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99-523: A group calling itself the Wild Magnolias, participating in the local " Indian masking " traditions and performing New Orleans Mardi Gras music, extends at least back into the 1950s. The group's lead member was called the Big Chief, and at least three Big Chiefs are known to have headed the band for short stints prior to 1964: Leon, Flap, and Joe Lee Davis. In 1964, Bo Dollis became Big Chief of

198-459: A tomahawk , bows and arrows, spears, red candles and cloth, and pictures of Native Americans on horseback. In one spiritual church a three-foot-high Indian statue is decorated with a Mardi Gras Indian headdress and bead patches. Some participates believe the mediums of the church become possessed by the spirits of Indians. One church minister dressed as a Mardi Gras Indian to summon the spirits of Black Hawk and Reverend Adams that resulted in

297-426: A " séance " of ancestors and deceased friends. Black Hawk symbolizes protest and empowerment for the majority of women in the churches that experience racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination. This tradition continued into the late 20th century. In the 1980s, James Anderson wore the suit of deceased tribal member Big Chief Jolley to a Black Hawk ceremony at Infant Jesus of Prague Spiritual Church. In addition,

396-480: A "unique cultural expression of costume masquerade performance." In addition to Mardi Gras Day , many of the "tribes" also parade on Saint Joseph's Day (March 19) and the Sunday nearest to Saint Joseph's Day ("Super Sunday"). Traditionally, these were the only times Mardi Gras Indians were seen in public in full regalia. The New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival began the practice of hiring "tribes" to appear at

495-777: A Black cultural expression through decorative art utilizing symbols that show a shared history with Louisiana's Native American community. During slavery, Louisiana's Indigenous community harbored freedom seekers in their villages; Black Mardi Gras Indians are telling this story visually through their regalia. According to author Sascha Just, Mardi Gras Indians mask as Indigenous people to embody Native American heroism displayed in their suits and performances to celebrate their heritage of resistance to enslavement and oppression when they allied with American Indians in New Orleans' swamps and bayous, and to show respect for Native Americans who assisted freedom seekers escape from slavery. During

594-551: A Mardi Gras Indian suit. Uptown New Orleans "tribes" tend to have more pictorial and African-inspired suits; downtown "tribes" have more 3D suits with heavy Native American influences. National Heritage Fellowship The National Heritage Fellowship is a lifetime honor presented to master folk and traditional artists by the National Endowment for the Arts . Similar to Japan's Living National Treasure award,

693-477: A battery of percussion instruments ( snares , tom toms , cymbals , beer bottles, cans, and so forth), the group culled together a number of local musicians, including pianist Willie Tee and guitarist Snooks Eaglin , as their backing band, called the New Orleans Project. The single received little airplay on radio but was successful in jukeboxes and through local word-of-mouth. On the strength of

792-700: A certificate of honor, the monetary award, and a congratulatory letter from the President of the United States. The annual recognition events are held in the Fall and consist of an awards ceremony, a banquet, and a concert that is open to the public. Over the years, the awards ceremony has been held at different locations in the US capital city, including the NEA headquarters, Ford's Theatre , George Washington University ,

891-491: A diversity of coded dialects sung by Black masking Indians. Scholars Fehintola Mosadomi and Joyce M. Jackson noted similar ceremonial practices of the Egungun and Mardi Gras Indians; both are performed in the streets with music and folk rituals, have elaborate colorful costumes, and are male-dominated. Author Raphael Njoku explains Africans in the diaspora use masquerade carnivals to protest oppression. "While masquerading

990-721: A dozen to several dozen members. Groups are largely independent, but a pair of umbrella organizations loosely coordinates the Uptown Indians and the Downtown Indians. Their suits are displayed in museums in Louisiana and the Smithsonian . The complex artistry designed on suits is only found in the Mardi Gras Indian art community in New Orleans. Author Marjorie Cohee Manifold explains the tradition as

1089-542: A historian at the University of Chicago, found that Native and mixed-race people of Black and Native heritage constituted 20 percent of the state’s enslaved population during the antebellum period." Indigenous peoples of Louisiana helped to free some of the Africans from slavery and hid them in their villages and taught them how to survive off the land where the freedom seekers lived in maroon camps. New Orleans

