Yan victory
109-701: [REDACTED] Look up western sea in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Western Sea may refer to: Admiral of the Western Seas , Zheng He, of the Ming Dynasty of China Qinghai lake , amongst the Chinese "four seas" USS Western Sea , a U.S. Navy ship name USS Western Sea (ID-3153) , a United States Navy cargo ship in commission from 1918 to 1919 SS Western Sea ,
218-480: A 1944 map), most of which have now been covered by the construction of buildings in the 20th century. The basins are believed to have been connected to the Yangtze via a series of gates. Three long basins survive, each with wooden structures inside, interpreted to be frames onto which the ships to be built on. The largest basin extends for a length of 421 metres (1,381 ft). While they were long enough to accommodate
327-753: A Dutch ship recorded in the History of Ming was 30 zhang . If the zhang is taken to be 3.2 m, the Dutch ship would be 96 m long. Also the Dutch Hongyi cannon was recorded to be more than 2 zhang (6.4 m) long. Comparative study by Hu Xiaowei (2018) concluded that 1 zhang would be equal to 1.5–1.6 m, this means the Dutch ship would be 45–48 m long and the cannon would be 3–3.2 m long. Taking 1.6 m for 1 zhang , Zheng He's 44 zhang treasure ship would be 70.4 m (230.97 ft) long and 28.8 m (94.49 ft) wide, or 22 zhang long and 9 zhang wide if
436-492: A Muslim style. Zheng's voyages were long neglected in official Chinese histories but have become well known in China and abroad since the publication of Liang Qichao 's Biography of Our Homeland's Great Navigator, Zheng He in 1904. In the decades after the last voyage, Imperial officials minimized the importance of Zheng He and his expeditions throughout the many regnal and dynastic histories they compiled. The information in
545-589: A book entitled the Wubei Zhi ( A Treatise on Armament Technology ) written in 1621 and published in 1628 but traced back to Zheng He's and earlier voyages. It was originally a strip map 20.5 cm by 560 cm that could be rolled up, but was divided into 40 pages which vary in scale from 7 miles/inch in the Nanjing area to 215 miles/inch in parts of the African coast. Investigation into folios 19V to 20R of
654-402: A brilliant scholar and official who also refused to serve the new regime. He even pointed out to the emperor that even after a hundred generations, he would still be known as a "usurper". Liu Jing died in prison. Even Huang Zicheng, in an audience before the emperor, condemned the rebellion. When asked if he could be charged with a crime, he replied: Why don't you charge me as a close advisor to
763-596: A contemporary of Zheng He, was also an eyewitness of ships in Southeast Asia, claiming to have seen five-masted junks weighing about 2,000 vegetes , that is Venetian butt. Christopher Wake estimated a burthen of 1300 tons. The ship of Conti may have been a Burmese or Indonesian jong . The largest ships in the fleet, the Chinese treasure ships described in Chinese chronicles, would have been nearly twice as long as any other wooden ship recorded thereafter until
872-826: A detailed description of his grandfather's sending Zheng He to the Western Ocean." The voyages "were contrary to the rules stipulated in the Huang Ming Zuxun " ( 皇明祖訓 ), the dynastic foundation documents laid down by the Hongwu Emperor : Some far-off countries pay their tribute to me at much expense and through great difficulties, all of which are by no means my own wish. Messages should be forwarded to them to reduce their tribute so as to avoid high and unnecessary expenses on both sides. They further violated longstanding Confucian principles. They were only made possible by (and therefore continued to represent)
981-481: A displacement tonnage of about 800 tons. Traditional and popular accounts of Zheng He's voyages have described a great fleet of gigantic ships far larger than any other wooden ships in history. The most grandiose claims for Zheng He's 1405 fleet are entirely based on a calculation derived from an account that was written three centuries later and was accepted as fact by one modern writer; rejected by numerous naval experts. There are even some sources that claim some of
1090-625: A grave mistake. It was not long before war broke out. The immediate cause was the arrest of two of Zhu Di's lower officials on 6 August 1399, for alleged "subversive activity". In response, Zhu Di, with the support of provincial dignitaries in Beijing, took control of Beijing and its surrounding counties and prefectures. By 9 August, his troops had already advanced to Jizhou and occupied the Juyong Pass northwest of Beijing. They also successfully thwarted General Song Zhong's attempt to recapture
1199-429: A kind of embarrassment to the dynasty. State-sponsored Ming naval efforts declined dramatically after Zheng's voyages. Starting in the early 15th century, China experienced increasing pressure from the surviving Yuan Mongols from the north. The relocation of the capital to Beijing in the north exacerbated this threat dramatically. At considerable expense, China launched annual military expeditions from Beijing to weaken
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#17327658145941308-583: A massive and expensive expansion of the Great Wall of China . In that environment, funding for naval expeditions was simply absent. However, missions from Southeastern Asia continued to arrive for decades. Depending on local conditions, they could reach such frequency that the court found it necessary to restrict them. The History of Ming records imperial edicts forbade Java, Champa, and Siam from sending their envoys more often than once every three years. Jingnan campaign The Jingnan campaign , or
1417-435: A peace offer. However, the negotiators returned with the news that Zhu Di had refused negotiations. It was later discovered that they had secretly negotiated an end to the war without the emperor's knowledge. Five days later, on 13 July, Li Jinglong and Zhu Hui, who was in charge of defending Nanjing's Jinchuan Gate, opened the gates of Nanjing to the rebels. This allowed them to enter the city without any resistance. During
