Wittdün ( Öömrang : Witjdün , Danish : Vitdyn, also Hvidklit ) is a municipality on the island of Amrum in the district of Nordfriesland in Schleswig-Holstein , Germany .
101-427: Unlike the other villages of Amrum, Wittdün is a relatively young settlement. It was founded in 1890 as a seaside resort next to a new ferry port connecting the island to mainland Nordfriesland. The reason for founding this new village was the fear of many islanders of a decline of their Frisian culture due to the influx of tourists from the south. So, many Amrumers thought that concentrating the emerging seaside tourism in
202-455: A diving chamber or decompression chamber . However, as one rises above sea level the density of the air decreases exponentially (see Fig. 14), halving approximately with every 5500 m rise in altitude . Since the composition of the atmospheric air is almost constant below 80 km, as a result of the continuous mixing effect of the weather, the concentration of oxygen in the air (mmols O 2 per liter of ambient air) decreases at
303-427: A fibrinolytic system that dissolves clots that may have arrived in the pulmonary circulation by embolism , often from the deep veins in the legs. They also release a variety of substances that enter the systemic arterial blood, and they remove other substances from the systemic venous blood that reach them via the pulmonary artery. Some prostaglandins are removed from the circulation, while others are synthesized in
404-405: A partial pressure of carbon dioxide of 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg) (i.e. the same as the oxygen and carbon dioxide gas tensions as in the alveoli). As mentioned in the section above , the corresponding partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the ambient (dry) air at sea level are 21 kPa (160 mmHg) and 0.04 kPa (0.3 mmHg) respectively. This marked difference between
505-436: A respiratory acidosis , or a respiratory alkalosis will occur. In the long run these can be compensated by renal adjustments to the H and HCO 3 concentrations in the plasma ; but since this takes time, the hyperventilation syndrome can, for instance, occur when agitation or anxiety cause a person to breathe fast and deeply thus causing a distressing respiratory alkalosis through the blowing off of too much CO 2 from
606-407: A much more even distribution of blood flow to the lungs than occurs at sea level. At sea level, the pulmonary arterial pressure is very low, with the result that the tops of the lungs receive far less blood than the bases , which are relatively over-perfused with blood. It is only in the middle of the lungs that the blood and air flow to the alveoli are ideally matched . At altitude, this variation in
707-572: A museum of local history which also features exhibitions of works by various artists during the summer months. It is a Dutch horizontal type mill which was in use until 1962. Pastor Erich Pörksen saved the building from being torn down by founding a society for the preservation of the Amrum windmill in 1963. The mill is still operable today. Opposite of the windmill, the Graveyard of the Homeless
808-480: A normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human, there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation. The automatic rhythmical breathing in and out, can be interrupted by coughing, sneezing (forms of very forceful exhalation), by the expression of a wide range of emotions (laughing, sighing, crying out in pain, exasperated intakes of breath) and by such voluntary acts as speech, singing, whistling and
909-417: A number of artifacts. Among them a Gothic wooden group of apostles called "The Divine Sacrament" which allegedly had been washed ashore during a storm surge . The baptismal font hails from Roman times. The narrow nave , which includes by a low gallery along its flank and over the entrance, communicates the vision of a ship's hull. Also worth a sight is the graveyard of this very church with its tombs from
1010-428: A partial pressure of CO 2 of also about 6 kPa (45 mmHg), whereas that of the alveolar air is 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg), there is a net movement of carbon dioxide out of the capillaries into the alveoli. The changes brought about by these net flows of individual gases into and out of the alveolar air necessitate the replacement of about 15% of the alveolar air with ambient air every 5 seconds or so. This
1111-464: A rise in arterial blood pressure . Large amounts of the angiotensin-converting enzyme responsible for this activation are located on the surfaces of the endothelial cells of the alveolar capillaries. The converting enzyme also inactivates bradykinin . Circulation time through the alveolar capillaries is less than one second, yet 70% of the angiotensin I reaching the lungs is converted to angiotensin II in
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#17328019337831212-424: A single trip through the capillaries. Four other peptidases have been identified on the surface of the pulmonary endothelial cells. The movement of gas through the larynx , pharynx and mouth allows humans to speak , or phonate . Vocalization, or singing, in birds occurs via the syrinx , an organ located at the base of the trachea. The vibration of air flowing across the larynx ( vocal cords ), in humans, and