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1188-526: A mask on, you’re not a person any more. You become the energy or entity of what it is you’re masking." Some scholars define Mardi Gras Indian culture as a spiritual secret society, a mutual-aid organization, and a social club. Before a Mardi Gras Indian observance begins a prayer or chant is said in Louisiana Creole . The song Madi cu defio, en dans day is sung; it is a corruption of a Louisiana Voodoo Creole song, M'alle couri dans deser , that

1287-466: A part of the Black Arts tradition. Mardi Gras Indian suits cost thousands of dollars in materials alone and can weigh upwards of one hundred pounds (45 kg). A suit usually takes between six and nine months to plan and complete. Mardi Gras Indians design and create their own suits; elaborate bead patches depict meaningful and symbolic scenes. Beads, feathers, and sequins are integral parts of

1386-664: A port in Dahomey on the Bight of Benin . The largest group came from Senegambia . These ethnic groups influenced the culture of Louisiana in food, music, language, religion , and decorative aesthetics. French slaveholders allowed enslaved and free Black people to congregate on Sunday afternoons at Congo Square where they performed music and religious practices. New Orleans is known for its Creole heritage, with traditions coming from Native Americans, Africans, and Europeans. A mixed-race population of free people of color contributed to

1485-534: A rotating panel of specialists, including one layperson, as well as folklorists and others with a variety of forms of cultural expertise. The recommendations are then reviewed by the National Council on the Arts , with the final decisions made by the chairperson of the National Endowment for the Arts. As of 2024, 487 artists in a wide variety of fields have received Fellowships. The program

1584-652: A shared interest masking Indians and church members have with the history of Native American resistance and spirit possession. Some congregations in Spiritual churches incorporate Mardi Gras Indian traditions into their services and believe they can conjure the spirits of Native American resistance leaders such as Black Hawk , White Eagle, Red Cloud , and White Hawk. Altars to Native American spirits, Catholic saints, ancestors, Archangel Michael , and other spirits are placed inside Spiritual churches for spirit communication and conjuration of spirits. American Indian altars include

1683-768: A story about their ancestors escaping slavery on the Underground Railroad. An article from the New Yorker explains how a "tribe" of Mardi Gras Indians called, Young Seminole Hunters, sculpt elaborate suits to honor the roles the Seminole people and other Native American nations had on the Underground Railroad in liberating enslaved Black people. Mardi Gras Indians are informing the public about Black history through their regalia, music, and songs. Pan-American carnival cultural celebrations in

1782-615: A unifying time-line, melisma, the encouragement of spontaneity, and the extremely porous boundary between performers and audiences." During the Haitian Revolution , French slaveholders fled the island of Haiti and brought their slaves to New Orleans. Enslaved Haitians influenced the culture of enslaved Black Americans in New Orleans that also contributed to the carnival culture of Mardi Gras Indians. In 1809, nearly 10,000 people, free and enslaved, from present-day Dominican Republic immigrated to New Orleans. The Dominican Republic

1881-415: A voice. Masking Indian is a rite of passage for Black men and provides manhood and comrade training. Women's role in the tradition is embellishment. Harrison-Nelson continues, "If the chief is pretty, he's prettier with a queen standing next to him." Authors Shane Lief and John McCusker noted that imagery of Native Americans was placed on costumes and used in parades in New Orleans since the 18th century. In

1980-434: Is "to enter the spirit world of possession ". During jazz funerals, spirits control the bodies of the dancers so the spirit of the deceased can transition peacefully. Dancing during Mardi Gras results in spirit possession by ancestors, can animate their masks, and is a symbol of freedom. Mardi Gras Indian Albert Lambreaux's identity transforms to "Big Chief" when he wears his suit. As "Big Chief" he becomes an authority in

2079-553: Is African with influences from European musical instruments. Mardi Gras Indians' culture is reflecting the culture of the Black diaspora . Similar funeral processions are scene in West African, Afro-Caribbean and Afro-Brazilian communities. Black masking Indians' street performances and festivals are called " second lines ". The Haitian influences in second line street theater are the sequins, beads, and feathers that are sewn into