1526-472: A public statement. In these communications, he stated that he had taken action to put an end to internal political disorder and confusion, to uphold the Hongwu Emperor's statutes and laws defining the duties of princes, and that he was motivated by respect for his late father. He accused the emperor and his entourage of withholding information about his father's illness and preventing him from attending
1635-606: A result of these events, the emperor dismissed Li Jinglong and appointed Sheng Yong, who had been promoted to marquis, as the new "commander-in-chief for the pacification of the rebel forces". Tie Xuan was also appointed as the Minister of War. From the autumn of 1400, Zhu Di, influenced by information from eunuchs and other supporters remaining at the Nanjing court, focused on a war of attrition. He sent his troops on raids to disrupt communications and destroy enemy supplies in southern Beiping and western Shandong. On 9 and 10 January,
1744-586: A sailing time or distance, which takes account of the local currents and winds. Sometimes depth soundings are also provided. It also shows bays, estuaries, capes and islands, ports and mountains along the coast, important landmarks such as pagodas and temples, and shoal rocks. Of 300 named places outside China, more than 80% can be confidently located. There are also fifty observations of stellar altitude. According to Luo Maodeng [ zh ] 's novel Sanbao Taijian Xia Xiyang Ji Tongsu Yanyi ( Eunuch Sanbao Western Records Popular Romance , published 1597),
1853-600: A soldier on the northern frontier. and often participated in Zhu Di's military campaigns against the Mongols. On 2 March 1390, Ma accompanied the prince when he commanded his first expedition , which was a great victory, as the Mongol commander Naghachu surrendered as soon as he realized he had fallen into a trap. Eventually, he gained the confidence and trust of the prince. Ma was also known as "Sanbao" during his service in
1962-600: A steam cargo ship built in 1918 and scrapped in 1931 2010 Western Sea conflict, in Korea's Western Sea, the Yellow Sea See also [ edit ] [REDACTED] Search for "western-sea" on Misplaced Pages. Western Sea Frontier Western Seaboard (disambiguation) West Sea (disambiguation) , an alternative name for several bodies of water All pages with titles containing Western Sea Battle of Yeonpyeong (disambiguation) , aka, Battle of
2071-399: A threat from a government cavalry raid led by General Ping An ( 平安 ), but were ultimately saved by the arrival of reinforcements led by Zhu Gaoxu , his son. In early June, Zhu Di launched an offensive by marching on Dezhou and was successful in crushing Li Jinglong's exhausted troops in front of the city and occupying it. He then advanced to Jinan and began besieging it on 8 June. However,
2180-749: A tiger" and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress foreign peoples with China's military might. He ruthlessly suppressed pirates, who had long plagued Chinese and Southeast Asian waters. For example, he defeated Chen Zuyi , one of the most feared and respected pirate captains, and returned him to China for execution. He also waged a land war against the Kingdom of Kotte on Ceylon , and he made displays of military force when local officials threatened his fleet in Arabia and East Africa. From his fourth voyage, he brought envoys from 30 states, who traveled to China and paid their respects at
2289-524: A triumph of the Ming's eunuch faction over the administration's scholar-bureaucrats . Upon Zheng He's death and his faction's fall from power, his successors sought to minimize him in official accounts, along with continuing attempts to destroy all records related to the Jianwen Emperor or the manhunt to find him. Although unmentioned in the official dynastic histories, Zheng He probably died during
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#17327658145942398-495: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Admiral of the Western Seas Zheng He (also romanized Cheng Ho ; 1371–1433/1435) was a Chinese admiral , explorer, diplomat, and bureaucrat during the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644). He is often regarded as the greatest admiral in Chinese history . Born into a Muslim family as Ma He , he later adopted
2507-413: Is that Admiral Zheng He died in 1433, during or shortly after his seventh voyage. Another is that Zheng He continued to serve as the defender of Nanjing, and died in 1435. A tomb was built for Zheng He at the southern slope of Cattle Head Hill, Nanjing . The original tomb was a horseshoe-shaped grave. It is a cenotaph believed to contain his clothes and headgear. In 1985, the tomb was rebuilt following
2616-512: The History of Ming that the initial voyages were launched as part of the emperor's attempt to capture his escaped predecessor , which would have made the first voyage the "largest-scale manhunt on water in the history of China." Zheng He was placed as the admiral in control of the huge fleet and armed forces that undertook the expeditions. Wang Jinghong was appointed as second in command. Preparations were thorough and wide-ranging, including
2725-632: The Arabian Peninsula that had been used since at least the Han dynasty . That fact, along with the use of a more-than-abundant number of crew members who were regular military personnel, leads some to speculate that the expeditions may have been geared at least partially at spreading China's power through expansion. During the Three Kingdoms Period, the king of Wu sent a 20-year diplomatic mission led by Zhu Ying and Kang Tai along
2834-623: The Chinese New Year on 11 February 1404, the Yongle Emperor conferred the surname "Zheng" to Ma He, because he had distinguished himself defending the city reservoir against imperial forces in 1399. Another reason was that the eunuch commander also distinguished himself during the 1402 campaign to capture the capital, Nanjing. In the new administration, Zheng He served in the highest posts as Grand Director and later as Chief Envoy ( 正使 ; zhèngshǐ ) during his sea voyages. Over
2943-598: The Hongxi Emperor terminated the undertaking of further treasure voyages. On 24 February 1425, he appointed Zheng He as the defender of Nanjing and ordered him to continue his command over the treasure fleet for the city's defense. On 25 March 1428, the Xuande Emperor ordered Zheng He and others to take over the supervision for the rebuilding and repair of the Great Bao'en Temple at Nanjing. He completed