1313-669: A single village would protect the local community from malign influences. Until December 31, 2006, the Wittdün municipality, together with Nebel and Norddorf formed the Amt Amrum. Since the municipal elections of 2008, the Wittdüner Bürgerblock holds five seats of Wittdün's council, the CDU holds two. Wittdün is a seaside resort , tourism is the main source of income. In 2005, 374,000 lodgings were registered. There
1414-399: A variety of molecules that aid in the defense of the lungs. These include secretory immunoglobulins (IgA), collectins , defensins and other peptides and proteases , reactive oxygen species , and reactive nitrogen species . These secretions can act directly as antimicrobials to help keep the airway free of infection. A variety of chemokines and cytokines are also secreted that recruit
1515-432: A very rich blood supply, thus bringing the air into close contact with the blood. These air sacs communicate with the external environment via a system of airways, or hollow tubes, of which the largest is the trachea , which branches in the middle of the chest into the two main bronchi . These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes,
1616-419: A watery surface (the water-air interface) tends to make that surface shrink. When that surface is curved as it is in the alveoli of the lungs, the shrinkage of the surface decreases the diameter of the alveoli. The more acute the curvature of the water-air interface the greater the tendency for the alveolus to collapse . This has three effects. Firstly, the surface tension inside the alveoli resists expansion of
1717-559: A wide range of circumstances, at the expense of the arterial partial pressure of O 2 , which is allowed to vary within a very wide range of values, before eliciting a corrective ventilatory response. However, when the atmospheric pressure (and therefore the partial pressure of O 2 in the ambient air) falls to below 50-75% of its value at sea level, oxygen homeostasis is given priority over carbon dioxide homeostasis. This switch-over occurs at an elevation of about 2500 m (or about 8000 ft). If this switch occurs relatively abruptly,
1818-569: Is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants . The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies greatly, depending on the size of the organism, the environment in which it lives and its evolutionary history. In land animals , the respiratory surface is internalized as linings of the lungs . Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs; in mammals and reptiles, these are called alveoli , and in birds, they are known as atria . These microscopic air sacs have
1919-473: Is a modern aluminium construction of 9.6 m height. Due to its location, this leading light for the Norderaue channel has a height of 16 m above mean high tide sea level and carries as far as 19.5 nautical miles (36.1 km). The Öömrang Hüs at Waaswai 1, Nebel, is a largely original ancient Frisian house from around 1751 which is owned by the folklore society Öömrang Ferian . The original owner
2020-499: Is a sea water swimming pool and a centre for thalassotherapy . Moreover, Amrum's youth hostel is located in Wittdün. The village hosts Amrum's only ferry terminal. Nebel, Germany Nebel ( German pronunciation: [ˈneːbl̩] ; Öömrang : Neebel , Danish : Nebel or Nybøl ) is a municipality on the island of Amrum in the district of Nordfriesland in Schleswig-Holstein , Germany . Until
2121-456: Is a sign of, illness. ) It ends in the microscopic dead-end sacs called alveoli , which are always open, though the diameters of the various sections can be changed by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems . The alveolar air pressure is therefore always close to atmospheric air pressure (about 100 kPa at sea level) at rest, with the pressure gradients because of lungs contraction and expansion cause air to move in and out of
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#17328019337832222-404: Is a small harbour. Nebel was presumably founded in the early 16th century. It is thought that the name is derived from the words nei and bel , where the former means "new" and the latter is based on the ancient Danish term boli , "settlement" (confer Niebüll and Nieblum ). The church of St. Clement was built in 1236 and was standing between the villages of Norddorf and Süddorf prior to
2323-476: Is a small port for minor freight vessels and for yachts below 12 m of length. The oldest house on Amrum, the former inn Zum lustigen Seehund ("The Merry Seal") is located in Steenodde, it was constructed in 1720. Süddorf (Öömr.: Sössaarep , Dan.: Sydtorp ) was first recorded in 1446 and is therefore thought to be the oldest hamlet on the isle. The sailor Hark Olufs , a native of Süddorf, became famous in
2424-442: Is at sea level). This reduces the partial pressure of oxygen entering the alveoli to 5.8 kPa (or 21% of [33.7 kPa – 6.3 kPa] = 5.8 kPa). The reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen in the inhaled air is therefore substantially greater than the reduction of the total atmospheric pressure at altitude would suggest (on Mt Everest: 5.8 kPa vs. 7.1 kPa). A further minor complication exists at altitude. If
2525-426: Is breathed in or out, either through the mouth or nose or into or out of the alveoli are tabulated below, together with how they are calculated. The number of breath cycles per minute is known as the respiratory rate . An average healthy human breathes 12–16 times a minute. In mammals , inhalation at rest is primarily due to the contraction of the diaphragm . This is an upwardly domed sheet of muscle that separates