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2178-419: Is a Carnival . With a permanent backing band, the group began embarking on worldwide tours. In 2001 , Boudreaux left the group as a result of disputes with the group's manager over guarantee payments. In 2007, the group's two 1970s albums were re-released as a two-disc set with bonus materials on Sunny Side Records . In 2011, Dollis was awarded a National Heritage Fellowship by the National Endowment for

2277-497: Is a spiritual transformation for the wearer who becomes connected to ancestral spirits and receives spiritual messages to relay to the public. They become an authority figure guided by spirit. Mardi Gras Indians say that when they mask they become possessed by spirits and are guided by them using ritual prayers. For some Black masking Indians, "successful" masking experiences "include a sensation of being possessed". Masking Indian Chief Zulu says: "It’s an African tradition. Once you put

2376-626: Is also associated with Calinda dance. During the slave trade period, the Calinda dance was brought to New Orleans by enslaved people from San Domingo and the Antilles . Calinda (also Kalinda) is a folk dance and music which arose in the Caribbean in the 1720s that originated in African martial arts. In Haiti and Trinidad it was a form of stick fighting and was performed during carnivals by

2475-430: Is an expression of Black resistance to white supremacist environment". Black masking traditions in New Orleans are a combination of Caribbean and African folk art that was sustained by African Americans despite colonialism, slavery, Black Codes , and racism. Author Nikesha Williams explains that for Black people, Mardi Gras is a cultural and a spiritual experience. Over the years this tradition incorporated elements from

2574-556: Is believed the first Mardi Gras Indian gang was formed; the "tribe" was named "The Creole Wild West" and was most likely composed of members of Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. However, the "Indian gangs" might predate their appearance in the city. A source from 1849 refers to Black performers on Congo Square fully covered in "the plumes of the peacock." Author Michael Smith suggests that Black Americans who attended Wild West shows and saw performers in Plains Indian attire influenced

2673-568: Is considered to be the oldest Black neighborhood in America and during post-Katrina continues to experience gentrification . From the 18th and 19th centuries, free Black people owned businesses and mixed with Haitian immigrants at Tremé. It is estimated that Black people owned eighty percent of the neighborhood. After Hurricane Katrina passed through, over 1,000 Black households along Clairborne Avenue were wiped-out and replaced with 120 white households. According to research from author Shearon Roberts,

2772-508: Is described as "A lilting reggae groove with a calypso -inspired melody..." According to anthropologist Claude Jacobs, Black Spiritual churches in New Orleans have influences from Louisiana Voodoo, folk Catholicism, Protestantism, and Spiritualism . Jacobs defines the African-American Spiritual church movement as a spiritual religion that resembles other New World African derived religions . According to research,

2871-555: Is reminiscent of the communal sociopolitical structures in precolonial Africa, the African Diaspora masked carnivals challenged the political powers and interests of the dominant White elite." Black carnivals are a way for African Americans to come together without being exploited by the white American community, and a refusal by Black people to not conform to white carnivals. The widely accepted belief about Black American masking traditions is, "...that Mardi Gras Indian culture

2970-864: The African diaspora . An article from Tulane University explains: "It is generally agreed that the Mardi Gras Indian tradition has strong Afro-Caribbean folk roots. Many observers and scholars perceive specific parallels with costumes and music of the junkanoo parades of the Bahamas, and some street celebrations in Haiti . In a broader sense the Mardi Gras Indians represent one of many reflections of New Orleans' on-going status as an epicenter of African cultural retention in America. The Indians utilize many shared traits of African and African-American music, include call-and-response, syncopation, polyrhythm with

3069-541: The Americas and by Kikongo people in Central Africa. In African and Native American cultures, feathers have a spiritual meaning. They elevate the wearer's spirit and connect them to the spirit realm. Kikongo people wear feathered headdresses in ceremonies, festivals, are worn by African chiefs and dancers, and feathers are placed on masks to bring in good medicine. According to Dewulf, this practice continued in