3052-645: The Swahili Coast . The giraffe that he brought back from Malindi was considered to be a qilin and taken as proof of the Mandate of Heaven upon the administration. The Daxuexi Alley Mosque in Xi'an has a stele dating to January 1523, inscribed with Zheng He's fourth maritime voyage to Tianfang, Arabian Peninsula. While Zheng He's fleet was unprecedented, the routes were not. His fleet followed long-established, well-mapped routes of trade between China and
3161-477: The Yongle and Xuande Emperors' official annals was incomplete and even erroneous, and other official publications omitted them completely. Although some have seen that as a conspiracy seeking to eliminate memories of the voyages, it is likely that the records were dispersed throughout several departments and the expeditions, unauthorized by and in fact counter to the injunctions of the dynastic founder , presented
3270-540: The campaign to clear away disorders , was a propagandistic term used by the victorious side to refer to the civil war that took place between 1399 and 1402 in the Ming dynasty . This conflict was between the Ming government, led by the second Ming emperor, the Jianwen Emperor , and his uncle, Zhu Di , Prince of Yan. The war was sparked by the removal of the emperor's uncles and the restriction of Zhu Di's power by
3379-527: The zhang is taken to be 3.2 m. It is known that the measure unit during the Ming era was not unified: A measurement of East and West Pagoda in Quanzhou resulted in a zhang unit of 2.5–2.56 m. According to Chen Cunren, one zhang in the Ming Dynasty is only half a zhang in modern times. From 2003 to 2004, the Treasure Shipyard was excavated in northwestern Nanjing (the former capital of
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3488-476: The "Western Ocean" (Indian Ocean). In 1431, Zheng He was bestowed with the title Sanbao Taijian ( 三寶 太監 ), using his informal name Sanbao and the title of Grand Director. The Yuan dynasty and the expanding Sino-Arab trade during the 14th century had gradually expanded Chinese knowledge of the world since "universal" maps previously displaying only China and its surrounding seas began to expand farther and farther southwest, with much more accurate depictions of
3597-514: The 20th century, surpassing Admiral Nelson 's HMS Victory , 69.34 metres (227 ft 6 in) long, which was launched in 1765, and the 68.88-metre (226 ft) Vasa of 1627. The first ships to attain 126 m (413 ft) long were 19th century steamers with iron hulls. Many scholars consider it unlikely that any of Zheng He's ships were 135 m (450 ft) in length and have proposed much shorter lengths, as low as 60–75 m (200–250 ft). Zhao Zhigang claimed that he has solved
3706-470: The Great Wall. Generals serving in northeast China, close to Zhu Di, were gradually replaced by loyal followers of the emperor. Zhu Di requested the return of his sons, but Qi Tai advised keeping them as hostages. However, Huang Zicheng convinced the emperor that releasing them would help calm the situation. In June 1399, the emperor allowed the sons to return to Beijing, which ultimately proved to be
3815-406: The Jianwen Emperor's uncles, including Zhu Su , Prince of Zhou; Zhu Gui , Prince of Dai; Zhu Bo ( 朱柏 ), Prince of Xiang; Zhu Fu ( 朱榑 ), Prince of Qi, and Zhu Pian ( 朱楩 ), Prince of Min, were removed from their positions due to both real and perceived crimes. They were either exiled, placed under house arrest, or forced to commit suicide. The most dangerous prince was Zhu Di , Prince of Yan, who
3924-528: The Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era until the end of 1402. The government archives, with the exception of financial and military documents, were burned. After the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne, a large-scale purge of the state administration took place. This purge was, to some extent, inevitable due to Confucian morality, which did not allow the Jianwen Emperor's staunchest followers to recognize
4033-698: The Mao Kun Map, which cover the Indian Ocean including South India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and East Africa, suggests that the map is a composite of four maps, one for Sri Lanka, one for South India one for the Maldives and one for around 400 km of the East African coast, no further south than 6 degrees south of the Equator. Each of these maps is positioned at a different orientation to fit with
4142-546: The Ming Dynasty), near the Yangtze River . Despite the site being referred to as the "Longjiang Treasure Shipyard" (龍江寶船廠) in the official names, the site is distinct from the actual Longjiang Shipyard, which was located on a different site and produced different types of ships. The Treasure Shipyard, where Zheng He's fleet is believed to have been built in the Ming Dynasty, once consisted of thirteen basins (based on
4251-584: The Ming armies, particularly on the northern border. However, the new government sought to limit the power of the emperor's uncles. This policy, known as "reducing the feudatories" ( 削藩 ; xuefan ), was advocated by Qi Tai and Huang Zicheng, who cited past dynasties such as the Han dynasty where the Rebellion of the Seven States had occurred. As a result, the government prohibited the princes from participating in public affairs. In 1398-1399, several of
4360-488: The Ming conquest, while Levathes states that Zheng He's father died at 37, but it is unclear if he was helping the Mongol Army or was just caught in the onslaught of battle. Wenming, the oldest son, buried their father outside Kunming. In his capacity as Admiral, Zheng He had an epitaph engraved in honour of his father, composed by the Minister of Rites Li Zhigang on 1 June 1405, which was Duanwu Festival . Zheng He
4469-496: The Ming court. In 1424, the Yongle Emperor died. His successor, the Hongxi Emperor (r. 1424–1425), stopped the voyages during his short reign. Zheng He made one more voyage during the reign of Hongxi's son, the Xuande Emperor (r. 1426–1435) but, the voyages of the Chinese treasure ship fleets then ended. Xuande believed his father's decision to halt the voyages had been meritorious and thus "there would be no need to make
