Inconclusive
59-420: Civilian Casualties: More than 3,000 Sahrawis killed (Eckhardt,1985) 3 West German pilots killed 853+ (Project Disappeared) – 1,500 ( International Federation of Human Rights ) Sahrawis missing 40,000 (1976) – 80,000 (1977) Sahrawis displaced 1980s 1990s The Western Sahara War ( Arabic : حرب الصحراء الغربية , French : Guerre du Sahara occidental , Spanish : Guerra del Sáhara Occidental )
118-542: A Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas (Sahrawi-staffed auxiliary forces) was overrun and rifles seized. Polisario then gradually gained control over large swaths of desert countryside, and its power grew from early 1975 when the Tropas Nomadas began deserting to the Polisario, bringing weapons and training with them. At this point, Polisario's manpower included perhaps 800 men, but they were backed by
177-573: A demonstration in El-Aaiun (Laayoune) against Spanish rule in 1970, attempting to hand over a petition to the Spanish colonial rulers calling for better treatment and Western Sahara's independence. The protest was immediately and bloodily suppressed by the colonial forces. The massacre and ensuing disturbances has been named the Zemla Intifada , or uprising, after the place the demonstration
236-523: A group of French technicians was taken prisoner during a raid on the Zouerate iron mines, codenaming its involvement Opération Lamantin . The French Air Force deployed SEPECAT Jaguar jets to Mauritania in 1978 under the orders of President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing , which repeatedly bombed Polisario columns headed for Mauritania with napalm . The Polisario Front launched a raid on the capital Nouakchott , during which Polisario chief and leader El Ouali
295-540: A huge berm or sand wall (the Moroccan Wall ). The Moroccan army stationed a number of troops roughly the same size as the entire Sahrawi population to defend the wall, enclosing the Southern Provinces , the economically useful parts of Western Sahara ( Bou Craa , El-Aaiun , Smara etc.). This stalemated the war, with no side able to achieve decisive gains, but artillery strikes and sniping attacks by
354-537: A larger network of supporters. A UN visiting mission headed by Simeon Aké that was conducted in June 1975 concluded that Sahrawi support for independence (as opposed to Spanish rule or integration with a neighbouring country) amounted to an "overwhelming consensus" and that the Polisario Front was by far the most powerful political force in the country. While Spain started negotiating a handover of power in
413-543: A massive attack against Moroccan troops in Guelta Zemmour (Centre of Western Sahara) and Algeria but sustained heavy casualties and withdrawn after leaving more than 18 tanks burning and a dozen more vehicles. This setback led the Polisario to consider a ceasefire. 1991 Tifariti offensive was the last military operation and successful maneuver in Western Sahara War launched by Moroccan forces against
472-553: A small body of permanent staff who support the activities of the board members and the mission delegates. Every three years, the FIDH Congress gathers together member organizations to elect the International Board, fix the priorities of the organization and decide whether to grant membership to new partners or to exclude member organizations which no longer satisfy its requirements. The FIDH International Board
531-399: Is composed of a President, Treasurer, 15 Vice-presidents and 5 Secretaries General, all of whom work on a voluntary basis and represent all regions of the world. Honorary Presidents have consultative status on the International Board. The International Board meets three times per year to define FIDH's political and strategic orientations and to draw up and approve the budget. The Executive Board
590-577: Is composed of the President, the Treasurer and the 5 Secretaries General, and is responsible for the management of FIDH on a daily basis. This body meets once per month to take decisions on current concerns and requests submitted by member organizations. The two Boards call on the expertise of other collaborators in FIDH's activities, including the permanent delegates to intergovernmental organizations and
649-420: Is still the norm in many states. FIDH is striving to abolish discrimination , facilitate women's access to justice, and fight impunity for perpetrators of sexual crimes committed during conflict. States imposing stricter controls on people's movements are reducing migrant workers to mere commercial goods, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation . FIDH investigates the violation of migrants' rights from
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#1732772952908708-616: The Polar 3 , a Dornier 228 -type research airplane from the Alfred Wegener Institute was shot down by guerrillas of the Polisario Front over Western Sahara. All three crew members died. Polar 3 , together with unharmed Polar 2 , was on its way back from Antarctica and had taken off in Dakar , Senegal , to reach Arrecife , Canary Islands . The German government, which did not recognize Morocco's claim to Western Sahara at
767-648: The European Union , Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), Organization of American States , United Nations Development Programme , World Trade Organization , International Monetary Fund , World Bank , and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development . FIDH's mandate "is to contribute to the respect of all the rights defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights." It aims to make "effective improvements in