2626-405: Is determined by the blood gas homeostat , which regulates the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This homeostat prioritizes the regulation of the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide over that of oxygen at sea level. That is to say, at sea level the arterial partial pressure of CO 2 is maintained at very close to 5.3 kPa (or 40 mmHg) under
2727-505: Is divided into an upper and a lower respiratory tract . The upper tract includes the nose , nasal cavities , sinuses , pharynx and the part of the larynx above the vocal folds . The lower tract (Fig. 2.) includes the lower part of the larynx , the trachea , bronchi , bronchioles and the alveoli . The branching airways of the lower tract are often described as the respiratory tree or tracheobronchial tree (Fig. 2). The intervals between successive branch points along
2828-450: Is fatal. Basic scientific experiments, carried out using cells from chicken lungs, support the potential for using steroids as a means of furthering the development of type II alveolar cells. In fact, once a premature birth is threatened, every effort is made to delay the birth, and a series of steroid injections is frequently administered to the mother during this delay in an effort to promote lung maturation. The lung vessels contain
2929-570: Is fresh warm and moistened air. Since this 350 ml of fresh air is thoroughly mixed and diluted by the air that remains in the alveoli after a normal exhalation (i.e. the functional residual capacity of about 2.5–3.0 liters), it is clear that the composition of the alveolar air changes very little during the breathing cycle (see Fig. 9). The oxygen tension (or partial pressure) remains close to 13–14 kPa (about 100 mm Hg), and that of carbon dioxide very close to 5.3 kPa (or 40 mm Hg). This contrasts with composition of
3030-788: Is kept in the archives of the North Elbian Evangelical Church at Kiel and is infrequently displayed in the churchhouse. Tourism is the most important economical factor. In 2005, 35,470 guests were registered in the municipality of Nebel with 341,371 overnight stays. These numbers do not include patients and their company of the Satteldüne sanitorium. Nebel is the municipality with the highest proportion of secondary residences in Schleswig-Holstein. Respiratory system The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus , ventilatory system )
3131-428: Is located, where unidentified drowned persons are buried. Most graves date back to the early 20th century, the youngest being from 1969. Since then, all bodies washed ashore on Amrum's beaches could reliably be identified due to improved forensic techniques. Each tomb is decorated with a simple wooden cross into which the date of the body's retrieval from the sea is carved. The navigational light "Nebel", erected in 1981,
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3232-441: Is no unidirectional through-flow as there is in the bird lung ). This typical mammalian anatomy combined with the fact that the lungs are not emptied and re-inflated with each breath (leaving a substantial volume of air, of about 2.5–3.0 liters, in the alveoli after exhalation), ensures that the composition of the alveolar air is only minimally disturbed when the 350 ml of fresh air is mixed into it with each inhalation. Thus
3333-423: Is restored. Since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a partial pressure of O 2 of, on average, 6 kPa (45 mmHg), while the pressure in the alveolar air is 13–14 kPa (100 mmHg), there will be a net diffusion of oxygen into the capillary blood, changing the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air slightly. Similarly, since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has
3434-493: Is therefore almost the same at the end of exhalation as at the end of inhalation. Thirdly, the surface tension of the curved watery layer lining the alveoli tends to draw water from the lung tissues into the alveoli. Surfactant reduces this danger to negligible levels, and keeps the alveoli dry. Pre-term babies who are unable to manufacture surfactant have lungs that tend to collapse each time they breathe out. Unless treated, this condition, called respiratory distress syndrome ,
3535-478: Is very tightly controlled by the monitoring of the arterial blood gases (which accurately reflect composition of the alveolar air) by the aortic and carotid bodies , as well as by the blood gas and pH sensor on the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata in the brain. There are also oxygen and carbon dioxide sensors in the lungs, but they primarily determine the diameters of the bronchioles and pulmonary capillaries , and are therefore responsible for directing
3636-427: The arterial blood . This information determines the average rate of ventilation of the alveoli of the lungs , to keep these pressures constant . The respiratory center does so via motor nerves which activate the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration . The breathing rate increases when the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood increases. This is detected by central blood gas chemoreceptors on
3737-437: The bronchioles . In birds , the bronchioles are termed parabronchi . It is the bronchioles, or parabronchi that generally open into the microscopic alveoli in mammals and atria in birds. Air has to be pumped from the environment into the alveoli or atria by the process of breathing which involves the muscles of respiration . In most fish , and a number of other aquatic animals (both vertebrates and invertebrates ),