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4578-574: The Mongolians. The expenditures necessary for the land campaigns directly competed with the funds necessary to continue naval expeditions. Further, in 1449, Mongolian cavalry ambushed a land expedition personally led by the Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu Fortress , less than a day's march from the walls of the capital. The Mongolians wiped out the Chinese army and captured the emperor. The battle had two salient effects. Firstly, it demonstrated
4687-665: The Western Sea Western (disambiguation) Sea (disambiguation) Western sea-purslane ( Sesuvium verrucosum ) a species of flowering plant Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Western Sea . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_Sea&oldid=1146747903 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
4796-462: The Yellow River. Within a month, he had captured several crucial strongholds in northwestern Shandong, effectively disrupting the government troops' lines. The government sent Xu Huizu ( 徐輝祖 ), the eldest son of Xu Da , to strengthen the defense with new forces, but even he was unable to halt the rebel advance. The rebels continued to push southward, and on 3 March, they captured Xuzhou in
4905-697: The Yongle Emperor, whom Zheng assisted in the Jingnan campaign that overthrew the previous Jianwen Emperor in 1402, Zheng He rose to the top of the Ming imperial hierarchy and served as commander of the southern capital Nanjing . Zheng was born Ma He to a Muslim family of Kunyang , Kunming , Yunnan, then under the rule of the Principality of Liang loyal to the Northern Yuan dynasty. He had an older brother and four sisters. The Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions suggest that devotion to Tianfei ,
5014-483: The actual size of the rudder blades. Church notes that in traditional wooden Chinese ships, rudderposts were necessarily long in order for them to extend from the water level up unto the ship deck, where it was controlled by the tiller. Church compares it with modern wooden junks built in the traditional Lümeimao ("green eyebrow", 綠眉毛) style, which also have rudderposts that are 11 metres (36 ft) long, but are only 31 metres (102 ft) in overall length. One theory
5123-568: The approval of the succession from his father Shi Jinqing, who was the Pacification Commissioner of Palembang, and was given permission from the Yongle Emperor. When Zheng He returned from Palembang, he found that the Yongle Emperor had died during his absence. On 7 September 1424, Zhu Gaozhi had inherited the throne as the Hongxi Emperor after the death of the Yongle Emperor on 12 August 1424. On 7 September 1424,
5232-616: The army and ruined their chance for a turnaround in the battle. Just five days later, Zhu Di took advantage of Xu's recall and surprised and captured Ping An and other generals at Lingbi. On 7 June, the rebels overcame Sheng Yong's defenses on the Huai River and bypassed the heavily fortified cities of Fengyang (on the Huai River ) and Huai'an (on the Grand Canal). They then captured Yangzhou on 17 June. However, their advance
5341-829: The besiegers by attacking their camp. At the same time, Zhu Gaochi set out to attack from within the city. The government army, taken aback by the sudden attack and suffering from the cold, retreated first to Zhending and then to Dezhou in Shandong . In December 1399, Zhu Di issued another proclamation accusing the emperor's associates, Qi Tai and Huang Zicheng, of crimes. The emperor then removed them from office, but continued to consult with them. In January 1400, Zhu Di launched an offensive in Shanxi , advancing towards Datong at its northern tip. Li Jinglong, however, did not react until March, when Zhu Di had already left Datong and returned to Dezhou. This delay resulted in many soldiers from
5450-455: The central government after the Jianwen Emperor ascended to the throne in 1398. In 1399, Zhu Di rebelled under the guise of restoring order and the rights of the princes. After three years of fighting, he successfully conquered the capital of Nanjing in June 1402, while the emperor and his family were likely killed in the palace fire. This marked the end of the war. Soon after, Zhu Di ascended to
5559-485: The city under the control of his eldest son Zhu Gaochi . Li Jinglong saw this as an opportunity and marched against Beijing with a new army, besieging the city on 12 November. Meanwhile, Zhu Di had secured his power in the northeast by subjugating Zhu Quan , Prince of Ning, who was based at Daning north of the Great Wall . He also recruited three guard units of Mongol cavalry, giving him a total of 80,000 troops. He quickly returned to Beijing and on 2 December, he surprised
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#17327658145945668-460: The city was defended by Ping An and Sheng Yong ( 盛庸 ), two capable government generals, with the support of Shandong governor Tie Xuan . Under their leadership, several successful sorties were organized against the enemy's advance. When news arrived of a relief army being sent from Nanjing, Zhu Di broke the siege and retreated to Beijing on 4 September. As a result, government troops were able to reclaim Dezhou and other territories lost in 1400. As
5777-413: The clear threat posed by the northern nomads. Secondly, the Mongols caused a political crisis in China when they released the emperor after his half-brother had already ascended and declared the new Jingtai era . Not until 1457 and the restoration of the former emperor would political stability return. Upon his return to power, China abandoned the strategy of annual land expeditions and instead embarked upon
5886-755: The coast of Asia, which reached as far as the Eastern Roman Empire . After centuries of disruption, the Song dynasty restored large-scale maritime trade from China in the South Pacific and Indian Oceans and reached as far as the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa. When his fleet first arrived at Malacca , there was already a sizable Chinese community. The General Survey of the Ocean Shores ( 瀛涯勝覽 , Yíngyá Shènglǎn ), composed by
