique culture and experience. [2] Cultural aspects like music, food, literature, inventions, dances, and other concepts prominently stem from

6630-527: A whole may be much older than the language family. In the far north, carriers of the Y-haplogroup N arrived to Europe from Siberia , eventually expanding as far as Finland , though the specific timing of their arrival is uncertain. The most common North European subclade N1c1 is estimated to be around 8,000 years old. There is evidence of human settlement in Finland dating back to 8500 BCE, linked with

6825-605: Is a result of increased selection pressure and founder effects during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, Gravettian ). By the end of the LGM, after 20 ka, A Western European lineage, dubbed west European hunter-gatherer (WHG) emerged from the Solutrean refugium during the European Mesolithic . These mesolithic hunter-gatherer cultures are subsequently replaced in the Neolithic Revolution as

7020-643: Is a series of modern human teeth with Neronian industry stone tools found at Mandrin Cave , Malataverne in France, dated in 2022 to between 56,800 and 51,700 years ago. The Neronian is one of the many industries associated with modern humans classed as transitional between the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. Beyond this there is the Balkan Bohunician industry beginning 48,000 years ago, likely deriving from

7215-417: Is also thought to have had a big effect on Europe's genetic diversity, especially concerning genetic lineages entering Europe from the Middle East into the Balkans. There were several phases of this period: An important issue regarding the genetic impact of neolithic technologies in Europe is the manner by which they were transferred into Europe. Farming was introduced by a significant migration of farmers from

7410-654: Is also unclear where the Gravettian originated from as it diverges strongly from the Aurignacian (and therefore may not have descended from it). Nonetheless, genetic evidence indicates that not all Aurignacian bloodlines went extinct. Hypotheses for Gravettian genesis include evolution: in central Europe from the Szeletian (which developed from the Bohunician) which existed 41,000 to 37,000 years ago; or from

7605-510: Is also used as a variant of ethnogenesis . Ethnogenesis can occur passively or actively. A passive ethnogenesis is an unintended outcome, which involves the spontaneous emergence of various markers of group identity through processes such as the group's interaction with unique elements of their physical environment, cultural divisions (such as dialect and religious denomination), migrations and other processes. A founding myth of some kind may emerge as part of this process. Active ethnogenesis

7800-737: Is associated with numerous admixture events, primarily those associated with the Migration period and the decline of the Roman Empire , associated with the Germanic , Norse , and Slavic expansions Research into the genetic history of Europe became possible in the second half of the 20th century, but did not yield results with high resolution before the 1990s. In the 1990s, preliminary results became possible, but they remained mostly limited to studies of mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal lineages. Autosomal DNA became more easily accessible in

7995-418: Is debated if this represents sample bias , and if western and northern Europe were less mobile. Some cultural practices such as creating Venus figurines or specific burial rituals during the Gravettian stretched 2,000 km (1,200 mi) across the continent. Genetic evidence suggests that, despite strong evidence of cultural transmission, Gravettian Europeans did not introgress into Siberians, meaning there

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8190-463: Is estimated to have spread across Europe in a "selective sweep" during the Mesolithic (19 to 11 ka). The associated TYRP1 SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 alleles emerge around 19 ka, still during the LGM, most likely in the Caucasus. A big cline in genetic variation that has long been recognised in Europe seems to show important dispersals from the direction of the Middle East. This has often been linked to

8385-545: Is hypothesised that these communities followed the herds, with occupation of the Perigord and the Pyrenees only occurring in the summer. Epi-Gravettian communities, especially, generally focused on hunting one species of large game, most commonly horse or bison. There is much evidence that Cro-Magnons, especially in western Europe following the LGM, corralled large prey animals into natural confined spaces (such as against

8580-733: Is in the north and east, the French-speaking ( Romandie ) region in the west, the Italian / Lombard ( la Svizzera italiana ) region in the south, and the small Romansh -speaking population in the south-eastern corner of the country in the Canton of Graubüen. Anthony D. Smith notes that, in general, there is a lack of evidence that hampers the assessment of the existence of nations or nationalisms in antiquity. The two cases where more evidence exists are those of ancient Greece and Israel. In Ancient Greece, cultural rather than political unity

8775-475: Is known to be found 250 km (160 mi) away in the Pyrenees. Unless there was a hausmannite source much closer to Lascaux which has since been depleted, this could mean that there was a local economy based on manganese ores. Also, at Ekain , Basque Country, the inhabitants were using the locally rare manganese mineral groutite in their paintings, which they possibly mined out of the cave itself. Based on

8970-555: Is observed. Yet, there were ethnic divisions within the wider Hellenic ethnic community, mainly between Ionians, Aeolians, Boeotians, and Dorians. These groups were further divided into city-states. Smith postulates that there is no more than a semblance of nationalism in ancient Greece. Jonathan M. Hall 's work “Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity” (1997), was acclaimed as the first full-length modern study on Ancient Greek ethnicity. According to Hall, Ancient Greek ethnic identity

9165-520: Is represented by GoyetQ116-1, a 35,000 year old specimen from Belgium. This lineage disappears from the record and is not found again until 19,000 BP in Spain at El Mirón, which shows strong affinities to GoyetQ116-1. During this interval, the distinct Věstonice Cluster is predominant in Europe, even at Goyet . The re-expansion of the El Mirón Cluster coincided with warming temperatures following

9360-620: Is similar to post-industrial modern northern Europeans. In contrast, in a sample of 21 and 15 late Upper Palaeolithic western European men and women (after the Last Glacial Maximum), the averages were 165.6 cm (5 ft 5 in) and 153.5 cm (5 ft), similar to pre-industrial modern humans. It is unclear why earlier Cro-Magnons were taller, especially considering that cold-climate creatures are short-limbed and thus short-statured to better retain body heat ( Allen's rule ). This has variously been explained as: retention of

9555-646: Is split into deep genetic lineages H1 and H2. Since the H2 lineage seems restricted to European populations, several authors had argued for inheritance from Neanderthals beginning in 2005. However the preliminary results from the sequencing of the full Neanderthal Genome at that time (2009), failed to uncover evidence of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans. By 2010, findings by Svante Pääbo (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology at Leipzig, Germany), Richard E. Green (University of California, Santa Cruz), and David Reich (Harvard Medical School), comparing

9750-405: Is the deliberate, direct planning and engineering of a separate identity. However, it is clear that active ethnogenesis may augment passive ethnogenesis. Active ethnogenesis is usually inspired by emergent political issues, such as a perceived, long-term, structural economic imbalance between regions or a perceived discrimination against elements of local culture (e.g., as a result of the promotion of

9945-516: Is the oldest identified bearer of Y-haplogroup R1b (R1b1a-L754* (xL389,V88)) found in Europe, likely brought in from eastern introgression. The Azilian " Bichon man " skeleton from the Swiss Jura was found to be associated with the WHG lineage. He was a bearer of Y-DNA haplogroup I2a and mtDNA haplogroup U5b1h. Genetic evidence suggests early modern humans interbred with Neanderthals . Genes in

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10140-635: The Baltic region , and the British Isles were covered in glaciers, and winter sea ice reached the French seaboard. The Alps were also covered in glaciers, and most of Europe was polar desert, with mammoth steppe and forest steppe dominating the Mediterranean coast. Consequently, large swathes of Europe were uninhabitable, and two distinct cultures emerged with unique technologies to adapt to

10335-586: The Bell Beaker and Corded Ware cultures archaeologically and with the Indo-European expansion linguistically. As a result of the population movements during the Mesolithic to Bronze Age, modern European populations are distinguished by differences in WHG, EEF and Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) ancestry. Admixture rates varied geographically; in the late Neolithic, WHG ancestry in farmers in Hungary

10530-606: The Finnish Party to pursue their nationalist aims. The publication in 1835 of the Finnish national epic , Kalevala , was a founding stone of Finnish nationalism and ethnogenesis. Finnish was recognized as the official language of Finland only in 1892. Fennomans were opposed by the Svecomans , headed by Axel Olof Freudenthal (1836–1911). He supported continuing the use of Swedish as the official language; it had been