3838-463: The endothelial cells of the alveolar capillaries (Fig. 10). This blood gas barrier is extremely thin (in humans, on average, 2.2 μm thick). It is folded into about 300 million small air sacs called alveoli (each between 75 and 300 μm in diameter) branching off from the respiratory bronchioles in the lungs , thus providing an extremely large surface area (approximately 145 m ) for gas exchange to occur. The air contained within
3939-410: The red blood cells . The reaction can go in both directions depending on the prevailing partial pressure of CO 2 . A small amount of carbon dioxide is carried on the protein portion of the hemoglobin molecules as carbamino groups. The total concentration of carbon dioxide (in the form of bicarbonate ions, dissolved CO 2 , and carbamino groups) in arterial blood (i.e. after it has equilibrated with
4040-532: The respiratory system of children and adolescents. Moreover, Amrum's school house, the Öömrang Skuul with elementary and secondary divisions, is located in this part of Nebel. South of Süddorf, still within the municipality's limits, the Amrum lighthouse is located. It took up service on January 1, 1875 and it has got the second-highest navigational light along the German North Sea shores next to
4141-405: The skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants includes anatomical features such as stomata , that are found in various parts of the plant. In humans and other mammals , the anatomy of a typical respiratory system is the respiratory tract . The tract
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4242-509: The trachea or nose , respectively. In this manner, irritants caught in the mucus which lines the respiratory tract are expelled or moved to the mouth where they can be swallowed . During coughing, contraction of the smooth muscle in the airway walls narrows the trachea by pulling the ends of the cartilage plates together and by pushing soft tissue into the lumen. This increases the expired airflow rate to dislodge and remove any irritant particle or mucus. Respiratory epithelium can secrete
4343-428: The ventilation/perfusion ratio of alveoli from the tops of the lungs to the bottoms is eliminated, with all the alveoli perfused and ventilated in more or less the physiologically ideal manner. This is a further important contributor to the acclimatatization to high altitudes and low oxygen pressures. The kidneys measure the oxygen content (mmol O 2 /liter blood, rather than the partial pressure of O 2 ) of
4444-465: The 18th century while serving the Bey of Constantine, Algeria . In the late 19th century, a windmill was erected on an old grave mound. It had already been built in 1775 on the neighbouring island of Sylt but was later relocated to Süddorf. Today it is used as a dwelling house. On the southwestern edge of Süddorf, there is the Satteldüne sanitorium , which specialises in the treatment of diseases of
4545-460: The 19.7 kPa of oxygen entering the alveolar air. (The tracheal partial pressure of oxygen is 21% of [100 kPa – 6.3 kPa] = 19.7 kPa). At the summit of Mt. Everest (at an altitude of 8,848 m or 29,029 ft), the total atmospheric pressure is 33.7 kPa , of which 7.1 kPa (or 21%) is oxygen. The air entering the lungs also has a total pressure of 33.7 kPa, of which 6.3 kPa is, unavoidably, water vapor (as it
4646-437: The actions of the intercostal muscles (Fig. 8). These accessory muscles of inhalation are muscles that extend from the cervical vertebrae and base of the skull to the upper ribs and sternum , sometimes through an intermediary attachment to the clavicles . When they contract, the rib cage's internal volume is increased to a far greater extent than can be achieved by contraction of the intercostal muscles alone. Seen from outside
4747-423: The adult human has a volume of about 2.5–3.0 liters (Fig. 3). Resting exhalation lasts about twice as long as inhalation because the diaphragm relaxes passively more gently than it contracts actively during inhalation. The volume of air that moves in or out (at the nose or mouth) during a single breathing cycle is called the tidal volume . In a resting adult human, it is about 500 ml per breath. At
4848-453: The alveolar air) is about 26 mM (or 58 ml/100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml/100 ml blood). Ventilation of the lungs in mammals occurs via the respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and the pons of the brainstem . These areas form a series of neural pathways which receive information about the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
4949-460: The alveolar partial pressure of carbon dioxide has returned to 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide "waste". The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body's extracellular fluid carbon dioxide and pH homeostats If these homeostats are compromised, then
5050-423: The alveoli during inhalation (i.e. it makes the lung stiff, or non-compliant). Surfactant reduces the surface tension and therefore makes the lungs more compliant , or less stiff, than if it were not there. Secondly, the diameters of the alveoli increase and decrease during the breathing cycle. This means that the alveoli have a greater tendency to collapse (i.e. cause atelectasis ) at the end of exhalation than at