826-625: The First Battle of Amgala erupted between Morocco and Algeria with the Polisario. In January 1976, the Royal Moroccan Air Force also bombed the refugee camps in the northern part of the territory. The following month, Moroccan jets attacked the Umm Dreiga refugee camps with napalm and white phosphorus bombs, killing thousands of civilians. On February 26, 1976, Spain officially announced its full withdrawal from
885-507: The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights . FIDH coordinates and supports collaborations with intergovernmental organizations . FIDH was established in 1922, when it united ten national organizations. As of 2020, the organization comprises a federation of 192 organizations from 112 countries, including Israel and Palestine. FIDH coordinates and supports the activities of its member organizations at
944-626: The International Criminal Court (ICC) or regional human rights courts. FIDH participates in strengthening these regional and international mechanisms. Achieving the universal abolition of capital punishment and securing the right to a fair trial, including in the fight against terrorism , are also important FIDH objectives. FIDH documents and denounces human rights violations involving corporations and demands that economic actors be held accountable, including through litigation. FIDH aspires to see human rights positioned at
1003-628: The Moroccan Western Sahara Wall . Morocco claimed that it had acted in self-defence while the Polisario Front accused Morocco of violating the ceasefire by entering the buffer zone, and urged the United Nations to intervene. On April 8, 2021, the head of the Sahrawi National Guard, Addah Al-Bendir, was killed by what reports claim to be a drone strike while attempting a raid on Moroccan positions along
1062-606: The Sahrawi guerrilla fighters of the Polisario Front . During August–September 1991 the Royal Moroccan Army (RMA) conducted offensive operations in the areas of Mehaires, Tifariti, and Bir Lahlou and cleared the area of any Polisario presence. A cease-fire between the Polisario and Morocco, monitored by MINURSO ( UN ) came into effect on 6 September 1991, with the promise of a referendum on independence
1121-504: The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic , causing a massive rupture in relations with Morocco. King Hassan II of Morocco immediately claimed the area of Western Sahara evacuated by Mauritania ( Tiris al-Gharbiya , roughly corresponding to the southern half of Río de Oro ), which was unilaterally annexed by Morocco on 7 August 1979. From the mid-1980s Morocco largely had kept Polisario troops off by building
1180-616: The World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT) created the Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders. Its role is to establish the facts, alert the international community , hold discussions with national authorities and promote the strengthening of mechanisms to protect human rights defenders at national, regional and international levels. Discrimination and violence against women
1239-573: The Children . As of 2020, the organization is made up of a federation of 192 organizations from 112 countries, including Israel and Palestine, including Ligue des droits de l'homme in over 100 countries. FIDH is nonpartisan , nonsectarian , and non-governmental. Its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , and
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#17327729529081298-633: The FIDH proposed a “World Declaration of Human Rights”, then an International Criminal Court . In 1936, FIDH adopted an additional declaration including the rights of mothers, children and the elderly, the right to work and welfare , the right to leisure and the right to education . Between 2009 and 2012, 576 defenders of human rights were released and the judicial harassment of 116 defenders ended. FIDH provides guidance and support to its member organizations and other local partners in their interactions with international and regional inter-governmental organizations (IGOs). FIDH has established delegations at
1357-544: The FIDH website (in English , French , Spanish , Russian , Arabic , Persian and Turkish ). In 2005, internet traffic on www.fidh.org amounted to approximately 2 million pages visited, and 400 references to FIDH per day were calculated on websites based in over 100 countries. FIDH has its headquarters in Paris . It relies primarily on a pool of dedicated volunteers. The organizational structure consists of elected boards and
1416-470: The Harakat Tahrir was primarily interested in ejecting Spain, not in achieving independence as a nation separate from Morocco). After the crushing of the Harakat Tahrir, Sahrawi nationalists abandoned the hope of a peaceful end to colonial rule. In May 1973 the militant Front Polisario formed under the leadership of El-Ouali , calling for armed revolution against Spanish rule. The Polisario, which
1475-699: The International and Executive Boards and ensures regular support to member organizations. The Secretariat employs 45 permanent staff, assisted by interns and volunteers. [REDACTED] Media related to International Federation for Human Rights at Wikimedia Commons Harakat Tahrir The Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Wadi el Dhahab , also referred to as the Liberation Movement ( Arabic : حركة تحرير , romanized : Harakat Tahrir ), Movement for