10725-512: The Gravettian . Earlier research into Y-DNA had instead focused on haplogroup R1 (M173): the most populous lineage among living European males; R1 was also believed to have emerged ~ 40,000 BP in Central Asia . However, it is now estimated that R1 emerged substantially more recently: a 2008 study dated the most recent common ancestor of haplogroup IJ to 38,500 and haplogroup R1 to 18,000 BP. This suggested that haplogroup IJ colonists formed

10920-553: The Great Flood . Following the conception and popularisation of evolution in the mid-to-late 19th century, Cro-Magnons became the subject of much scientific racism , with early race theories allying with Nordicism and Pan-Germanism . Such historical race concepts were overturned by the mid-20th century. During the first wave feminism movement, the Venus figurines were notably interpreted as evidence of some matriarchal religion , though such claims had mostly died down in academia by

11115-663: The Jewish people as an ethnos , one of the numerous ethne that lived in the Greco-Roman world . Van Maaren demonstrates why ancient Jews may be regarded as an ethnic group in current terms by using the six characteristics that co-ethnics share as established by Hutchinson and Smith: The separate Moldovan ethnic identification was promoted under Soviet rule when the Soviet Union established an autonomous Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924. This republic

11310-741: The Kunda culture and its putative ancestor, the Swiderian culture , but the latter is thought to have a European origin. The geographical spread of haplogroup N in Europe is well aligned with the Pit–Comb Ware culture , whose emergence is commonly dated c. 4200 BCE, and with the distribution of Uralic languages . Mitochondrial DNA studies of Sami people , haplogroup U5 are consistent with multiple migrations to Scandinavia from Volga - Ural region, starting 6,000 to 7,000 years before present. The relationship between roles of European and Asian colonists in

11505-826: The Siberian Mal'ta–Buret' culture and Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHG). Most present-day Europeans have a 40–60% WHG ratio, and the 8,000 year old Mesolithic Loschbour man seems to have had a similar genetic makeup. Near Eastern Neolithic farmers which split from the European hunter-gatherers about 40,000 years ago started to spread out across Europe by 8,000 years ago, ushering in the Neolithic with Early European Farmers (EEF). EEF contribute about 30% of ancestry to present-day Baltic populations, and up to 90% in present-day Mediterranean populations. The latter may have inherited WHG ancestry via EEF introgression. The Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHG) population identified around

11700-670: The Soviet occupation of the two territories in 1940 , potential reunification claims were offset by the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic . When the Moldavian ASSR was established, Chișinău was named its capital, a role it continued to play even after the formation of the Moldavian SSR in 1940. The recognition of Moldovans as a separate ethnicity, distinct from Romanians , remains today

11895-409: The TYRP1 gene associated with lighter hair and eye colour, experienced positive selection as late as 19 to 11 thousand years ago during the Mesolithic transition. The variation of the gene which is associated with blue eyes in present-day European-descended humans, OCA2 , seems to have descended from a common ancestor about 6–10 thousand years ago somewhere in northern Europe. Such a late timing

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12090-445: The biblical chronology . Following Charles Darwin 's 1859 On the Origin of Species , racial anthropologists and raciologists began splitting off putative species and subspecies of present-day humans based on unreliable and pseudoscientific metrics gathered from anthropometry , physiognomy , and phrenology continuing into the 20th century. This was a continuation of Carl Linnaeus ' 1735 Systema Naturae , where he invented

12285-452: The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire , the term "Palestinian" referred to any resident of the region of Palestine , regardless of their ethnic, cultural, linguistic, or religious affiliation. Similarly, during the League of Nations Mandate of Palestine , the term referred to a citizen as defined in the 1925 Citizenship Order . Starting in the late 19th century, Arabic-speaking people of Palestine began referring to themselves as "Arab" or by

12480-420: The out of Africa expansion which occurred around 65–55 thousand years ago. This movement was an offshoot of the rapid expansion within East Africa associated with mtDNA haplogroup L3 . Mitochondrial DNA analysis places Cro-Magnons as the sister group to Upper Palaeolithic East Asian groups, divergence occurring roughly 50,000 years ago. Initial genomic studies on the earliest Cro-Magnons in 2014, namely on

12675-420: The patriarchy prominent in historical societies, the idea of a prehistoric predominance of either matriarchy or matrifocal families (centred on motherhood) was first supposed in 1861 by legal scholar Johann Jakob Bachofen . The earliest models of this believed that monogamy was not widely practiced in ancient times – thus, the paternal line was resultantly more difficult to keep track of than

12870-407: The " Nordic race ". These aligned well with Nordicism and Pan-Germanism (that is, Aryan supremacy ), which gained popularity just before World War I , and was notably used by the Nazis to justify the conquest of Europe and the supremacy of the German people in World War II . Stature was among the characteristics used to distinguish these sub-races, so taller Cro-Magnons such as specimens from

13065-406: The 1970s as archaeologists moved away from the highly speculative models produced by the previous generation. Through the second-wave feminism movement, the prehistoric matriarchal religion hypothesis was primarily propelled by Lithuanian-American archaeologist Marija Gimbutas . Her interpretations of the Palaeolithic were notably involved in the Goddess movement . Equally ardent arguments against

13260-535: The 1970s. When early modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) migrated onto the European continent, they interacted with the indigenous Neanderthals ( H. neanderthalensis ) which had already inhabited Europe for hundreds of thousands of years. In 2019, Greek palaeoanthropologist Katerina Harvati and colleagues argued that two 210,000 year old skulls from Apidima Cave , Greece, represent modern humans rather than Neanderthals – indicating these populations have an unexpectedly deep history  – but this

13455-513: The 1990s, proponents of ethnic revivals in Europe included those from the Celtic fringes in Wales and nationalists in the Basque Country . Activists' attempts since the 1970s to revive the Occitan language in Southern France are a similar example. Similarly, in the 19th century, the Fennoman movement in the Grand Duchy of Finland aimed to raise the Finnish language from peasant status to an official national language, which had been solely Swedish for some time. The Fennomans also founded

13650-491: The 19th and 20th centuries, societies challenged by the obsolescence of those narratives that previously afforded them coherence have fallen back on ethnic or racial narratives to maintain or reaffirm their collective identity or polis . Language has been a critical asset for authenticating ethnic identities. The process of reviving an antique ethnic identity often poses an immediate language challenge, as obsolescent languages lack expressions for contemporary experiences. In

13845-438: The 2.1 million African immigrants that resided in America in 2019, it is in no way accurate to say the ethnogenesis of Black Americans ended with slavery because Black people from other islands and the African continent continue to migrate to America. "Sub-Saharan African Immigrants in the United States" . Despite typically carrying segments of DNA shaped by contributions from peoples of Indigenous America, Europe, Africa, and

14040-475: The 2000s, and since the mid-2010s, results of previously unattainable resolution, many of them based on full-genome analysis of ancient DNA, have been published at an accelerated pace. Due to natural selection, the percentage of Neanderthal DNA in ancient Europeans gradually decreased over time. From 45,000 BP to 7,000 BP, the percentage dropped from around 3–6% to 2%. The removal of Neanderthal-derived alleles occurred more frequently around genes than other parts of

14235-637: The 37,000-year-old Kostenki-14 individual, identified 3 major lineages which are also present in present-day Europeans: one related to all later Cro-Magnons; a " Basal Eurasian " lineage which split from the common ancestor of present-day Europeans and East Asians before they split from each other; and another related to a 24,000-year-old individual from the Siberian Mal'ta–Buret' culture (near Lake Baikal ). Contrary to this, Fu et al. (2016), evaluating much earlier European specimens, including Ust'-Ishim and Oase-1 from 45,000 years ago, found no evidence of