5151-454: The alveoli has a semi-permanent volume of about 2.5–3.0 liters which completely surrounds the alveolar capillary blood (Fig. 12). This ensures that equilibration of the partial pressures of the gases in the two compartments is very efficient and occurs very quickly. The blood leaving the alveolar capillaries and is eventually distributed throughout the body therefore has a partial pressure of oxygen of 13–14 kPa (100 mmHg), and
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#17328019337835252-400: The ambient atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, the moistened air that flows into the lungs from the trachea consists of water vapor (6.3 kPa), nitrogen (74.0 kPa), oxygen (19.7 kPa) and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases (a total of 100 kPa). In dry air the partial pressure of O 2 at sea level is 21.0 kPa (i.e. 21% of 100 kPa), compared to
5353-414: The animal is provided with a very special "portable atmosphere", whose composition differs significantly from the present-day ambient air . It is this portable atmosphere (the functional residual capacity ) to which the blood and therefore the body tissues are exposed – not to the outside air. The resulting arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide are homeostatically controlled . A rise in
5454-454: The anterior surface of the medulla oblongata . The aortic and carotid bodies , are the peripheral blood gas chemoreceptors which are particularly sensitive to the arterial partial pressure of O 2 though they also respond, but less strongly, to the partial pressure of CO 2 . At sea level, under normal circumstances, the breathing rate and depth, is determined primarily by the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide rather than by
5555-473: The antero-posterior diameter is increased by the so-called pump handle movement shown in Fig. 4. The enlargement of the thoracic cavity's vertical dimension by the contraction of the diaphragm, and its two horizontal dimensions by the lifting of the front and sides of the ribs, causes the intrathoracic pressure to fall. The lungs' interiors are open to the outside air and being elastic, therefore expand to fill
5656-439: The arterial partial pressure of oxygen , which is allowed to vary within a fairly wide range before the respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and pons respond to it to change the rate and depth of breathing. Exercise increases the breathing rate due to the extra carbon dioxide produced by the enhanced metabolism of the exercising muscles. In addition, passive movements of the limbs also reflexively produce an increase in
5757-435: The arterial blood. When the oxygen content of the blood is chronically low, as at high altitude, the oxygen-sensitive kidney cells secrete erythropoietin (EPO) into the blood. This hormone stimulates the red bone marrow to increase its rate of red cell production, which leads to an increase in the hematocrit of the blood, and a consequent increase in its oxygen carrying capacity (due to the now high hemoglobin content of
5858-447: The arterial partial pressure of CO 2 and, to a lesser extent, a fall in the arterial partial pressure of O 2 , will reflexly cause deeper and faster breathing until the blood gas tensions in the lungs, and therefore the arterial blood, return to normal. The converse happens when the carbon dioxide tension falls, or, again to a lesser extent, the oxygen tension rises: the rate and depth of breathing are reduced until blood gas normality
5959-538: The belly to bulge outwards to the front and sides, because the relaxed abdominal muscles do not resist this movement (Fig. 7). This entirely passive bulging (and shrinking during exhalation) of the abdomen during normal breathing is sometimes referred to as "abdominal breathing", although it is, in fact, "diaphragmatic breathing", which is not visible on the outside of the body. Mammals only use their abdominal muscles during forceful exhalation (see Fig. 8, and discussion below). Never during any form of inhalation. As
6060-451: The blood into the outside air. Oxygen has a very low solubility in water, and is therefore carried in the blood loosely combined with hemoglobin . The oxygen is held on the hemoglobin by four ferrous iron -containing heme groups per hemoglobin molecule. When all the heme groups carry one O 2 molecule each the blood is said to be “saturated” with oxygen, and no further increase in the partial pressure of oxygen will meaningfully increase
6161-449: The blood). In other words, at the same arterial partial pressure of O 2 , a person with a high hematocrit carries more oxygen per liter of blood than a person with a lower hematocrit does. High altitude dwellers therefore have higher hematocrits than sea-level residents. Irritation of nerve endings within the nasal passages or airways , can induce a cough reflex and sneezing . These responses cause air to be expelled forcefully from
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#17328019337836262-425: The body, the lifting of the clavicles during strenuous or labored inhalation is sometimes called clavicular breathing , seen especially during asthma attacks and in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease . During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling
6363-405: The breathing cycle, drawing air in and out of the lungs. The volume of air moved in or out of the lungs under normal resting circumstances (the resting tidal volume of about 500 ml), and volumes moved during maximally forced inhalation and maximally forced exhalation are measured in humans by spirometry . A typical adult human spirogram with the names given to the various excursions in volume