5995-530: The construction of the temple in 1431. On 15 May 1426, the Xuande Emperor ordered the Directorate of Ceremonial to send a letter to Zheng He to reprimand him for a transgression. Earlier, an official petitioned the emperor to reward workmen who had built temples in Nanjing. The Xuande Emperor responded negatively to the official for charging the costs to the court instead of the monks themselves, but he realized that Zheng He and his associates had instigated
6104-413: The death of the Hongwu Emperor , the first emperor of the Ming dynasty, in 1398, his grandson Zhu Yunwen ascended the throne as the Jianwen Emperor. At the age of fifteen, Zhu Yunwen became the heir to the throne in 1392 following the death of his father, Zhu Biao , who was the eldest son of the Hongwu Emperor. The new emperor inherited his father's moderate character. He expressed the style and goals of
6213-416: The debate of the size difference, and stated that Zheng He's largest ship was about 70 m (230 ft) in length. Edward L. Dreyer claims that Luo Maodeng's novel is unsuitable as historical evidence. The novel contains a number of fantasy element; for example the ships were "constructed with divine help by the immortal Lu Ban". One explanation for the seemingly-inefficient size of the colossal ships
6322-496: The deceased emperor who failed to advise him to deprive you of your princely powers early enough, consequently allowing you to become so fierce and cruel. Qi Tai and other followers of the Jianwen Emperor were executed, along with a large number of their family members, teachers, students, and supporters. Many others were imprisoned or deported to the border. This widespread purge impacted tens of thousands of individuals. The Yongle Emperor justified his rebellion by claiming to defend
6431-514: The emperor appointed Marquis Geng Bingwen (c. 1339–1404), a retired experienced general, as the commander of the troops tasked with suppressing the rebellion. In an attempt to defeat the rebels near Beijing, Geng Bingwen marched on 11 September 1399 with 130,000 soldiers to Zhending, a city southwest of Beijing. However, two weeks later, he suffered a defeat north of the city with heavy losses. Zhu Di then besieged him in Zhending for three days, but
6540-587: The emperor's apparent death and the ascension of Zhu Di, Prince of Yan, as the Yongle Emperor . In 1393, the Crown Prince had died, thus the deceased prince's son became the new heir apparent. By the time the emperor died (24 June 1398), the Prince of Qin and the Prince of Jin had perished, which left Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, as the eldest surviving son of the emperor. However, Zhu Di's nephew succeeded
6649-537: The emperor's trust and continued to oversee military operations in the Yangtze basin. In the summer, the rebels continued to raid the supply lines of government troops in southern Beiping and southern Shandong. In July 1401, Sheng Yong attempted to cut the rebel supply lines along the Grand Canal, but was unsuccessful, leaving government troops in northern Shandong in a dire situation. In August, Ping An launched an attack on Beijing from Zhending, successfully pushing
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#17327658145946758-431: The extent of Arabia and Africa. Between 1405 and 1433, the Ming government sponsored seven naval expeditions. The Yongle Emperor , disregarding the Hongwu Emperor 's expressed wishes , designed them to establish a Chinese presence and impose imperial control over the Indian Ocean trade, impress foreign peoples in the Indian Ocean basin, and extend the empire's tributary system. It has also been inferred from passages in
6867-413: The first expedition had: On the ships were navigators, explorers, sailors, doctors, workers, and soldiers, along with the translator and diarist Gong Zhen . Six more expeditions took place from 1407 to 1433, with fleets thought to be of comparable size. Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta both described multi-masted ships carrying 500 to 1,000 passengers in their translated accounts. Niccolò de' Conti ,
6976-463: The first rudderpost recovered was proof of the enormous dimensions of the ships based on his calculations on how big the rudderblade would be. However Church (2010) points out that Zhou was using calculations based on modern steel propeller-driven ships, not wooden ships; as well as the fact that Zhou's hypothetical rudder shape was based on the flat-bottomed shachuan (沙船) ship type, not the sea-going fuchuan (福船). The rudderposts cannot be used to infer
7085-524: The frames that supported them. Moreover, the basin structures were grouped into clusters with large gaps between them, if each cluster was interpreted as a ship framework, then the largest ship would not exceed 75 metres (246 ft) at most, probably less. The 2003–2004 excavation also recovered two complete wooden rudderposts from the Treasure Shipyard, in addition to another recovered in 1957. They are made of teak and measure around 10 to 11 metres (33 to 36 ft) in length. Zhou Shide (1962) claimed that
7194-431: The funeral. Additionally, he accused the emperor and his ministers of persecuting the princes, who were falsely accused of planning an uprising. He claimed that his actions were a reasonable form of self-defense, not directed towards the emperor, but towards his treacherous and criminal ministers. He also asserted that he had no interest in the throne, but as the eldest living son of the deceased emperor and Empress Ma , he
7303-489: The government army retreated. On 27 April, he defeated Ping An's cavalry at Gaocheng and forced them to withdraw to Zhending. Once again, the city resisted the attempt to capture it. In response, the emperor dismissed Qi Tai and Huang Zicheng (on 17 April) and replaced the latter with Ru Chang ( 茹瑺 ), who became the leader of the peace party at court along with Li Jinglong. Ru and Li proposed peace talks to Zhu Di, but were rejected. Despite their dismissal, Qi and Huang still held