14430-477: The 6th century BC as being ethnic in character. Cultural forms of identification emerged in the 5th century, and there is evidence that by the 4th century, this identity was conceived more in cultural terms. In the 2015 Community Survey of the United States Census , 7.2% of the population identified as having American ancestry , mainly people whose ancestors migrated from Europe after the 1400s to

14625-515: The 7th to 5th millennia BCE. Three main mtDNA gene groups have been identified as contributing Neolithic entrants into Europe: J, T1 and U3 (in that order of importance). With others, they amount up to around 20% of the gene pool . In 2000, Semino's study on Y DNA revealed the presence of haplotypes belonging to the large clade E1b1b1 (E-M35). These were predominantly found in the southern Balkans, southern Italy and parts of Iberia. Semino connected this pattern, along with J haplogroup subclades, to be

14820-530: The Ahmarian or similar cultures from the Near East or the Caucasus that existed before 40,000 years ago. It is further debated where the earliest occurrence is identified, with the former hypothesis arguing for Germany about 37,500 years ago, and the latter Buran-Kaya  [ ru ] III rockshelter in Crimea about 38 to 36 thousand years ago. In either case, the appearance of the Gravettian coincides with

15015-588: The Americas in addition to 12.5 million African slaves. The concept of race began to emerge during the mid-17th century as a justification for the enslavement of Africans in colonial America. Later, scientists developed theories to uphold the system of forced labor. Native Americans of darker skin tones were included in this construct with the arrival of African slaves. Some Native Americans of lighter complexions, however, owned slaves, participating in race-based slavery alongside Europeans. American society evolved into

15210-532: The Americas, the genetics of African Americans can span across more than several continents. Within the African American population, there are no mono-ethnic backgrounds from outside of the U.S., and mono-racial backgrounds are in the minority. Through forced enslavement and admixing, the African American ethnicity, race, lineage, culture, and identity are indigenous to the United States of America. Herwig Wolfram offers "a radically new explanation of

15405-586: The Atlantic Coast and in the Danube valley. There was migration from Norway to Orkney and Shetland in this period (and to a lesser extent to mainland Scotland and Ireland). There was also migration from Germany to eastern England. Martin Richards estimated that there was about 4% mtDNA immigration to Europe in the Bronze Age. Another theory about the origin of the Indo-European language centres around

15600-851: The Bacho Kiro sample) were relatively closer to East Asians and Australasians, although distinct from them. In a genetic study published in Nature in March 2023, the authors found that the ancestors of the Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs) were populations associated with the Epigravettian culture, which largely replaced populations associated with the Magdalenian culture about 14,000 years ago. The Magdalenian-associated individuals descended from populations associated with

15795-642: The Balkan Bronze Age. Like Peričic et al. they consider that "the dispersion of the E-V13 and J-M12 haplogroups seems to have mainly followed the river waterways connecting the southern Balkans to north-central Europe". More recently, Lacan announced that a 7000-year-old skeleton in a Neolithic context in a Spanish funeral cave, was an E-V13 man. (The other specimens tested from the same site were in haplogroup G2a , which has been found in Neolithic contexts throughout Europe.) Using 7 STR markers, this specimen

15990-497: The Bronze Age. This supports the proposals of Battaglia et al. rather than Cruciani et al. at least concerning earliest European dispersals, but E-V13 may have dispersed more than once. Even more recent than the Bronze Age, it has also been proposed that modern E-V13's modern distribution in Europe is at least partly caused by Roman era movements of people. (See below.) The migration of Neolithic farmers into Europe brought along several new adaptations. The variation for light skin colour

16185-672: The Cro-Magnon brain, though within the variation for present-day humans, exhibits longer average frontal lobe length and taller occipital lobe height. The parietal lobes , however, are shorter in Cro-Magnons. It is unclear if this could equate to any functional differences between present-day and early modern humans. In early Upper Palaeolithic western Europe (before the Last Glacial Maximum), 20 men and 10 women were estimated to have averaged 176.2 cm (5 ft 9 in) and 162.9 cm (5 ft 4 in), respectively. This

16380-490: The French Cro-Magnon, Paviland , and Grimaldi sites were classified as ancestral to the "Nordic race", and smaller ones such as Combe-Capelle and Chancelade man (both also from France) were considered the forerunners of either the " Mediterranean race " or " Eskimoids ". The Venus figurines  – sculptures of pregnant women with exaggerated breasts and thighs – were used as evidence of

16575-536: The Gravettian, spearheads with a bevelled base were being produced. By the beginning of the LGM, the spear-thrower was invented in Europe, which can increase the force and accuracy of the projectile. A possible boomerang made of mammoth tusk was identified in Poland (though it may have been unable to return to the thrower), and dating to 23,000 years ago, it would be the oldest known boomerang. Stone spearheads with leaf- and shouldered-points become more prevalent in

16770-518: The Holocene. The Upper Palaeolithic is characterised by evidence of expansive trade routes and the great distances at which communities could maintain interactions. The early Upper Palaeolithic is especially known for highly mobile lifestyles, with Gravettian groups (at least those analysed in Italy and Moravia, Ukraine) often sourcing some raw materials upwards of 200 km (120 mi). However, it

16965-610: The LGM (such as mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses , Irish elk , and cave lions ), in part contributing to their extinction which occurred by the beginning of or well into the Holocene depending on the species. Most archaeobotanical studies on Pleistocene plant gathering and processing techniques focus on the end of the Paleolithic as precursors to agriculture in the Neolithic. While isotopic studies indicate nearly all nutritional requirements of Palaeolithic populations may have been mostly satisfied by meat, similar to Inuit cuisine ,

17160-613: The LGM, Cro-Magnons are thought to have been much less mobile and featured a higher population density, indicated by seemingly shorter trade routes as well as symptoms of nutritional stress. Cro-Magnons are physically similar to present-day humans, with a globular braincase, completely flat face, gracile brow ridge, and defined chin. However, the bones of Cro-Magnons are somewhat thicker and more robust. The earliest Cro-Magnons often display features that are reminiscent of those seen in Neanderthals . Aurignacians in particular featured

17355-409: The LGM, and to the founder effects caused by the rapid expansion from LGM refugia in the beginning Mesolithic. By the end of the LGM, around 19 to 11 ka, the familiar varieties of Eurasian phenotypes had emerged. However, the lineage of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of Western Europe (WHG) does not survive as a majority contribution in any modern population. They were most likely blue eyed, and retained

17550-815: The LGM: the Věstonice Cluster (34,000–26,000 years ago), associated with the Gravettian culture ; the Mal'ta Cluster (24,000–17,000), associated with the Mal'ta-Buret' culture , the El Mirón Cluster (19,000–14,000 years ago), associated with the Magdalenian culture ; the Villabruna Cluster (14,000–7,000 years ago) and the Satsurblia cluster (13,000 to 10,000 years ago). From around 37,000 years ago, all ancient Europeans began to share some ancestry with modern Europeans. This founding population

17745-497: The Last Glacial Maximum". As the glaciers receded from about 16,000–13,000 years ago, Europe began to be slowly repopulated by people from refugia, leaving genetic signatures. Some Y haplogroup I clades appear to have diverged from their parental haplogroups sometime during or shortly after the LGM. Cinnioglu sees evidence for the existence of an Anatolian refuge, which also harboured Hg R1b1b2. Today, R1b dominates

17940-712: The Levantine Emiran industry; the remains found in the cave Ilsenhöhle  [ de ] in Ranis , Germany, up to 47,500 years old; and the next-oldest fossils date to roughly 44,000 years ago in Bulgaria, Italy, and Britain. It is unclear, while migrating westward, if they followed the Danube or went along the Mediterranean coast. Beginning about 45,000 years ago, the Proto-Aurignacian culture,

18135-524: The Magdalenian produced some of the most intricate Palaeolithic pieces, and they even elaborately decorated normal, everyday objects. Historically, ethnographic studies on hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies have long placed emphasis on sexual division of labour and most especially the hunting of big game by men. This culminated in the 1966 book Man the Hunter , which focuses almost entirely on