6464-418: The breathing rate. Information received from stretch receptors in the lungs' limits tidal volume (the depth of inhalation and exhalation). The alveoli are open (via the airways) to the atmosphere, with the result that alveolar air pressure is exactly the same as the ambient air pressure at sea level, at altitude, or in any artificial atmosphere (e.g. a diving chamber, or decompression chamber) in which
6565-406: The composition of the alveolar air and that of the ambient air can be maintained because the functional residual capacity is contained in dead-end sacs connected to the outside air by fairly narrow and relatively long tubes (the airways: nose , pharynx , larynx , trachea , bronchi and their branches down to the bronchioles ), through which the air has to be breathed both in and out (i.e. there
6666-399: The diaphragm contracts, the rib cage is simultaneously enlarged by the ribs being pulled upwards by the intercostal muscles as shown in Fig. 4. All the ribs slant downwards from the rear to the front (as shown in Fig. 4); but the lowermost ribs also slant downwards from the midline outwards (Fig. 5). Thus the rib cage's transverse diameter can be increased in the same way as
6767-432: The dry outside air at sea level, where the partial pressure of oxygen is 21 kPa (or 160 mm Hg) and that of carbon dioxide 0.04 kPa (or 0.3 mmHg). During heavy breathing ( hyperpnea ), as, for instance, during exercise, inhalation is brought about by a more powerful and greater excursion of the contracting diaphragm than at rest (Fig. 8). In addition, the " accessory muscles of inhalation " exaggerate
6868-424: The end of 2006, Nebel was the seat of the Amt Amrum and as such it was the administrative centre of the island of Amrum. Süddorf (Öömrang: Sössaarep ) and Steenodde ( Stianood ) are minor districts of Nebel. The western part of the village is called Westerheide. Nebel is situated on the bus line from Wittdün to Norddorf . Until 1939 Nebel had a rail head station of Amrum's island railway. In Steenodde, there
6969-419: The end of exhalation, the airways contain about 150 ml of alveolar air which is the first air that is breathed back into the alveoli during inhalation. This volume air that is breathed out of the alveoli and back in again is known as dead space ventilation, which has the consequence that of the 500 ml breathed into the alveoli with each breath only 350 ml (500 ml – 150 ml = 350 ml)
7070-405: The end of inhalation. Since surfactant floats on the watery surface, its molecules are more tightly packed together when the alveoli shrink during exhalation. This causes them to have a greater surface tension-lowering effect when the alveoli are small than when they are large (as at the end of inhalation, when the surfactant molecules are more widely spaced). The tendency for the alveoli to collapse
7171-513: The example given. The differences between the atmospheric and intrapulmonary pressures, driving air in and out of the lungs during the breathing cycle, are in the region of only 2–3 kPa. A doubling or more of these small pressure differences could be achieved only by very major changes in the breathing effort at high altitudes. All of the above influences of low atmospheric pressures on breathing are accommodated primarily by breathing deeper and faster ( hyperpnea ). The exact degree of hyperpnea
7272-425: The flow of air and blood to different parts of the lungs. It is only as a result of accurately maintaining the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation , respiration will be slowed down or halted until
7373-493: The foundation of Nebel. Steenodde (Öömrang: Stianood , Danish: Stenodde ) is the smallest hamlet on Amrum. It is directly located on the shore of the tidal flats of the Wadden Sea east of Amrum. Notable attractions include dolmens and grave mounds which are a common sight in the area. Steenodde has its own trafficable dock . The hamlet used to be a port for the ferry line Amrum- Halligen - Schlüttsiel , today there
7474-402: The hyperpnea at high altitude will cause a severe fall in the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, with a consequent rise in the pH of the arterial plasma . This is one contributor to high altitude sickness . On the other hand, if the switch to oxygen homeostasis is incomplete, then hypoxia may complicate the clinical picture with potentially fatal results. There are oxygen sensors in
7575-416: The increased space, pleura fluid between double-layered pleura covering of lungs helps in reducing friction while lungs expansion and contraction. The inflow of air into the lungs occurs via the respiratory airways (Fig. 2). In a healthy person, these airways begin with the nose . (It is possible to begin with the mouth, which is the backup breathing system. However, chronic mouth breathing leads to, or
7676-418: The individual is breathing freely. With expansion of the lungs the alveolar air occupies a larger volume, and its pressure falls proportionally , causing air to flow in through the airways, until the pressure in the alveoli is again at the ambient air pressure. The reverse happens during exhalation. This process (of inhalation and exhalation) is exactly the same at sea level, as on top of Mt. Everest , or in