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3168-702: The Black Atlantic during and after slavery in the 19th and early 20th centuries was a way for African peoples in the Americas to syncretize their African spirits with Catholicism and Christianity to continue honoring some ancestral spirits, because colonial officials banned and forbid Black people from practicing African religions . The Code Noir in French colonies banned all non-Catholic religions and required enslaved and free people to convert to Catholicism. As an act of resistance, enslaved and free Africans in

3267-481: The Black Diaspora that are similar to the performances and regalia of Mardi Gras Indians are: The regalia of Mardi Gras Indians has been defined by scholars as traditional African-American folk art ; it is a combination of African "dress art" inspired by Native American regalia. The beadwork of their regalia has influences from West African beadwork with Native American influences. Mardi Gras Indians are

3366-574: The Chitimacha , Natchez , Houma , Atakapa , and Tunica. The Underground Railroad went through Native American communities and a number of enslaved Africans escaped slavery and sought freedom and refuge in Native American villages. Enslaved Africans adopted some elements of Native culture that blended with West African and Afro-Caribbean song and dances. Natchez people use ornamental feathers for ceremonial purposes. The Chitimacha were

3465-676: The Library of Congress , and for the first time at the White House in 1995. Since 2000, the banquet has been held in the Great Hall of the Library of Congress. The concert features musical performances, craft demonstrations, and interviews with the honorees. Masters of ceremonies at the concerts have included folksinger Pete Seeger , actress Ruby Dee , author Studs Terkel , journalist Charles Kuralt , and since 1997 Nick Spitzer ,

3564-706: The Louisiana State Museum explains the American Indian influence in Mardi Gras Indian culture. "The foundation of Black masking Indian visual storytelling is rooted in Native American resistance. Many of their suits showcase battle scenes depicting victorious Native Americans at war with U.S. soldiers." An article from UNESCO explains why Black Americans mask as Native people because they are "...asserting dignity and respect for Indian resistance to white domination." A New Orleans newspaper, Verite News , explains this practice of masking Indian as

3663-657: The Ohio Players and maybe even the Meters to sound like." At the height of the group's popularity, they booked dates at Carnegie Hall and the Capital Centre in Washington, D.C. Polydor elected not to release the second album stateside, which would not see release in America until 1993. The group returned to New Orleans and local festivals. In the late 1980s, Allison Miner expressed interest in restarting

3762-489: The Spanish–American War , bands from New Orleans played music for Cuban troops and beginning in the 1860s into the early 20th century, a boat service operated from Havana to New Orleans. In addition, observers of Cuban carnivals saw Cuban people masquerade as American Indians. Between 1860 and the early 1900s, Cuban culture influenced carnival and spirituality in New Orleans. According to scholar Jeroen Dewulf ,

3861-434: The 18th century. The colony of New Orleans was founded by the French in 1718 and within the first decade 5,000 enslaved Africans were trafficked to the colony. The West-Central African ethnic groups taken to Louisiana during the transatlantic slave trade were Bambara , Gambian , Akan , Fon , Yoruba , and Kongolese peoples. From 1719 to 1743, almost 30 percent of African people imported to New Orleans came from Ouidah ,

3960-430: The 1920s may have influenced Mardi Gras Indians to incorporate feather designs from Plains Indians and other Indigenous nations into their suits. Some African Americans believe they can call on the spirit of Sauk Leader Black Hawk and other Native American resistance leaders. They were inspired and respected Indigenous peoples resistance and fight against American westward expansion. In 1740, New Orleans' Congo Square

4059-449: The 19th century, entertainers performed on stage using negative stereotypes of Native Americans in minstrel shows . This may have influenced some of the regalia and performances of Mardi Gras Indians. By the 1960s into present day, some Mardi Gras Indians began to incorporate more imagery from African cultures and African diaspora religions in their regalia, and removed the words " Indian Red " in their music. Author Michael Smith says that

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4158-448: The Americas continued to practice their religions by fusing them with carnivals. In carnivals and African religions there is singing, dancing, drumming, and wearing masks and costumes. Black people continued to practice their traditions and cultures from Africa with influences from Native American cultures which created Black masking carnival traditions in the diaspora and in New Orleans. Masking for African Americans during Mardi Gras