7412-618: The government army successfully defeated the rebels who were attacking Dongchang, a city located on the Grand Canal in Liaocheng prefecture. Sheng Yong's army used firearms and rocket weapons to kill tens of thousands of Zhu Di's soldiers. As they retreated to Beijing, Zhu Di narrowly avoided being captured by Ping An's cavalry. The emperor, encouraged by this triumph, once again appointed Qi Tai and Huang Zicheng to their previous positions on 31 January. In an attempt to gain control over
7521-495: The government by choosing the name of his era, "the Establishment of Civil Virtue" (Jianwen). Instead of relying on deserving generals or princes from the imperial family, he chose to surround himself with Confucian scholars. His closest advisers were Huang Zicheng , Qi Tai , and Fang Xiaoru , idealistic scholars committed to reform but lacking practical experience in managing the country. The Jianwen Emperor ascended to
7630-411: The heavily fortified city, carefully weighing his options. However, the emperor's entourage was divided. Qi Tai and Huang Zicheng, who were once again called upon, advocated for the defense of the capital at all costs. On the other hand, Li Jinglong and Ru Chang wanted to negotiate. On 9 July, the emperor sent Li and Zhu Hui ( 朱橞 ), Prince of Gu, the 17th son of the Hongwu Emperor, to the enemy's camp with
7739-439: The household of Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, who later became the Yongle Emperor . Zhu Di was 11 years older than Ma. Enslaved as a eunuch servant, Ma He eventually gained the confidence of Zhu Di, who, as his benefactor, gained the allegiance and loyalty of the young eunuch. The prince had been governing Beiping (modern Beijing ) since 1380. It was near the northern frontier with hostile Mongol tribes. Ma spent his early life as
7848-563: The household of the Prince of Yan, a reference to the Buddhist Three Jewels . Ma received a proper education at Beiping, which he would not have had if he had been placed in the imperial capital of Nanjing as the Hongwu Emperor, the father of Zhu Di, did not trust eunuchs and believed that it was better to keep them illiterate. The Hongwu Emperor purged and exterminated much of the original Ming leadership and gave his enfeoffed sons more military authority, especially those in
7957-484: The imperial capital, Nanjing. Zheng He would be one of his commanders during that campaign. In 1402, Zhu Di's armies defeated the imperial forces and marched into Nanjing on 13 July 1402. Zhu Di accepted the elevation to emperor four days later. After ascending the throne as the Yongle Emperor, Zhu Di promoted Ma He as the Grand Director ( 太監 , tàijiān ) of the Directorate of Palace Servants ( 内宫監 ). During
8066-447: The imperial throne as the Jianwen Emperor . In 1398, he issued a policy known as xuēfān ( 削藩 ), or "reducing the feudatories", which entailed eliminating all princes by stripping their power and military forces. In August 1399, Zhu Di openly rebelled against his nephew. In 1399, Ma He successfully defended Beiping's city reservoir, Zhenglunba, against the imperial armies. In January 1402, Zhu Di began with his military campaign to capture
8175-423: The installation of the Jianwen Emperor's son as the new emperor. In response, Zhu Di allegedly ordered Fang to write a proclamation announcing the accession of the new emperor, but Fang refused, stating that he would rather die than serve a usurper. Fang was later seen as an example of a loyal servant who remained faithful to his master under all circumstances. Another example is Liu Jing (1340–1402), son of Liu Ji ,
8284-402: The largest claimed Zheng He treasure ship, they were not wide enough to fit even a ship half the claimed size. The basin was only 41 metres (135 ft) wide at most, with only a 10 metres (33 ft) width showing evidence of structures. They were also not deep enough, being only 4 metres (13 ft) deep. Other remains of ships in the site indicate that the ships were only slightly larger than
8393-587: The meantime, he asked for mercy for his close friend Zhu Su and begged for the restoration of their broken relationship. He refrained from openly hostile actions because his three sons had been residing at the Nanjing court since the funeral of the Hongwu Emperor, effectively holding them as hostages. The emperor considered granting his pleas, supported by Qi Tai, but Huang Zicheng demanded forceful action. The emperor hesitated to respond to Zhu Di's requests while also systematically reducing his uncle's power. He recalled his personal guard of 15,000 men to Kaiping, north of
8502-504: The next three decades he conducted seven of the voyages on behalf of the emperor, trading and collecting tribute in the western Pacific and Indian Oceans. In 1424, Zheng He traveled to Palembang in Sumatra to confer an official seal and letter of appointment upon Shi Jisun, who was placed in the office of Pacification Commissioner. The Taizong Shilu 27 February 1424 entry reports that Shi Jisun had sent Qiu Yancheng as envoy to petition
8611-400: The north, like the Prince of Yan. The power of the goddess , having indeed been manifested in previous times, has been abundantly revealed in the present generation. In the midst of the rushing waters it happened that, when there was a hurricane, suddenly a divine lantern was seen shining at the masthead, and as soon as that miraculous light appeared the danger was appeased, so that even in
8720-471: The northern part of Zhili . As a result, the government was forced to withdraw its troops from Beiping province and the city of Dezhou in order to defend Zhili. In April 1402, the rebel army moved to Suzhou , located in northern Anhui (at that time part of Zhili). They defeated Ping An's cavalry, who attempted to stop them. However, on 23 May, they suffered a defeat at the hands of Xu Huizu on Mount Qimei. The emperor's sudden dismissal of Xu Huizu unsettled
8829-419: The ocean currents and winds required of a sailing chart, rather than a formal map. The analysis also suggests that Arabic-speaking pilots with a detailed knowledge of the African coast were involved in the cartography. There is little attempt to provide an accurate 2-D representation; instead, the sailing instructions are given using a 24-point compass system with a Chinese symbol for each point, together with