7777-568: The light of Heligoland . The tower is built on a 27 m high dune . The fire itself is located at 63 m above sea level and carries as far as 23.3 nautical miles (43.2 km). The lighthouse is Amrum's most prominent building. Since the municipal elections of 2008, the Nebeler Bürgerblock holds seven seats, the CDU holds three and the SPD holds one seat of Nebel's municipality council. Another mill, built in 1771 by Erk Knudten, hosts
7878-430: The lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig. 8). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig. 8). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting "functional residual capacity". However, in
7979-476: The lungs and released into the blood when lung tissue is stretched. The lungs activate one hormone. The physiologically inactive decapeptide angiotensin I is converted to the aldosterone -releasing octapeptide, angiotensin II , in the pulmonary circulation. The reaction occurs in other tissues as well, but it is particularly prominent in the lungs. Angiotensin II also has a direct effect on arteriolar walls , causing arteriolar vasoconstriction , and consequently
8080-585: The lungs can undergo is illustrated below (Fig. 3): Not all the air in the lungs can be expelled during maximally forced exhalation ( ERV ). This is the residual volume (volume of air remaining even after a forced exhalation) of about 1.0–1.5 liters which cannot be measured by spirometry. Volumes that include the residual volume (i.e. functional residual capacity of about 2.5–3.0 liters, and total lung capacity of about 6 liters) can therefore also not be measured by spirometry. Their measurement requires special techniques. The rates at which air
8181-437: The lungs during breathing rarely exceeding 2–3 kPa. During exhalation, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax. This returns the chest and abdomen to a position determined by their anatomical elasticity. This is the "resting mid-position" of the thorax and abdomen (Fig. 7) when the lungs contain their functional residual capacity of air (the light blue area in the right hand illustration of Fig. 7), which in
8282-455: The opposite direction, through orifices in the pelvic floor. The abdominal muscles contract very powerfully, causing the pressure inside the abdomen and thorax to rise to extremely high levels. The Valsalva maneuver can be carried out voluntarily but is more generally a reflex elicited when attempting to empty the abdomen during, for instance, difficult defecation, or during childbirth. Breathing ceases during this maneuver. The primary purpose of
8383-446: The oxygen concentration of the blood. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO 3 ) in the plasma. However the conversion of dissolved CO 2 into HCO 3 (through the addition of water) is too slow for the rate at which the blood circulates through the tissues on the one hand, and through alveolar capillaries on the other. The reaction is therefore catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase , an enzyme inside
8484-479: The playing of wind instruments. All of these actions rely on the muscles described above, and their effects on the movement of air in and out of the lungs. Although not a form of breathing, the Valsalva maneuver involves the respiratory muscles. It is, in fact, a very forceful exhalatory effort against a tightly closed glottis , so that no air can escape from the lungs. Instead, abdominal contents are evacuated in
8585-519: The respiratory system consists of gills , which are either partially or completely external organs, bathed in the watery environment. This water flows over the gills by a variety of active or passive means. Gas exchange takes place in the gills which consist of thin or very flat filaments and lammellae which expose a very large surface area of highly vascularized tissue to the water. Other animals, such as insects , have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians , even
8686-443: The respiratory system is lined with mucous membranes that contain mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue , which produces white blood cells such as lymphocytes . The lungs make a surfactant , a surface-active lipoprotein complex (phospholipoprotein) formed by type II alveolar cells . It floats on the surface of the thin watery layer which lines the insides of the alveoli, reducing the water's surface tension. The surface tension of
8787-417: The respiratory system is the equalizing of the partial pressures of the respiratory gases in the alveolar air with those in the pulmonary capillary blood (Fig. 11). This process occurs by simple diffusion , across a very thin membrane (known as the blood–air barrier ), which forms the walls of the pulmonary alveoli (Fig. 10). It consists of the alveolar epithelial cells , their basement membranes and
8888-428: The same amount of oxygen to the lungs at altitude as at sea level. During inhalation, the air is warmed and saturated with water vapor during its passage through the nose passages and pharynx . Saturated water vapor pressure is dependent only on temperature. At a body core temperature of 37 °C it is 6.3 kPa (47.0 mmHg), irrespective of any other influences, including altitude. Thus at sea level, where
8989-539: The same change in lung volume at sea level results in a 50 kPa difference in pressure between the ambient air and the intrapulmonary air, whereas it result in a difference of only 25 kPa at 5500 m. The driving pressure forcing air into the lungs during inhalation is therefore halved at this altitude. The rate of inflow of air into the lungs during inhalation at sea level is therefore twice that which occurs at 5500 m. However, in reality, inhalation and exhalation occur far more gently and less abruptly than in