4257-532: The Americas where enslaved Africans and their descendants wear feather headdresses during carnivals. The designs of African headdresses blended with headdresses worn by Indigenous people creating unique and different styles across the diaspora. Mardi Gras Indians are a part of the carnival festival culture in the diaspora. Black people in the Americas create their own regalia using art and symbolism from West-Central African beadwork and colors that blends with Native American culture. The festivals performed tell

4356-526: The Arts , which is the United States government's highest honor in the folk and traditional arts. 2013's New Kind of Funk LP marked the first Wild Magnolias record fronted by Dollis' son, Gerard "Bo Jr.," who also now serves as Big Chief of the tribe. The LP also brought Monk Boudreaux back into the Magnolias fold, following Dollis' successful reclamation of The Wild Magnolias' trademark from his former manager. Boudreaux continues to occasionally perform with

4455-549: The Bamboula, associated with Louisiana Congo Square legacy, was kept intact within that tradition." The traditional New Orleans Black masking Indian song Iko Iko is believed to derive from a combination of the Native American Choctaw and Chickasaw languages, Louisiana Creole , French , and West African languages. Scholars noted the similar musical, dance, and regalia practices of Black people in

4554-533: The Black Spiritual Church movement and the story of Black Hawk in New Orleans may have influenced Mardi Gras Indians to incorporate regalia and the feathers of other Native American nations into their suits. Scholars at Tulane University created an online exhibit that explains a brief history about Mardi Gras Indians and how Natchez people's culture influenced the cultural practices of enslaved Africans. The American Gulf Coast Indigenous Nations are

4653-461: The Caribbean and have women participation. Black women partake in this tradition to preserve the culture and tradition; they make colorful suits and join in the parades. An interview was conducted in 2024 with Cherice Harrison-Nelson, a Mardi Gras Indian from New Orleans. For Harrison-Nelson choosing to partake in the Mardi Gras Indian tradition was a spiritual and personal choice. Five generations in her family masked as Indians. Harrison-Nelson notes

4752-606: The Fellowship is the United States government's highest honor in the folk and traditional arts . It is a one-time only award and fellows must be living citizens or permanent residents of the United States. Each year, fellowships are presented to between nine and fifteen artists or groups at a ceremony in Washington, D.C. The Fellows are nominated by individual citizens, with an average of over 200 nominations per year. From that pool of candidates, recommendations are made by

4851-581: The Festival as well. In recent years it has become more common to see Mardi Gras Indians at other festivals and parades in the city. Notwithstanding the popularity of such activities for tourists and residents alike, the phenomenon of the Mardi Gras Indians is said to reflect both a vital musical history and an equally vital attempt to express internal social dynamics. Mardi Gras Indians have been practicing their traditions in New Orleans at least since

4950-568: The Mardi Gras Indian tradition during the era of slavery in Louisiana that continues today. This cultural tradition is a part of the African and African diaspora decorative aesthetic, and is an African-American art form. Black masking Indians are a subculture in New Orleans. Participants call their krewes "tribes" (another name used are "gangs" for Indian tribes in similar attire) which should not be confused with actual Native American tribes . As Mardi Gras New Orleans states, "Their 'tribes' are named for imaginary Indian tribes according to

5049-670: The Mardi Gras Indians have also been traced to mock-war performances by warriors called sangamento from the Kingdom of Kongo . The word is derived from a verb in the Kikongo language , ku-sanga , denoting ecstatic dancers. In Portuguese ku-sanga became sangamento. Kikongo people in Central Africa performed dances decorated in African feather headdress and wore belts with jingle bells. Sangamento performers dance using leaps, contortions, and gyrations; this style of dancing influenced

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5148-564: The Natchez spared the enslaved Africans due to a general sense of affinity between the Natchez and the Africans; some slaves even joined the Natchez, while others took the chance to escape to freedom. The first recorded slave dances on plantations in Louisiana were recorded by the French in 1732. Archival records documented the first enslaved Africans dressing as Indigenous people in celebatory dance called Mardi Gras in 1746. In 1771, free men of color held Mardi Gras in maroon camps and in