1534-533: The Liberation of the Sahara , Advanced Organization of the Sahara , or simply the Muslim Party , was a Sahrawi movement created in the late 1960s by Muhammad Bassiri , a Sahrawi journalist and teacher of Qur’an . Its aim was the peaceful overturning of Spanish colonial rule and achievement of Western Sahara's self-determination . It initially organized and operated in secret, but revealed its existence in
1593-611: The Polisario, Morocco had later engaged in a long guerrilla warfare with the Sahrawi nationalists. During the late 1970s, after Moroccan pressure through the Green March of 6 November, Spain entered negotiations that led to the signing of the Madrid Accords by which it ceded unilaterally the administrative control of the territory to Mauritania and Morocco on November 14, 1975. The United Nations did not officially recognize
1652-440: The Sahrawi nationalists. During the late 1970s, the Polisario Front, desiring to establish an independent state in the territory, attempted to fight both Mauritania and Morocco . In 1979, Mauritania withdrew from the conflict after signing a peace treaty with the Polisario Front. The war continued in low intensity throughout the 1980s, though Morocco made several attempts to take the upper hand in 1989–1991. A cease-fire agreement
1711-764: The UN in Geneva and New York, at the European Union in Brussels and, since 2006, at the League of Arab States in Cairo. From 2004 to 2005, FIDH filed and supported over 500 cases before international IGOs. FIDH participates in standard-setting processes and promotes the establishment of monitoring mechanisms. FIDH, together with its members and partners, implements cooperation programs at the national level, aimed at strengthening
1770-692: The accord, considering Spain as the administrative power of the territory. In the fall of 1975, as a result of the Moroccan advance, tens of thousands of Sahrawis fled Morocco-controlled cities into the desert, building up improvised refugee camps in Amgala , Tifariti and Umm Dreiga . On December 11, 1975, the first Moroccan troops arrived in El Aaiún, and fighting erupted with the Polisario Front. On December 20, Mauritanian troops succeeded taking over Tichy and La Güera, after two weeks of siege. On January 27,
1829-629: The application of the Madrid Accords in 1976, Morocco took over the Saguia El Hamra and the northern two-thirds of the territory, while Mauritania took control of the southern third; this was formalized under the Western Sahara partition agreement . The Polisario Front retaliated to the Moroccan offensive with guerrilla attacks and moved their base to Tindouf in western Algeria , where first refugee camps were established in May 1976. For
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1888-459: The area. The Polisario Front proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on 27 February 1976 and waged a guerrilla war against both Morocco and Mauritania. The World Court at the Hague had issued its verdict on the former Spanish colony just weeks before, which each party interpreted as confirming its rights on the disputed territory. After the completion of the Spanish withdrawal, and in
1947-457: The army: forcibly conscripted black Africans from the south of the country resisted getting involved in what they viewed as a northern intra-Arab dispute, and the tribes of northern Mauritania often sympathized with Polisario, fearing possible Moroccan regional ambitions and presenting perceived increasing dependence of the Daddah regime on Moroccan support. In 1977, France intervened after
2006-561: The berm sand wall. On 17 January 1980, the Spanish SPS Almirante Ferrandiz (D22) destroyer was machine-gunned by a Moroccan Mirage air fighter, 8 kilometres (5 mi) from the southern coast of Western Sahara. The Spanish destroyer had received a S.O.S. from a Spanish fishing vessel that had been previously detained by a Moroccan patrol boat . In 1984, Polisario shot down a Belgian airplane as well as two Moroccan aircraft. On 24 February 1985,
2065-770: The capacity of human rights organizations. FIDH provides training and assists in creating opportunities for dialogue with authorities. From 2004 to 2005, FIDH undertook such programs in 32 countries in Africa , 16 in Latin America , 3 in Asia and 10 in the North Africa / Middle Eastern region. FIDH draws public attention to the outcomes of its missions, its research findings and eyewitness accounts of human rights violations, by means of press releases, press conferences, open letters, mission reports, urgent appeals, petitions and
2124-427: The country of origin to the country of destination, advocates for legislative and political reforms, and litigates to bring perpetrators of violations to justice . In June 2013, FIDH provided legal assistance to two survivors of the 'left to die' boat: 72 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa had left Libya in 2011 in a small dinghy, had run out of fuel and drifted "for two weeks along one of the busiest shipping lanes in