9090-480: The same rate as the fall in air pressure with altitude. Therefore, in order to breathe in the same amount of oxygen per minute, the person has to inhale a proportionately greater volume of air per minute at altitude than at sea level. This is achieved by breathing deeper and faster (i.e. hyperpnea ) than at sea level (see below). There is, however, a complication that increases the volume of air that needs to be inhaled per minute ( respiratory minute volume ) to provide
9191-413: The same route. A system such as this creates dead space , a volume of air (about 150 ml in the adult human) that fills the airways after exhalation and is breathed back into the alveoli before environmental air reaches them. At the end of inhalation, the airways are filled with environmental air, which is exhaled without coming in contact with the gas exchanger. The lungs expand and contract during
9292-422: The segmental bronchi (1 to 6 mm in diameter) are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi. Compared to the 23 number (on average) of branchings of the respiratory tree in the adult human, the mouse has only about 13 such branchings. The alveoli are the dead end terminals of the "tree", meaning that any air that enters them has to exit via
9393-445: The small airways lacking any cartilaginous support. The first bronchi to branch from the trachea are the right and left main bronchi. Second, only in diameter to the trachea (1.8 cm), these bronchi (1–1.4 cm in diameter) enter the lungs at each hilum , where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi known as lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi known as segmental bronchi. Further divisions of
9494-408: The smaller bronchi and bronchioles . In response to low partial pressures of oxygen in the inhaled air these sensors reflexively cause the pulmonary arterioles to constrict. (This is the exact opposite of the corresponding reflex in the tissues, where low arterial partial pressures of O 2 cause arteriolar vasodilation.) At altitude this causes the pulmonary arterial pressure to rise resulting in
9595-485: The soil, so bacteria could decompose the moss and lichen. The 36 m high church tower, tiled with copper plates, was only built in 1908. St. Clement's parish owns a rare copy of the Missale Slesvicense , a liturgical book printed in 1486 by Steffen Arndes. Only four exemplars of this book are preserved at all and it is thought to be the oldest book ever printed in Schleswig-Holstein and Denmark . The book
9696-409: The thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it contracts, the sheet flattens, (i.e. moves downwards as shown in Fig. 7) increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity in the antero-posterior axis. The contracting diaphragm pushes the abdominal organs downwards. But because the pelvic floor prevents the lowermost abdominal organs from moving in that direction, the pliable abdominal contents cause
9797-430: The times between 1670 and 1830. Not only do those tombstones depict ships, but they also contain a short narration on the life of the deceased. As of July 2008, the parish is facing conservational problems though. Especially lichen as well as moss are continuously destroying the ancient headstones. A professional cleansing is required but will be very costly. Thus ideas have been uttered to bury endangered tombstones into
9898-487: The traditional immune cells and others to the site of infections. Surfactant immune function is primarily attributed to two proteins: SP-A and SP-D. These proteins can bind to sugars on the surface of pathogens and thereby opsonize them for uptake by phagocytes. It also regulates inflammatory responses and interacts with the adaptive immune response. Surfactant degradation or inactivation may contribute to enhanced susceptibility to lung inflammation and infection. Most of
9999-473: The various branches of "tree" are often referred to as branching "generations", of which there are, in the adult human, about 23. The earlier generations (approximately generations 0–16), consisting of the trachea and the bronchi, as well as the larger bronchioles which simply act as air conduits , bringing air to the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli (approximately generations 17–23), where gas exchange takes place. Bronchioles are defined as
10100-444: The volume of the lungs were to be instantaneously doubled at the beginning of inhalation, the air pressure inside the lungs would be halved. This happens regardless of altitude. Thus, halving of the sea level air pressure (100 kPa) results in an intrapulmonary air pressure of 50 kPa. Doing the same at 5500 m, where the atmospheric pressure is only 50 kPa, the intrapulmonary air pressure falls to 25 kPa. Therefore,
10201-455: Was a sea captain who had his ship depicted on a tile mural in the house's living room. The home decor of former times is presented in the rooms of the Öömrang Hüs , which is opened to the public. In the attic, various exhibitions are held and one can celebrate official wedding ceremonies in the living room. The centre of Nebel is distinguished by further thatched 18th and 19th century homes. The equally thatched church of St. Clement hosts
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