5247-547: The Seventies (1981), Robert Christgau wrote: "Here's some Mardi Gras music a little louder and jammier than we expect from Tee's Crescent City rival Allen Toussaint . In fact, it's the most boisterous recorded party I know, two sides of dancing fun that wears down only slightly as it slips into 'Saints.' This is not only what I always wanted the polyrhythm kids on the bandstand and benches of Tompkins Square Park to sound like, it's also what I always wanted Osibisa and

5346-675: The Spanish governor of the city forbade large gatherings of enslaved and free Black people at taverns and banned them from dancing, wearing masks and feathers during carnival seasons. African Americans and Indigenous peoples of Louisiana and in the Seminole Nation in Florida united against white oppression. According to Salaam, these connections inspired African Americans in New Orleans to dress as Native Americans and tell stories of resistance and escape through visual art and dance seen in

5445-469: The all-male West African secret masquerade societies practiced among the Igbo and Yoruba . Mardi Gras Indians today have their own secret coded symbols, songs and language only initiates within the community know. In the 19th century, Creole dialects developed differently within each neighborhood because of the diversity of African languages spoken, each having its own syntax and phonetics. This contributed to

5544-580: The attorney general warned the City Commission of problems arising from 'a great number of free negroes and slaves who, with the pretext of the Carnival season, mask and mix in bands passing through the streets looking for the dance-halls.'" Other examples scene were in 1804 and 1813 where a German American and Swiss traveler saw Black men dressed in oriental and Native American attire wearing Turkish turbans of various colors. Spanish officials in

5643-615: The band's career, and booked them on new tours along with signing them to Rounder Records , who released an album of theirs, I'm Back...at Carnival Time (featuring the ReBirth Brass Band ) in 1990. In 1992, the Magnolias toured Europe as part of Willy DeVille 's "New Orleans Revue" (along with Dr John , Johnny Adams, and Zachary Richard ). They can be heard on DeVille's album Big Easy Fantasy . They recorded an album for an Australian label in 1996, and in 1999 signed with Capitol Records subsidiary Metro Blue to release Life

5742-519: The celebration of life, addressing social justice issues, political liberation, transformation, healing, protection from the unknown, spirit possession , and the conjuring of spirits. The Black Mardi Gras Indian tradition is defined by Joyce Marie Jackson of Tulane University as an African American celebration drawing on American Indian and West African "motifs and music to create a folk ritual and street theater unique to New Orleans". There are more than 40 active "tribes" which range in size from half

5841-501: The changing of racial demographics in post-Katrina affects the continuation of culture for some Black residents. Occupation by white residents of spaces that were once Black-owned and where Black masking and cultural traditions were perpetuated resulted in three consequences: "...economic loss through appropriation, increased forms of criminalization, and the rupturing of Black safe communal spaces." Black New Orleanians experience cultural intrusion and appropriation from outsiders that affects

5940-596: The city's back areas. Some of the Mardi Gras Indians wore their masks to balls: "...the Spanish administration of the city at the Cabildo granted a prohibition of black persons from being masked, wearing feathers, and attending nightballs. This forced them to dress and roam only in the black neighborhoods and Congo Square." An article by author and photographer Michael P. Smith quotes Brassea and explains: "As early as 1781 in Spanish-ruled New Orleans,

6039-420: The community. This change of identity only occurs during Mardi Gras when Black maskers wear their regalia. A change in identity when masking and wearing suits during Mardi Gras is a continuation of African masking traditions. In Sub-Saharan African cultures, when a person masks their identity changes. Masks are worn to invite the gods to possess the individual and take them to another plane of existence. Masking

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6138-472: The creation of jazz . Their music is derived from African polyrhythms and syncopated beats combined with African and Creole languages, and French and European musical influences. An article from Folklife in Louisiana explains the continuation of African rhythms at Congo Square: "The Mardi Gras Indians also retained the Bamboula , which describes a drumbeat and dance. For nearly one hundred and twenty years

6237-449: The dance and musical styles of Mardi Gras Indians. The history of Mardi Gras Indians has its beginnings in Louisiana's maroon communities, where enslaved Africans hid in the villages of Native Americans. According to Smith, Mardi Gras Indians preserve their traditional African dance culture and music that blended with Native American culture. Congo Square was where enslaved Africans and Native Americans gathered during their free time and