2183-543: The events of the Zemla Intifada in 1970, when Spanish police destroyed the organization and " disappeared " its founder, Muhammad Bassiri , Sahrawi nationalism again took a militant turn. In 1971 a group of young Sahrawi students began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro . After attempting in vain to gain backing from several Arab governments, including both Algeria and Morocco , but only drawing faint notices of support from Libya and Mauritania ,
2242-410: The following year. The referendum, however, stalled over disagreements on voter rights, and numerous attempts at restarting the process (most significantly the launching of the 2003 Baker plan ) seem to have failed. The prolonged cease-fire has held without major disturbances, but Polisario has repeatedly threatened to resume fighting if no break-through occurs. Morocco's withdrawal from both the terms of
2301-538: The guerrillas continued, and Morocco was economically and politically strained by the war. Morocco faced heavy burdens due to the economic costs of its massive troop deployments along the Wall. Economic and military aid was sent to Morocco by Saudi Arabia , France and the United States to relieve the situation but matters gradually became unsustainable for all parties involved. On 7 October 1989, Polisario launched
2360-639: The heart of investment and trade negotiations, and strives for the effective implementation of economic, social and cultural rights . FIDH responds to requests from member organisations in times of armed or violent political conflict and in closed countries. It conducts fact-finding missions in the field and mobilises the international community through international and regional organisations, third countries and other levers of influence. These activities, including fact-finding and trial observation missions, research, advocacy and litigation, are implemented by independent human rights experts from all regions. In 1927,
2419-577: The holy city of Smara in 1913. Not until the second destruction of Smara in 1934, by joint Spanish and French forces, did the territory finally become subdued. Another uprising in 1956 – 1958 , initiated by the Moroccan Army of Liberation , led to heavy fighting, but eventually the Spanish forces regained control, again with French aid. However, unrest simmered, and in 1967 the Harakat Tahrir arose to challenge Spanish rule peacefully. After
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2478-770: The local, regional and international levels. FIDH is not linked to any party or religion and is independent. It also has a consultative status before the United Nations , UNESCO and the Council of Europe , and observer status before the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights , the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie and the International Labour Organization . In addition, FIDH has "regular contact" with
2537-1010: The mission delegates. The team of mission delegates gathers together several hundred individuals from all regions. The International Secretariat is based in Paris, with delegations to the United Nations in Geneva and New York City , to the European Union in Brussels , to the International Criminal Court in The Hague , to the African Union in Nairobi and to the Asean in Bangkok . It also has regional offices in Abidjan , Bamako , Cairo , Conakry and Tunis . It implements decisions taken by
2596-531: The movement eventually relocated to Spanish-controlled Western Sahara to start an armed rebellion. The Polisario Front was formally constituted on 10 May 1973 in the Mauritanian city of Zouérat , with the express intention of militarily forcing an end to Spanish colonization. Its first Secretary General was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed . On 20 May he led the Khanga raid, Polisario's first armed action, in which
2655-610: The next two years the Polisario movement grew tremendously, as Sahrawi refugees flocked to the camps fleeing from the Moroccan and Mauritanian armies, while Algeria and Libya supplied arms and funding. Within months after the 1975–1976 Moroccan offensive, Polisario had expanded to thousands of armed fighters. The reorganized army was able to inflict severe damage through guerrilla -style hit-and-run attacks against Moroccan forces in Western Sahara but also raided cities and towns in Morocco and Mauritania proper. Mauritania, under
2714-534: The original Settlement Plan and the Baker Plan negotiations in 2003 left the peace-keeping mission without a political agenda: this further increased the risks of renewed war. In mid-October 2020 tensions deepened between Morocco and the Polisario Front, when the Sahrawi refugees in Tindouf , Algeria, which houses about 100,000 Sahrawi refugees, passing through SADR-controlled territories, camped and blocked
2773-568: The protection of victims, the prevention of Human Rights violations and the sanction of their perpetrators." Its priorities are established by its World Congress and International Board, which counts 22 members, with the support of its International Secretariat, which has 45 staff members. FIDH's total income in 2012 was €5,362,268 (nearly US$ 7.1m), of which approximately 80% came from "grants and donations". To view current financial statements, FIDH publishes its annual financial statements on its website. To protect defenders of human rights, FIDH and