8938-459: The ocean huge waves like mountains rising in the sky, and we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away hidden in a blue transparency of light vapors, while our sails, loftily unfurled like clouds day and night, continued their course [as rapidly] as a star, traversing those savage waves as if we were treading a public thoroughfare.... Zheng He's sailing charts, the Mao Kun map , were published in
9047-401: The official. According to Dreyer (2007) , the nature of the emperor's words indicated that Zheng He's behaviour in the situation was the last straw, but there is too little information about what had happened earlier. Nevertheless, the Xuande Emperor would eventually come to trust Zheng He. In 1430, the new Xuande Emperor appointed Zheng He to command over a seventh and final expedition into
9156-549: The pass from Kaiping, ultimately defeating and killing him at Huailai. Many of the general's soldiers defected to Zhu Di's side, having previously served under him. Zhu Di justified his actions by claiming that he needed to punish treacherous court officials. He referred to this as the Jingnan campaign, a campaign to clear away disorders, and defended his actions in letters sent to the court in August and December 1399, as well as in
9265-516: The patron goddess of sailors and seafarers, was the dominant faith to which he adhered, reflecting the goddess's central role to the treasure fleet . John Guy mentions, "When Zheng He, the Muslim eunuch leader of the great expeditions to the 'Western Ocean' (Indian Ocean) in the early fifteenth century, embarked on his voyages, it was from the Divine Woman that he sought protection, as well as at
9374-409: The peril of capsizing one felt reassured and that there was no cause for fear. — Admiral Zheng He and his associates (Changle inscription) about witnessing Tianfei 's divine lantern, which represented the natural phenomena Saint Elmo's fire Zheng He's appearance as an adult was recorded: he was seven chi tall, had a waist that was five chi in circumference, cheeks and a forehead that
9483-526: The rebels back to the north. However, in October, the rebels were able to push government troops back to the south. On 15 January 1402, Zhu Di launched a new offensive. Based on the counsel of sympathetic Nanjing eunuchs, he chose not to advance through the fortified cities along the Grand Canal, as he had done in previous years. Instead, he headed west where the government forces were weaker. He passed through Baoding and Zhending, bypassing Dezhou, and crossed
9592-530: The resulting conflicts, the imperial palace was set on fire. After the flames were extinguished, three charred bodies were discovered and identified as those of the emperor, empress, and their eldest son. On 17 July, Zhu Di ascended the imperial throne as the successor of the Hongwu Emperor and adopted the era name Yongle, which means "perpetual happiness". He denied the legitimacy of his overthrown nephew, abolished his reforms, and attempted to erase them from history entirely. In addition, he retroactively abolished
9701-454: The rights of the princes. After taking the throne, he restored the titles of the princes of Zhou, Qi, and Min, but without granting them the same power as before. However, in the latter half of his reign, the Yongle Emperor began to treat the princes in the same manner as the Jianwen Emperor, whom he had condemned. He removed bodyguards from almost all of them and accused several of his own brothers of criminal acts, punishing them accordingly. As
9810-480: The south perishing due to exhaustion from the long march and harsh weather conditions. In May, the two armies, consisting of a total of 600,000 soldiers, engaged in the battle of Baoding in central Beiping. Li Jinglong attempted to outflank the enemy, but the maneuver was hindered by heavy rains and floods. The government army suffered significant casualties and was forced to retreat in disarray to Dezhou on 30 May, and then continued south to Jinan . Zhu Di then faced
9919-476: The southern region of Beiping province, Zhu Di launched a new offensive in late February. On 5 and 6 April, Sheng Yong was defeated at Jiahe (located north of the Hutuo River near Dezhou). The rebels were aided by a storm from the northeast, which hindered the government troops. According to folk legend, the storm was summoned by Taoist monks advising Zhu Di. However, Zhu Di was unable to capture Dezhou, where
10028-436: The surname Zheng conferred onto him by the Yongle Emperor ( r. 1402–1424 ). Between 1405 and 1433, Zheng commanded seven treasure voyages across Asia under the commission of the Yongle Emperor and the succeeding Xuande Emperor ( r. 1425–1435 ). According to legend, Zheng's largest ships were almost twice as long as any wooden ship ever recorded, and carried hundreds of sailors on four decks. A favorite of
10137-440: The throne as the third emperor of the Ming dynasty. Upon assuming power, he made efforts to erase the legacy of the Jianwen Emperor by removing his supporters from positions of authority and reversing his reforms. Despite initially rebelling in the name of protecting the rights of the princes, Zhu Di adopted a similar oppressive stance towards them as the Jianwen Emperor and gradually stripped them of their political influence. After
10246-401: The throne of the Ming dynasty at the young age of twenty-one, much younger than his uncles who were the sons of the Hongwu Emperor. His uncles were granted the titles of princes ( wang ) and were given significant income and privileges by their father. They were stationed in various provinces and had a personal guard of three to fifteen thousand men at their disposal. Some of them even commanded
10355-465: The title hajji , and his father had the sinicized surname Ma and the title hajji , which suggests that they had made the pilgrimage to Mecca . In the autumn of 1381, a Ming army invaded and conquered Yunnan , which was then ruled by the Mongol prince Basalawarmi , Prince of Liang. In 1381, Ma Hajji, Zheng He's father, died in the fighting between the Ming armies and Mongol forces. Dreyer states that Zheng He's father died at 39 while resisting
10464-565: The tombs of the Muslim saints on Lingshan Hill, above the city of Quanzhou." Zheng He was a great-great-great-grandson of Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar , who served in the administration of the Mongol Empire and was the governor of Yunnan during the early Yuan dynasty . His great-grandfather Bayan may have been stationed at a Mongol garrison in Yunnan. Zheng He's grandfather carried