6336-610: The dance styles of Mardi Gras Indians. During the transatlantic slave trade , Bantu people were enslaved in the Americas and influenced carnival culture in the Black diaspora and Mardi Gras Indian performances in New Orleans. Sangamentos were a brotherhood of men with a semi-underground culture that may have influenced the Mardi Gras tradition at Congo Square. Scholars at Duke University found that Kikongo peoples' culture influenced African diaspora religions , Afro-American music, and

6435-560: The diaspora. By the 20th century, more Haitian immigrants settled in Louisiana where some elements of rara festival culture blended with Black American carnivals. When other Afro-Caribbean communities started to settle in New Orleans, their culture was incorporated into the suits, dances and music. Historian Jeroen Dewulf noted other Black people in the diaspora dress as Indigenous people and wear feathered headdresses in Cuba, Peru, Trinidad , and Brazil. Feathered headdresses are worn in

6534-620: The enslaved in the Caribbean and New Orleans. It became a voodoo dance and "the dance of Congo Square". The Calinda dance was integrated into Mardi Gras Indian traditions. Other dance influences were the chica, an Afro-Caribbean dance, and bamboula , an African derived dance, that were performed at Congo Square by free and enslaved people. Historians in New Orleans see the continuation of African, Caribbean, European and Cuban musical and dance influences at Congo Square. Caribbean music influenced Mardi Gras Indians performances. In 1976, The Wild Tchoupitoulas released an album and their music

6633-1068: The enslaved population and tripled the population of free people of color in the city. The port of New Orleans received immigrants from Cuba, Germany, Ireland, and other parts of the Caribbean. The festival cultures from Haiti , Jamaica and other areas from the West Indies blended with carnival traditions in free and enslaved Black American communities. The Caribbean cultures that influenced New Orleans were: Jonkonnu , Rara , Gaga, Canboulet, and other West Indian maroon settlements. Free and enslaved Black people were banned from attending Mardi Gras by white New Orleans carnival krewes. African American communities celebrated Mardi Gras by incorporating African rhythms, drumming, dance, and masking traditions that resemble those cultures in West Africa into their festivities, and masked as Indians to tell stories of enslaved people escaping slavery and finding refuge in Native American communities. The origins of

6732-798: The first to make a public musical procession in New Orleans called Marche du Calumet de Paix. "Members of the Chitimacha tribe marched through the city conducting a Calumet Ceremony, or a Peace Pipe Ceremony. They sang, danced, made speeches, and touched each other while sharing a pipe to celebrate peace amongst each other. A similar celebration was adopted by slaves who famously met at Congo Square." "The African American communities adopted aspects of Native culture such as their dancing techniques and their innate feather designs. They incorporated these elements into already existent parts of their culture- predominately their West African and Afro-Caribbean song and dance." The first Mardi Gras Indians suited up and paraded

6831-697: The group, having previously participated in other Mardi Gras tribes such as the White Eagles and the Golden Arrows. In 1970, the group cut a 45rpm single for Crescent City Records entitled "Handa Wanda," recorded and mixed by Cy Frost at Deep South Recording Studio. That year they also performed at the first New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival , along with Monk Boudreaux of the Golden Eagles Mardi Gras Indian tribe. In addition to their usual ensemble of vocalist and

6930-471: The group. Big Chief Bo Dollis died in January 2015. Mardi Gras Indian Mardi Gras Indians (also known as Black Masking Indians ) are African American carnival revelers in New Orleans, Louisiana , who dress up for Mardi Gras in suits influenced by the cultural practices of Native Americans, West Africans , and Afro-Caribbeans . The music, dance, and regalia from these cultures created

7029-557: The history and culture of Mardi Gras in the city. The culture of enslaved Africans fused with Afro-Caribbean, Native American and European cultures that syncretized at Congo Square and was practiced during Mardi Gras. An article from the Smithsonian Magazine gives a brief history of the Mardi Gras Indians: "Scholars generally agree that the Mardi Gras Indian tradition is linked to early encounters between