2832-554: The regime of President Moktar Ould Daddah , had a weakened army of 3,000 men, which was unable to fend off the attacks. After repeated strikes at the country's principal source of income, the iron mines of Zouerate , the Government was nearly incapacitated by the lack of funds and the ensuing internal disorder. Ethnic unrest in the Mauritanian Armed Forces also strongly contributed to the ineffectiveness of
2891-517: The road, creating a large caravan of vehicles and blocking traffic in the region. Morocco, which regards the region as vital to trade with sub-Saharan Africa , accused the Polisario Front of infiltrating the buffer zone and "carrying out acts of banditry" in Guerguerat . On 13 November 2020 clashes between Moroccan and the Polisario Front forces began in Guerguerat, but since has spread along
2950-720: The south) to form the province of Spanish Sahara . Raids and rebellions by the indigenous Saharan population kept the Spanish forces out of much of the territory for a long time. Ma al-Aynayn , the Saharan Caïd of Smara, started an uprising against the French in the 1910s, at a time when France had expanded its influence and control in North-West Africa, he died in the same year and his son Ahmed al-Hiba succeeded him. French forces defeated him when he tried to conquer Marrakesh , and in retaliation, severely damaged
3009-512: The summer of 1975, it ceded the administrative control of the territory to Mauritania and Morocco only after signing the Madrid Accords . However, on 31 October 1975, Moroccan troops crossed into the territory from the north-east, advancing towards Mahbes and Farciya . Moroccan government organized the Green March of some 350,000 Moroccan citizens, escorted by around 20,000 troops, who entered Western Sahara, trying to establish Moroccan presence. While at first meeting just minor resistance by
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#17327729529083068-429: The territory of Western Sahara is under Moroccan occupation, while the inland parts are governed by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic , managed by the Polisario Front . In 1884 Spain claimed a protectorate over the coast from Cape Bojador to Cap Blanc . Later, the Spanish extended their area of control. In 1958 Spain joined the previously separate districts of Saguia el-Hamra (in the north) and Río de Oro (in
3127-403: The territory to Morocco and Mauritania , but not sovereignty. In late 1975, the Moroccan government organized the Green March of some 350,000 Moroccan citizens, escorted by around 20,000 troops, who entered Western Sahara , trying to establish a Moroccan presence. While at first met with just minor resistance by the Polisario Front, Morocco later engaged a long period of guerrilla warfare with
3186-463: The time and remained neutral in the conflict, heavily criticized the incident. International Federation of Human Rights The International Federation for Human Rights ( French : Fédération internationale pour les droits humains ; FIDH ) is a non-governmental federation for human rights organizations. Founded in 1922, FIDH is the third oldest international human rights organization worldwide after Anti-Slavery International and Save
3245-489: The world". A complaint—with FIDH and three other NGOs as civil parties—was lodged against the French and Spanish military for failing to 'assist people in danger'. FIDH seeks to strengthen independent judicial systems and supports transitional justice processes that respect victims’ rights. When recourse to national remedies is ineffective or impossible, FIDH helps victims to either access courts in other countries through extraterritorial jurisdiction, or to bring their cases to
3304-430: Was an armed struggle between the Sahrawi indigenous Polisario Front and Morocco from 1975 to 1991 (and Mauritania from 1975 to 1979), being the most significant phase of the Western Sahara conflict . The conflict erupted after the withdrawal of Spain from the Spanish Sahara in accordance with the Madrid Accords (signed under the pressure of the Green March ), by which it transferred administrative control of
3363-430: Was finally reached between the Polisario Front and Morocco in September 1991. Some sources put the final death toll between 10,000 and 20,000 people. The conflict has since shifted from military to civilian resistance. A peace process, attempting to resolve the conflict has not yet produced any permanent solution to Sahrawi refugees and territorial agreement between Morocco and the Sahrawi Republic. Today most of
3422-408: Was held. A nationwide hunt for members of the movement followed: Bassiri himself was arrested and " disappeared " in Spanish custody. He is assumed to have been killed by his jailors, and is counted by the present-day Sahrawi nationalist movement as its first modern-day martyr (Morocco, which claims Western Sahara as its own province, has also similarly attempted to appropriate his legacy, arguing that
3481-538: Was killed, and was replaced by Mohamed Abdelaziz , with no letup in the pace of attacks. Under continued pressure, the Daddah regime finally fell in summer 1978 to a coup d'état led by war-weary military officers, who immediately agreed to a cease fire with the Polisario. A comprehensive peace treaty was signed on August 5, 1979, in which the new Mauritanian government recognized Sahrawi rights to Western Sahara and relinquished its own claims. Mauritania withdrew all its forces and would later proceed to formally recognize
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