18330-418: The Mesolithic with the adoption of sedentism . Nonetheless, there is some evidence of long-distance Magdalenian trade routes. For example, at Lascaux, a painting of a bull had remnants of the manganese mineral hausmannite , which can only be manufactured in heat in excess of 900 °C (1,650 °F), which was probably impossible for Cro-Magnons; this means they likely encountered natural hausmannite which

18525-572: The Neanderthals, possibly due to higher fertility rates; life expectancy for both species was typically under 40 years. Following the LGM, population density increased as communities travelled less frequently (though for longer distances), and the need to feed so many more people in tandem with the increasing scarcity of big game caused them to rely more heavily on small or aquatic game ( broad spectrum revolution ), and to more frequently participate in game drive systems and slaughter whole herds at

18720-429: The Near East (Cavalli-Sforza's biological demic diffusion model) or a " cultural diffusion " or a combination of the two, and population geneticists have tried to clarify whether any genetic signatures of Near Eastern origin correspond to the expansion routes postulated by the archaeological evidence. Martin Richards estimated that only 11% of European mtDNA is due to immigration in this period, suggesting that farming

18915-610: The Near East. They propose that the first major dispersal of E-V13 from the Balkans may have been in the direction of the Adriatic Sea with the Neolithic Impressed Ware culture often referred to as Impressa or Cardial , rather propose that the main route of E-V13 spread was along the Vardar-Morava-Danube river 'highway' system. In contrast to Battaglia, Cruciani tentatively suggested (i)

19110-568: The Palaeolithic migrations (depending on whether one allows for multiple founder events). MtDNA haplogroup U5, dated to be ~ 40–50 kYa, arrived during the first early upper Palaeolithic colonisation. Individually, it accounts for 5–15% of total mtDNA lineages. Middle U.P. movements are marked by the haplogroups HV, I and U4. HV split into Pre-V (around 26,000 years old) and the larger branch H, both of which spread over Europe, possibly via Gravettian contacts. Haplogroup H accounts for about half

19305-414: The Palaeolithic whereas women were tasked with child rearing and various domestic works. This would equate to a patriarchal social system. The Palaeolithic matriarchy model was adapted by prominent communist Friedrich Engels , who instead argued that women were robbed of power by men due to economic changes which could only be undone with the adoption of communism ( Marxist feminism ). The former sentiment

19500-513: The Persian invasion, they began defining themselves against the enemy they perceived as the barbarian “other”. An indication of this disposition is the Athenians' speech to their allies in 480 BC, mentioning that all Hellenes are bound with the homaimon ("same blood"), homoglosson ("same language"), and common religious practices. Hall believes that Hellenic identity was envisaged in

19695-560: The Romanians of the Republic of Moldova Bessarabians, as identification inside the subethnic group, Moldovans as subethnic group and Romanians as ethnic group. The subethnic groups referred to here are historically connected to independent Principalities. The Principality of Moldavia/Moldova founded in 1349 had various extensions between 1349 and 1859 and comprised Bucovina and Bessarabia as regional subdivisions. That way, Romanians of southern Bukovina (today part of Romania and formerly part of

19890-627: The Solutrean evolved into the Magdalenian , which would recolonise Western and Central Europe over the next couple thousand years. Starting during the Older Dryas roughly 14,000 years ago, Final Magdalenian traditions appear, namely the Azilian , Hamburgian , and Creswellian . During the Bølling–Allerød warming , Near Eastern genes began showing up in the indigenous Europeans, indicating

20085-634: The Solutrean. Both large and small spearheads were produced in great quantity, and the smaller ones may have been attached to projectile darts . Archery was possibly invented in the Solutrean, though less ambiguous bow technology is first reported in the Mesolithic. Bone technology was revitalised in the Magdalanian, and long-range technology as well as harpoons become much more prevalent. Some harpoon fragments are speculated to have been leisters or tridents , and true harpoons are commonly found along seasonal salmon migration routes. As opposed to

20280-633: The Y-DNA component of Cavalli-Sforza's Neolithic demic-diffusion of farmers from the Near East. Rosser et al. rather saw it as a (direct) 'North African component' in European genealogy, although they did not propose a timing and mechanism to account for it. also described E1b1b as representing a late- Pleistocene migration from Africa to Europe over the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt , evidence for which does not show up in mitochondrial DNA. Concerning timing

20475-590: The Yamnaya people. The derived allele of the KITLG gene (SNP rs12821256) that is associated with – and likely causal for – blond hair in Europeans is found in populations with eastern but not western hunter-gatherers ancestry, suggesting that its origin is in the Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) population and may have been spread in Europe by individuals with steppe ancestry . Consistent with this,

20670-570: The above four that are less prominent or most common only in certain areas of Europe. Ethnogenesis The term ethnogenesis was originally a mid-19th-century neologism that was later introduced into 20th-century academic anthropology . In that context, it refers to the observable phenomenon of the emergence of new social groups that are identified as having a cohesive identity, i.e. an "ethnic group" in anthropological terms. Relevant social sciences not only observe this phenomenon but also search for explanations for its causes. The term ethnogeny

20865-650: The antiquity of the variously called Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac peoples . Cro-Magnon Cro-Magnons or European early modern humans ( EEMH ) were the first early modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) to settle in Europe, migrating from western Asia, continuously occupying the continent possibly from as early as 56,800 years ago. They interacted and interbred with the indigenous Neanderthals ( H. neanderthalensis ) of Europe and Western Asia, who went extinct 40,000 to 35,000 years ago. The first wave of modern humans in Europe ( Initial Upper Paleolithic ) left no genetic legacy to modern Europeans; however, from 37,000 years ago

21060-645: The arrival of the Spanish in southwestern North America, the Native Americans of the Jumano cultural sphere underwent social changes partly as a reaction, which spurred their ethnogenesis. Ethnogenesis in the Texas Plains and along the coast occurred in two forms. One way involved a disadvantaged group being assimilated into a more dominant group that they identified with, while the other way involved

21255-610: The circumstances under which the Goths were settled in Gaul , Spain and Italy ". Since "they dissolved at their downfall into a myth accessible to everyone" at the head of a long history of attempts to lay claim to a "Gothic" tradition, the ethnogenesis by which disparate bands came to self-identify as "Goths" is of wide interest and application. The problem is in extracting a historical ethnography from sources that are resolutely Latin and Roman-oriented. Clayton Anderson observed that with

21450-487: The climate improved. The lineages involved include much of the most common haplogroup, H, as well as much of K, T, W, and X." The study could not determine whether there were new migrations of mtDNA lineages from the near east during this period; a significant input was deemed unlikely. The alternative model of more refugees was discussed by Bilton et al. From a study of 51 individuals, researchers were able to identify five separate genetic clusters of ancient Eurasians during

21645-407: The cohesion of its citizens into a united Singaporean national identity. Singapore's cultural norms, psyche, and traditions have led to the classification of "Singaporean" as a unique ethnocultural and socio-ethnic group that is distinct from its neighboring countries. In 2013, Singapore's Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong stated that "apart from numbers, that a strong Singapore core is also about

21840-449: The combined experience of enslaved African American people and free African Americans who were still subject to racist laws in the United States. Ethnicity is not solely based on race. However, due to the race-based history, system, and lifestyle of American society, African Americans tend to prefer to identify racially, rather than ethnically. This racialized identity has created the common misconception that African Americans are virtually

22035-500: The common Eurasian lineage before the divergence of Western and Eastern Eurasians, but after the divergence of the hypothetical Basal-Eurasians. This earliest sample did not cluster with any modern human population, including Africans, and died out without leaving ancestry to modern peoples. The second wave (represented by Bacho Kiro ~45kya) appeared to be more closely related to modern East Asians and Australasians compared to Europeans, suggesting that this lineage split initially after

22230-410: The consolidated natives who had managed to survive the incursion of European people, animals, and diseases. After 1700, most North American Indian "tribes" were relatively new composite groups formed by these remnant peoples who were trying to cope with epidemic illnesses brought by and clashes with the Europeans who were exploring the area. European encroachment caused significant demographic shifts in