10573-496: The translator Ma Huan in 1416, gives very detailed accounts of his observations of people's customs and lives in the ports that they visited. He referred to the expatriate Chinese as " Tang " people ( 唐人 ; Tángrén ). The fleet did not engage in conquest or colonization; though it included troops, their purpose was to demonstrate the Middle Kingdom's strength. However, a contemporary reported that Zheng He "walked like
10682-581: The treasure fleet's last voyage. Although he has a tomb in China, it is empty since he was buried at sea . Zheng He led seven expeditions to the "Western" or Indian Ocean. Zheng He brought back to China many trophies and envoys from more than thirty kingdoms, including King Vira Alakeshwara of Ceylon , who came to China as a captive to apologize to the Emperor for offenses against his mission. Zheng He wrote of his travels: We have traversed more than 100,000 li of immense water spaces and have beheld in
10791-413: The treasure ships might have been as long as 183 m (600 ft). The claims that the Chinese treasure ships reached such size is disputed because other 17th century Ming records stated that European East Indiamen and galleons were 30, 40, 50, and 60 zhang (90, 120, 150, and 180 m) in length. It is also possible that the measure of zhang (丈) used in the conversions was mistaken. The length of
10900-615: The use of so many linguists that a foreign language institute was established at Nanjing. Zheng He's first voyage departed 11 July 1405, from Suzhou and consisted of a fleet of 317 ships holding almost 28,000 crewmen. Zheng He's fleets visited Brunei , Java , Siam (Thailand), Southeast Asia , India, the Horn of Africa , and Arabia , dispensing and receiving goods along the way. Zheng He presented gifts of gold, silver, porcelain , and silk, and in return, China received such novelties as ostriches , zebras , camels , and ivory from
11009-435: The usurper. They were ordered to follow their master, including their clients and household members. The case of Fang Xiaoru serves as an illustration. Initially, Zhu Di had no intention of killing him and even made a promise to his mentor Dao Yan that he would not harm him. However, after the capture of Nanjing, Fang was paraded and offered a position in the civil service. Fang, however, accused Zhu Di of rebellion and demanded
11118-512: Was a decisive and exceptionally capable commander, leading an elite group of Ming soldiers, including a large contingent of Mongolian cavalry. On the other hand, the imperial party was weakened by the indecisiveness and poor coordination of its commanders, as well as the conflicting views between those who supported aggressive tactics and those who favored conciliatory approaches. Additionally, the emperor and his closest ministers lacked military experience. The war officially began in August 1399 when
11227-417: Was captured by the Ming armies in Yunnan in 1381. General Fu Youde saw Ma He on a road and approached him to inquire about the location of the Mongol pretender. Ma He responded defiantly by saying that the Mongol pretender had jumped into a lake. Then the general took him prisoner. He was castrated between the ages of 10 and 14, and placed in the service of the Prince of Yan. Ma He was sent to serve in
11336-533: Was halted on 1 July by Sheng Yong's fleet at Pukou on the Yangtze River. Two days later, the fleet commander Chen Xuan ( 陳瑄 ; 1365–1433) defected to the rebels. This allowed them to cross the river and have an open road to Nanjing. The Jianwen Emperor had previously called upon armies from the north and was currently recruiting new soldiers to protect the capital. With 200,000 troops stationed in Nanjing and its surrounding areas, Zhu Di cautiously approached
11445-437: Was high, a small nose, glaring eyes, teeth that were white and well-shaped as shells, and a voice that was as loud as a bell. It is also recorded that he had great knowledge about warfare and was well-accustomed to battle. The young eunuch eventually became a trusted adviser to the prince and assisted him when the Jianwen Emperor 's hostility to his uncle's feudal bases prompted the 1399–1402 Jingnan Campaign , which ended with
11554-415: Was obligated to restore the law and legality that had been subverted by the new government. At the onset of the war, Zhu Di commanded a force of 100,000 soldiers and only held control over the immediate vicinity of Beijing. In contrast, the Nanjing government had three times the number of troops and significantly more resources. However, the government's superiority was not as clear-cut as it seemed. Zhu Di
11663-524: Was that the 44 zhang treasure ships were used only by the Emperor and imperial bureaucrats to travel along the Yangtze for court business, including reviewing Zheng He's expedition fleet. The Yangtze river, with its calmer waters, may have been navigable by these treasure ships. Zheng He, a court eunuch, would not have had the privilege in rank to command the largest of the ships, seaworthy or not. The main ships of Zheng He's fleet were instead six-masted 2000-liao ships. That would give burthen of 500 tons and
11772-499: Was the oldest and most influential of the Hongwu Emperor's sons. He was based in Beijing , and during the campaigns against the Mongols, he proved himself to be a capable military leader and an energetic administrator. Despite not being named as a successor in 1392, he considered himself unjustly neglected. Zhu Di was the obvious next target, but the government was cautious towards him, giving him time to prepare and gather forces. In
11881-433: Was unable to conquer the well-fortified city and eventually retreated. In response to Geng's failure, the court replaced him with General Li Jinglong , but the new commander did not improve the management of the troops. Instead of launching offensive actions, he waited and gathered troops in an attempt to later crush the enemy with numerical superiority. In mid-October, Zhu Di left Beijing to recruit new soldiers, leaving
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