22425-576: The continent. This wave of modern humans replaced Neanderthals and their Mousterian culture. In the Danube Valley, Aurignacian sites are few and far between, compared to later traditions, until 35,000 years ago. From here, the "Typical Aurignacian" becomes quite prevalent, and extends until 29,000 years ago. Gradually replaced by the Gravettian culture, the close of the Aurignacian is poorly defined. "Aurignacoid" or "Epi-Aurignacian" tools are identified as late as 18 to 15 thousand years ago. It

22620-419: The countryside, where smaller villages and new political structures developed, replacing the older chiefdom models of tribal governance. By 1700, the major tribal settlements Soto and his men had encountered were no more. Smaller tribes began to form loose confederations of smaller, more autonomous villages. From that blending of many tribes, ethnogenesis led to the emergence of new ethnic groups and identities for

22815-626: The dark skin pigmentation of pre-LGM EEMH. The HERC2 and OCA2 variations for blue eyes are derived from the WHG lineage were also found in the Yamnaya people . Around 14,000 years ago, the Villabruna Cluster shifted away from GoyetQ116-1 affinity and started to show more affinity with the Near East, a shift which coincided with the warming temperatures of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial. This genetic shift shows that Near East populations had probably already begun moving into Europe during

23010-586: The discovery before the meeting of the Society of Anthropology of Paris on 21 May, the proceedings published in its journal Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris . He described the site as a cemetery and identified the humans as cave dwellers . The site is called Abri de Cro-Magnon (Cro-Magnon rock shelter), now recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Abri means "rock shelter" in French, cro means "hole" in Occitan , and Magnon

23205-716: The distinction of Italians from neighboring ethnic groups within the former Roman Empire. Over time, ethnological and linguistic differences between regional groups also developed, from the Lombardians of the North to the Sicilians of the South. Mountainous terrain allowed the development of relatively isolated communities and numerous dialects and languages before Italian unification in the 19th century. In classical antiquity, Jewish, Greek, and Roman authors frequently referred to

23400-462: The distribution and diversity of V13 however, Battaglia proposed an earlier movement whereby the E-M78* lineage ancestral to all modern E-V13 men moved rapidly out of a Southern Egyptian homeland and arrived in Europe with only Mesolithic technologies. They then suggest that the E-V13 sub-clade of E-M78 only expanded subsequently as native Balkan 'foragers-cum-farmers' adopted Neolithic technologies from

23595-566: The distribution of Mediterranean and Atlantic seashell jewellery even well inland, there may have been a network during the Late Glacial Interstadial (14 to 12 thousand years ago) along the rivers Rhine and Rhône in France, Germany, and Switzerland. Cro-Magnon cave sites quite often feature distinct spatial organisation, with certain areas specifically designated for specific activities, such as hearth areas, kitchens, butchering grounds, sleeping grounds, and trash pile. It

23790-519: The earliest attempts to classify Cro-Magnons was done by racial anthropologists Joseph Deniker and William Z. Ripley in 1900, who characterised them as tall and intelligent proto- Aryans , superior to other races, who descended from Scandinavia and Germany. Further race theories revolved around progressively lighter, blonder, and superior races evolving in Central Europe and spreading out in waves to replace their darker ancestors, culminating in

23985-684: The earliest known individual with the derived allele is an ANE individual from the Late Upper Paleolithic Afontova Gora archaeological complex in central Siberia. Expansions of the Roman Empire do not appear to have left distinct genetic signatures in Europe. Indeed, Romance-speaking populations in the Balkans, like Romanians , Aromanians , Moldovans , etc. have been found to genetically resemble neighbouring Greek and South Slavic-speaking peoples rather than modern Italians. Steven Bird has speculated that E1b1b1a

24180-605: The end of Europe's genetic isolation. Possibly due to the continual reduction of European big game, the Magdalenian and Epi-Gravettian were completely replaced by the Mesolithic by the beginning of the Holocene. Europe was completely re-peopled during the Holocene climatic optimum from 9 to 5 thousand years ago. Mesolithic Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG) contributed significantly to the present-day European genome, alongside Ancient North Eurasians (ANE) which descended from

24375-592: The end of the 19th century. Since its independence from the Netherlands in 1830, language has been an important but divisive political force in Belgium between the Dutch and Germanic Flemings and Franco-Celtic Walloons . Switzerland has four national languages--German, French, Italian, and Romansh--each concentrated in four regions of the country. The Alemannic German-speaking ( die Deutschschweizer ) region

24570-427: The end of the Palaeolithic which suggest the inhabitants were harvesting acorn , almond , pistacia , hawthorn , wild pear , blackthorn , rosehip , sorbus , and grape . Multiple German sites bear evidence of wild cherry , blackberry , dewberry , and raspberry consumption. The Palaeolithic archaeobotanical record becomes sparser farther north, but water caltrop and water lily tubers are consumed at least in

24765-555: The end of the Upper Paleolithic, about 6,000 years earlier than previously thought, before the introduction of farming. A few specimens from the Villabruna Cluster also show genetic affinities for East Asians that are derived from gene flow. The HERC2 variation for blue eyes first appears around 13,000 to 14,000 years ago in Italy and the Caucasus. The light skin pigmentation characteristic of modern Europeans

24960-726: The endonym "Palestinian Arab" when referencing their specific subgroup. Following the foundation of the State of Israel , the Jews of the former Mandatory Palestine and the Arabs who received Israeli citizenship developed a distinct national identity. Consequently, the meaning of the word shifted to a demonym referring to the Arabs who did not receive citizenship in Israel, Jordan ( West Bank residents), or Egypt ( Gaza residents). In Singapore , most of its country's policies have been focused on

25155-539: The first wave and haplogroup R1 arrived much later. Thus the genetic data suggests that, at least from the perspective of patrilineal ancestry, separate groups of modern humans took two routes into Europe: from the Middle East via the Balkans and another from Central Asia via the Eurasian Steppe , to the north of the Black Sea . Martin Richards et al. found that 15–40% of extant mtDNA lineages trace back to

25350-622: The first widely recognised European Upper Palaeolithic culture, spread out across Europe, probably descending from the Near-Eastern Ahmarian culture. The Aurignacian industry took hold perhaps in south-central Europe sometime after 40,000 years ago, with the onset of Heinrich event 4 (a period of extreme seasonality) and the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption near Naples (which covered eastern Europe in ash). The Aurignacian culture rapidly replaced others across

25545-495: The five skeletons discovered by French palaeontologist Louis Lartet in 1868 at the Cro-Magnon rock shelter , Les Eyzies , Dordogne, France, after the area was accidentally discovered while a road was constructed for a railway station. Remains of Palaeolithic cultures have been known for centuries, but they were initially interpreted in a creationist model, wherein they represented antediluvian peoples which were wiped out by

25740-442: The formation of Eastern Eurasians, and migrated instead northwestwards into Europe. This lineage similarly did not contribute ancestry to later populations, and was replaced by a West-Eurasian lineage (~40kya), which expanded into Europe and Siberia . Proper Aurignacian people (40-26kya) were still part of a large Western Eurasian "meta-population", related to Paleolithic Siberian and Western Asian populations. Earlier samples (such as

25935-657: The gene lines in Europe, with many subgroups. The above mtDNA lineages or their precursors, are most likely to have arrived into Europe via the Middle East. This contrasts with Y DNA evidence , whereby some 50%-plus of male lineages are characterised by the R1 superfamily, which is of possible central Asian origin. Ornella Semino postulates that these differences "may be due in part to the apparent more recent molecular age of Y chromosomes relative to other loci, suggesting more rapid replacement of previous Y chromosomes. Gender-based differential migratory demographic behaviors will also influence

26130-402: The gene pool in his review of the relevant morphology. For 28 modern human specimens from 190 to 25 thousand years ago, average brain volume was estimated to have been about 1,478 cc (90.2 cu in), and for 13 Cro-Magnons about 1,514 cc (92.4 cu in). In comparison, present-day humans average 1,350 cc (82 cu in), which is notably smaller. This is because

26325-468: The genetic material from the bones of three Neanderthals with that from five modern humans, did show a relationship between Neanderthals and modern people outside Africa. It is thought that modern humans began to inhabit Europe during the Upper Paleolithic about 40,000 years ago. Some evidence shows the spread of the Aurignacian culture. From a purely patrilineal, Y-chromosome perspective, it appears that Haplogroup C1a2 , F and K2a may be those with

26520-424: The genome. Neanderthals inhabited much of Europe and western Asia from as far back as 130,000 years ago. They existed in Europe as late as 30,000 years ago. They were eventually replaced by anatomically modern humans (AMH; sometimes known as Cro-Magnons ), who began to appear in Europe circa 40,000 years ago. Given that the two hominid species likely coexisted in Europe, anthropologists have long wondered whether

26715-468: The grave of a Pavlovian site in Brno, Czech Republic (it is also the only statuette found in a Palaeolithic grave). 2-D Magdalenian engravings from 15 to 11 thousand years ago do depict males, indicated by an erect penis and facial hair, though profiles of women with an exaggerated buttock are much more common. There are less than 100 depictions of males in the Cro-Magnons archaeological record (of them, about

26910-448: The historical Moldova) are called Bukovinians, Moldovans and Romanians. In the 2004 Moldovan Census , of the 3,383,332 people living in Moldova, 16.5% (558,508) chose Romanian as their mother tongue, and 60% chose Moldovan. While 40% of all urban Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated Romanian as their mother tongue, in the countryside, barely one out of seven Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated Romanian as their mother tongue. Prior to

27105-429: The importance of male contributions of food to the group. As this was published during the second-wave feminism movement, this was quickly met with backlash from many female anthropologists. Among these was Australian archaeologist Betty Meehan in her 1974 article Woman the Gatherer , who argued that women play a vital role in these communities by gathering more reliable food plants and small game, as big game hunting has

27300-495: The importance of plants may have varied greatly depending on local climatic conditions. The Palaeolithic archaeobotanical record outside Europe (especially in the Middle East) shows these peoples were capable of processing a massive range of plant resources, in the 20,000 year old Israeli Ohalo II site as many as 150 types of seeds, fruits, nuts, and starches. There are several European Mediterranean cave sites dating to near

27495-442: The inhabited lands farther south by the powerful floodwaters. Buckland assumed the specimen was a woman because he was adorned with jewellery (shells, ivory rods and rings, and a wolf-bone skewer), and Buckland also stated (possibly in jest) the jewellery was evidence of witchcraft . Around this time, the uniformitarianism movement was gaining traction, headed principally by Charles Lyell , arguing that fossil materials well predated

27690-544: The issue of offsetting protein poisoning (nitrogen overloading) by eating fatty foods ( blubber most especially in the Inuit diet) becomes problematic in more temperate climates with leaner prey. The isotopic score for Palaeolithic peoples are comparable to Inuit with a diet comprising 1–4% plant components, but also to Onge from the tropical Andaman Islands , Paraguayan Aché , Arnhem Land Aboriginals, and Venezuelan Hiwi whose diets comprise up to 25% plant components. Thus,

27885-633: The last Ice Age in apparent isolation." According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), a population related to the people of the Chalcolithic Iran contributed to roughly half of the ancestry of Yamnaya populations of the Pontic–Caspian steppe. These Iranian Chalcolithic people were a mixture of "the Neolithic people of western Iran, the Levant, and Caucasus Hunter Gatherers." The genetic variations for lactase persistence and greater height came with

28080-626: The maternal – resulting in a matrilineal (and matriarchal) society. Matriarchs were then conquered by patriarchs at the dawn of civilisation. The switch from matriarchy to patriarchy and the hypothetical adoption of monogamy was seen as a leap forward. However, when the first Palaeolithic representations of humans were discovered, the so-called Venus figurines – which typically feature pronounced breasts, buttocks, and vulvas (areas generally sexualised in present-day Western Culture) – they were initially interpreted as pornographic in nature. The first Venus discovered

28275-418: The matriarchy hypothesis have also been prominent, such as American religious scholar Cynthia Eller's 2000 The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory . Looking at the archaeological record, depictions of women are markedly more common than of men. In contrast to the commonplace Venuses in the Gravettian, Gravettian depictions of men are rare and contested, the only reliable one being a fragmented ivory figurine from

28470-442: The mid-Upper-Palaeolithic. Nonetheless, Magdalenian peoples appear to have had a greater dependence on small animals, aquatic resources, and plants than predecessors, probably due to the relative scarcity of European big game following the LGM ( Quaternary extinction event ). It is possible that human activity, in addition to the rapid retreat of favourable steppeland, inhibited recolonisation of most of Europe by megafauna following

28665-483: The modern classification system, in doing so classifying humans as Homo sapiens with several putative subspecies classifications for different races based on racist behavioural definitions (in accord with historical race concepts ): " H. s. europaeus " (European descent, governed by laws), " H. s. afer " (African descent, impulse), " H. s. asiaticus " (Asian descent, opinions), and " H. s. americanus " (Native American descent, customs). The racial classification system

28860-429: The modernization of the language, many Jewish immigrants changed their names to ones that originate from Hebrew or align with Hebrew phonology , a process known as Hebraization This indicates that Hebrew revival was both an ethnogenic and linguistic phenomenon. In Ireland , the revival of the Irish language and the creation of Irish national literature was part of the reclamation of an Irish identity beginning at

29055-553: The modification and reinvention of cultural institutions. Nancy Hickerson argued that the disintegration of 17th-century Jumano, caused in part by the widespread deaths from introduced diseases, was followed by their reintegration as Kiowa . External stresses that produced ethnogenetic shifts preceded the arrival of the Spanish and their horse culture. Drought cycles had previously forced non-kin groups to either band together or disband and mobilize. Intertribal hostilities forced weaker groups to align with stronger ones. From 1539 to 1543,

29250-471: The new environment: the Solutrean in southwestern Europe, which invented brand new technologies, and the Epi-Gravettian from Italy to the East European Plain , which adapted the previous Gravettian technologies. Solutrean peoples inhabited the permafrost zone, whereas Epi-Gravettian peoples appear to have stuck to less harsh, seasonally frozen areas. Relatively few sites are known through this time. The glaciers began retreating about 20,000 years ago, and

29445-469: The northern European Mesolithic. It is unclear to what extent they would process or pretreat otherwise inedible plants which require multiple steps (such as a combination of fermenting, grinding, boiling, etc.). For weapons, Cro-Magnons crafted spearpoints using predominantly bone and antler, possibly because these materials were readily abundant. Compared to stone, these materials are compressive, making them fairly shatterproof. These were then hafted onto

29640-417: The observed patterns of mtDNA and Y variation". The Last Glacial Maximum ("LGM") started c. 30 ka BCE, at the end of MIS 3 , leading to a depopulation of Northern Europe. According to the classical model, people took refuge in climatic sanctuaries (or refugia) as follows: This event decreased the overall genetic diversity in Europe, a "result of drift, consistent with an inferred population bottleneck during

29835-516: The oldest presence in Europe. They have been found in some of the oldest human remains sequenced from the paleolithic era . However, other haplogroups are far more common among modern European males, because of later demographic changes. Currently the oldest sample of Haplogroup I (M170), which is now relatively common and widespread within Europe, has been found to be Krems WA3 from Lower Austria dating back to about 30–31,000 ybp. At about this time, an Upper Palaeolithic culture also appeared, known as

30030-452: The other hand, Moldovans are only recognized as a distinct ethnic group by former Soviet states. Moreover, in Romania, people from Wallachia and Transylvania call the Romanians inhabiting western Moldavia, now part of Romania, as Moldovans. People in Romanian Moldova call themselves Moldovans, as subethnic denomination, and Romanians, as ethnic denomination (like Kentish and English for English people living in Kent). Romanians from Romania call

30225-429: The overwhelming majority of Palaeolithic people (both Neanderthals and modern humans) died before reaching the age of 40, with few elderly individuals recorded. It is possible the population boom was caused by a significant increase in fertility rates. A 2005 study estimated the population of Upper Palaeolithic Europe by calculating the total geographic area which was inhabited based on the archaeological record; averaged

30420-490: The patrilineal (from father to son) Y-DNA haplogroups the earliest C1 , the latest IJ , and K2a ; and matrilineal (from mother to child) mt-DNA haplogroup N , R , and U . Y-haplogroup IJ descended from Southwest Asia. Haplogroup I emerged about 35 to 30 thousand years ago, either in Europe or West Asia. Mt-haplogroup U5 arose in Europe just prior to the LGM, between 35 and 25 thousand years ago. The 14,000 year old Villabruna 1 skeleton from Ripari Villabruna , Italy,

30615-641: The population density of Chipewyan , Hän , Hill people , and Naskapi Native Americans which live in cold climates and applied to this to Cro-Magnons; and assumed that population density continually increased with time calculated by the change in the number of total sites per time period. The study calculated that: from 40 to 30 thousand years ago the population was roughly 1,700–28,400 (average 4,400); from 30 to 22 thousand years ago roughly 1,900–30,600 (average 4,800); from 22 to 16.5 thousand years ago roughly 2,300–37,700 (average 5,900); and 16.5–11.5 thousand years ago roughly 11,300–72,600 (average 28,700). Following

30810-649: The prehistory of Finland is a point of some contention, and some scholars insist that Finns are "predominantly Eastern European and made up of people who trekked north from the Ukrainian refuge during the Ice Age". Farther east, the issue is less contentious. Haplogroup N carriers account for a significant part of all non-Slavic ethnic groups in northern Russia , including 37% of Karelians , 35% of Komi people (65% according to another study), 67% of Mari people , as many as 98% of Nenets people , 94% of Nganasans , and 86% to 94% of Yakuts . The Yamnaya component contains partial ancestry from an Ancient North Eurasian component,

31005-468: The presence of the " Negroid race " in Palaeolithic Europe, because they were interpreted as having been based on real women with steatopygia (a condition which causes thicker thighs, common in the women of the San people of Southern Africa) and the hairdos of some are supposedly similar to some seen in Ancient Egypt . By the 1940s, the positivism movement – which fought to remove political and cultural bias from science and had begun about

31200-434: The present-day European genome and were more closely related to present-day Europeans than East Asians. Earlier Cro-Magnons (10 tested in total), on the other hand, did not seem to be ancestral to any present-day population, nor did they form any cohesive group in and of themselves, each representing either completely distinct genetic lineages, admixture between major lineages, or have highly divergent ancestry. Because of these,

31395-565: The present-day average. The earliest Cro-Magnon specimens also exhibit some features that are reminiscent of those found in Neanderthals. The first Cro-Magnons would have had darker skin tones than most modern Europeans; natural selection for lighter skin would not have begun until 30,000 years ago. Before the LGM, Cro-Magnons had overall low population density, tall stature similar to post-industrial humans, and expansive trade routes stretching as long as 900 km (560 mi), and hunted big game animals. Cro-Magnons had much higher populations than

31590-411: The present-day genome are estimated to have entered about 65 to 47 thousand years ago, most likely in West Asia soon after modern humans left Africa. In 2015, the 40,000 year old modern human Oase 1 was found to have had 6–9% ( point estimate 7.3%) Neanderthal DNA, indicating a Neanderthal ancestor up to four to six generations earlier, but this hybrid Romanian population does not appear to have made

31785-415: The retreat of the glaciers during the Last Glacial Maximum . From 37,000 to 14,000 years ago, the population of Europe consisted of an isolated population descended from a founding population that didn't interbreed significantly with other populations. Mesolithic (post-LGM) populations had diverged significantly due to their relative isolation over several millennia, to the harsh selection pressures during

31980-413: The size and geographic distribution of the indigenous communities, leading to a rise in mortality rates due to conflict and disease. Some Aboriginal groups were destroyed, while new groups emerged from the cultural interface of pre-existing groups. One example of this ethnogenesis is the Métis people. During the Middle Ages in Italy , the Italo-Dalmatian languages differentiated from Latin, leading to

32175-409: The source of the farmer-like DNA in the Yamnaya. According to co-author Dr Andrea Manica of the University of Cambridge: "The question of where the Yamnaya come from has been something of a mystery up to now....we can now answer that as we've found that their genetic make-up is a mix of Eastern European hunter-gatherers and a population from this pocket of Caucasus hunter-gatherers who weathered much of

32370-470: The southeastern United States. Larger percentages from similarly long-established families identified as German Americans , English Americans , or Irish Americans , leaving the distinction between "American" and specific European ethnicity largely as a matter of personal preference. The ethnogenesis of African Americans begins with slavery, specifically in the United States of America . Between 1492 and 1880, 2 to 5.5 million Native Americans were enslaved in

32565-414: The southern Russian/Ukrainian steppes after the Late Glacial Maximum . From an mtDNA perspective, Richards et al. found that the majority of mtDNA diversity in Europe is accounted for by post-glacial re-expansions during the late upper Palaeolithic/ Mesolithic. "The regional analyses lend some support to the suggestion that much of western and central Europe was repopulated largely from the southwest when

32760-427: The specimen names and called Cro-Magnon 1 Le Vieillard , from which the name "Old Man" became popularly used. After complete analyses of individual bones by early 2000s, it became generally agreed that the rock shelter contained 140 human remains from at least eight individuals: four adults and four infant. Fossils and artifacts from the Palaeolithic had actually been known for decades, but these were interpreted in

32955-400: The spirit of Singapore, who we are, what ideals we believe in and what ties bind us together as one people." According to a 2017 survey by the Institute of Policy Studies , 49% of Singaporeans identify with both Singaporeans and their ethnic identity equally, while 35% would exclusively identify as "Singaporeans." Within the historical profession, the term "ethnogenesis" has been borrowed as

33150-455: The spread of farming technology during the Neolithic, which has been argued to be one of the most important periods in determining modern European genetic diversity. The Neolithic started with the introduction of farming, beginning in SE Europe approximately 10,000–3000 BCE, and extending into NW Europe between 4500 and 1700 BCE. During this era, the Neolithic Revolution led to drastic economic as well as socio-cultural changes in Europe and this

33345-411: The steppes of the Urals also dispersed, and the Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers appear to be a mix of WHG and EHG. Around 4,500 years ago, the immigration of the Yamnaya and Corded Ware cultures from the eastern steppes brought the Bronze Age , the Proto-Indo-European language , and more or less the present-day genetic makeup of Europeans. In 1863, a railway was constructed leading to Les Eyzies,

33540-470: The study also concluded that, beginning roughly 37,000 years ago, Cro-Magnons descended from a single founder population and were reproductively isolated from the rest of the world. The study reported that an Aurignacian individual from Grottes de Goyet , Belgium, has more genetic affinities to the Magdalenian inhabitants of Cueva de El Mirón , Spain, than to more or less contemporaneous eastern European Gravettians. Haplogroups identified in Cro-Magnons are

33735-417: The time. The claims were based on the fact that the territory of eastern Bessarabia with Chisinau had belonged to the Russian Empire between 1812 and 1918. After having been part of the Romanian Principality of Moldova for 500 years, Russia was awarded the East of Moldova as compensation for its losses during the Napoleonic Wars. This marked the beginning of the 100 years of Russian history in East Moldova. After

33930-448: The two interacted. The question was resolved only in 2010, when it was established that Eurasian populations exhibit Neanderthal admixture, estimated at 1.5–2.1% on average. The question now became whether this admixture had taken place in Europe, or rather in the Levant, prior to AMH migration into Europe. There has also been speculation about the inheritance of specific genes from Neanderthals. For example, one MAPT locus 17q 21.3 which

34125-416: The view in European thought that the civilised white man had descended from primitive, low browed ape ancestors through a series of savage races. Prominent brow-ridges were classified as an ape-like trait; consequently, Neanderthals (as well as Aboriginal Australians ) were considered a lowly race. These European fossils were considered to have been the ancestors to specifically living European races. Among

34320-613: The west, due to major climatic degradation during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), peaking 21,000 years ago. As Europe warmed, the Solutrean evolved into the Magdalenian by 20,000 years ago, and these peoples recolonised Europe. The Magdalenian and Epi-Gravettian gave way to Mesolithic cultures as big game animals were dying out and the Last Glacial Period drew to a close. Cro-Magnons were anatomically similar to present-day Europeans, West Asians, and North Africans; however, they were more robust, having larger brains, broader faces, more prominent brow ridges , and bigger teeth, compared to

34515-400: The western Gravettian , Solutrean and Aurignacian cultures. There is a notable technological complexification coinciding with the replacement of Neanderthals with Cro-Magnons in the archaeological record, and so the terms "Middle Palaeolithic" and "Upper Palaeolithic" were created to distinguish between these two time periods. Largely based on western European archaeology, the transition

34710-412: The work and informed the government officials of the discovery. He also informed a local geologist, Abel Laganne, who recovered ornaments, more flints, and two human skulls. As assigned by the French Minister of Public Instruction Victor Duruy to verify the finds, Louis Lartet made systematic excavation and discovered additional human remains, animal bones, stone tools, and ornaments. He deliberated

34905-416: The y chromosome landscape of western Europe, including the British Isles, suggesting that there could have been large population composition changes based on migrations after the LGM. Semino, Passarino and Pericic place the origins of haplogroup R1a within the Ukrainian ice-age refuge. Its current distribution in eastern Europe and parts of Scandinavia are in part reflective of a re-peopling of Europe from

35100-461: Was a movement of ideas but not people between Europe and Siberia. At the 30,000 year old Romanian Poiana Cireşului site, perforated shells of the Homalopoma sanguineum sea snail were recovered, which is significant as it inhabits the Mediterranean at nearest 900 km (560 mi) away. Such interlinkage may have been an important survival tool, with the steadily deteriorating climate. Given low estimated population density, this may have required

35295-441: Was a slow progression initiating far earlier than the Upper Paleolithic, especially when considering the non-European archaeological record. Practices considered modern include: the production of microliths , the common use of bone and antler, the common use of grinding and pounding tools, high quality evidence of body decoration and figurine production, long-distance trade networks, and improved hunting technology. In regard to art,

35490-471: Was adopted by the first-wave feminism movement, who attacked the patriarchy by making Darwinist arguments of a supposed natural egalitarian or matrifocal state of human society instead of patriarchal, as well as interpreting the Venuses as evidence of mother goddess worship as part of some matriarchal religion . Consequently, by the mid-20th century, the Venuses were primarily interpreted as evidence of some Palaeolithic fertility cult. Such claims died down in

35685-402: Was at around 10%, in Germany around 25% and in Iberia as high as 50%. The contribution of EEF is more significant in Mediterranean Europe, and declines towards northern and northeastern Europe, where WHG ancestry is stronger; the Sardinians are considered to be the closest European group to the population of the EEF. Ethnogenesis of the modern ethnic groups of Europe in the historical period

35880-424: Was disputed in 2020 by French paleoanthropologist Marie-Antoinette de Lumley  [ fr ] and colleagues. About 60,000 years ago, marine isotope stage 3 began, characterised by oscillating climatic patterns, causing sudden retreat and recolonisation phases in vegetation, fluctuating between forestland and open steppeland. The earliest indication of Upper Palaeolithic modern human migration into Europe

36075-418: Was dubbed the "Upper Palaeolithic Revolution," (extended to be a worldwide phenomenon) and the idea of " behavioural modernity " became associated with this event and early modern cultures. It is largely agreed that the Upper Palaeolithic seems to feature a higher rate of technological and cultural evolution than the Middle Palaeolithic, but it is debated if behavioural modernity was truly an abrupt development or

36270-404: Was identified as being similar to modern individuals tested in Albania , Bosnia , Greece , Corsica , and Provence . The authors therefore proposed that, whether or not the modern distribution of E-V13 of today is a result of more recent events, E-V13 was already in Europe within the Neolithic, carried by early farmers from the Eastern Mediterranean to the Western Mediterranean, much earlier than

36465-401: Was introduced to Europe by the neolithic farmers . After the arrival of the neolithic farmers, a SLC22A4 mutation was selected for, a mutation which probably arose to deal with ergothioneine deficiency but increases the risk of ulcerative colitis , coeliac disease , and irritable bowel syndrome . The Bronze Age saw the development of long-distance trading networks , particularly along

36660-431: Was much based on kinship, descent and genealogy, which was reflected in elaborate genealogy myths. In his view, genealogy is the most fundamental way any population defines itself as an ethnic group. There was a change in the way Greeks constructed their ethnic identity in the Persian Wars period (first half of 5th c BC). Before that (archaic period), Greeks tended to connect themselves through genealogical assimilation. After

36855-458: Was named the " Vénus impudique " ("immodest Venus") by the discoverer Paul Hurault, 8th Marquis de Vibraye , because it lacked clothes and had a prominent vulva. The name " Venus ", after the Roman goddess of beauty, in itself implies an erotic function. Such a pattern in the representation of the human form led to suggestions that human forms were generally pornography for men, meaning men were primarily responsible for artwork and craftsmanship in

37050-477: Was potentially caused by overall low population and/or low cross-continental movement required for such an adaptive shift in skin, hair, and eye colouration. However, KITLG experienced positive selection in Cro-Magnons (as well as East Asians) beginning approximately 30,000 years ago. While anatomically modern humans have been present outside of Africa during some isolated time intervals potentially as early as 250,000 years ago, present-day non-Africans descend from

37245-449: Was quickly extended to fossil specimens, including both Cro-Magnons and the Neanderthals, after the true extent of their antiquity was recognised. In 1869, Lartet had proposed the subspecies classification " H. s. fossilis " for the Cro-Magnon remains. Other supposed fossil human species included (among many others): " H. pre-aethiopicus " for a skull from Dordogne which had "Ethiopic affinities"; " H. predmosti " or " H. predmostensis " for

37440-417: Was situated between the Dniester and Southern Bug rivers ( Transnistria ), distinct from the Ukrainian SSR . Scholar Charles King concluded that this action was partly support for Soviet propaganda and help for a potential communist revolution in Romania. Initially, people of Moldovan ethnicity supported territorial claims to the regions of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina , which were part of Romania at

37635-605: Was spread during the Roman era through Thracian and Dacian populations from the Balkans into the rest of Europe. Concerning the late Roman period of (not only) Germanic " Völkerwanderung ", some suggestions have been made, at least for Britain, with Y haplogroup I1a being associated with Anglo-Saxon immigration in eastern England, and R1a being associated with Norse immigration in northern Scotland. There are four main Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups that account for most of Europe's patrilineal descent . Putting aside small enclaves, there are also several haplogroups apart from

37830-414: Was spread primarily due to being adopted by indigenous Mesolithic populations, rather than due to immigration from Near East. Gene flow from SE to NW Europe seems to have continued in the Neolithic, the percentage significantly declining towards the British Isles. Classical genetics also suggested that the largest admixture to the European Paleolithic/Mesolithic stock was due to the Neolithic revolution of

38025-568: Was the landowner. The original human remains were brought to and preserved at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris. The number of individuals at the Cro-Magnon rock shelter has eluded scientists for over a century. The original workers reported that they found 15 skeletons. In his report, Lartet identified five individuals based on the skulls, three of them males (designated Cro-Magnon 1, 3 and 4), one female (Cro-Magnon 2) and an infant (Cro-Magnon 5). In 1868, anatomist Paul Broca noted five adults and several infants. Broca introduced

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