7128-762: The late 1740s and 1750s, many enslaved Africans fled to the bayous of Louisiana where they encountered Native Americans. Years later, after the Civil War, hundreds of freed slaves joined the U.S. Ninth Cavalry Regiment , also known as Buffalo Soldiers . The Buffalo Soldiers fought, killed, forced, and aided the mass removal and relocation of the Plains Indians on the Western Frontier. After returning to New Orleans, many ex-soldiers joined popular Wild West shows, most notably Buffalo Bill's Wild West . The show wintered in New Orleans from 1884 to 1885 and

7227-411: The late 18th century increased immigration and trade in the lower Mississippi valley by granting French merchants permission to import enslaved people from St. Domingue and other Caribbean islands. American merchants in New Orleans invested in capital by importing enslaved persons from Jamaica and other British West Indian colonies for sell. After the abolition of transatlantic slave trade in 1807,

7326-565: The lyrics of " Indian Red " are a prayer song sung during Mardi Gras Indian practices that honors various "gang" members past and present, and praying for peace and justice. Andrew Pearse suggests the origins of Indian Red comes from a carnival song in Trinidad "Indurubi" which may have come from the Spanish Indio Rubi (Indian Red). In 2005, Hurricane Katrina destroyed African-American neighborhoods in New Orleans. Tremé

7425-507: The meaning and history of their traditions. The Northside Skull and Bones gang and other masking traditions continue at Treme during Mardi Gras. According to local oral history, the Skull and Bones Gangs started in 1819 in Treme. Black maskers dress in black costumes with painted white skeleton bones to honor the dead and to caution the living that death is inevitable. Some participants believe

7524-407: The past and the future, and more entire abandonment to the joyous existence of the present moment." The idea of letting loose and embracing traditional African music and dance is a backbone of the Mardi Gras Indians practice. Masking Indians play traditional music using belled wrists and ankle bands, congas , and tambourines . The music of Mardi Gras Indians played at Congo square contributed to

7623-428: The performances of Mardi Gras Indians. Scholar and filmmaker, Maurice M. Martinez, also argues that the Mardi Gras Indians predate Eurocentric interpretations of Native Americans presented during Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. Black people in New Orleans dressed as American Indians during carnival seasons years before Buffalo Bill and his wild west show came to the city. The Spiritual church movement in New Orleans in

7722-598: The port of New Orleans was the center of the domestic slave trade in the United States before the American Civil War . New Orleans received enslaved persons from other southern states to supply the demand for enslaved labor on the sugar and cotton plantations. In addition, during and after the Haitian Revolution , enslavers fled the island of Hispaniola and brought their enslaved people with them to New Orleans. In 1810, free and enslaved Haitian refugees from Cuba came to New Orleans; this wave of migration doubled

7821-825: The practices of Mardi Gras Indians attract church members where they perform ring shout dances with percussion in inner city clubs. According to authors Judith Bettelheim and Stephen Wehmeyer, the Spiritual church movement in New Orleans Black communities may also have influences from Bakongo Nkisi culture and Afro-Caribbean spirituality. The belief in the conjuration of American Indian spirits using Indian statues according to researchers comes from Cuba and Puerto Rico . Cuban and Puerto Rican practitioners of Espiritismo and Palo Mayombe conjure Native American spirits using Indian statues similar to how Bakongo people in Central Africa conjure spirits using Nkisi statues. Authors Bettelheim and Wehmeyer suggest that during

7920-842: The practices of New Orleans Black Spiritualist communities as early as 1852. Emma Britton, a spiritualist historian, documented Black mediums in the movement in the 19th century, and Caribbean influences may have also brought Indian imagery and American Indian spirits. In 1920 Leafy Anderson moved to New Orleans and brought the belief that the Sauk leader Black Hawk is a spirit guide and can be called upon in prayer or ritual. Black Spiritual churches syncretized practices from Leafy Anderson into their services. Other religious traditions African Americans blended were African religious practices, Pentecostal worship, mediumship , spirit possession, Hoodoo , and Native American resistance. Mardi Gras Indians attend Spiritual churches in New Orleans because of

8019-579: The region’s Native and Black communities. Founded by the French in 1718, the city of New Orleans stands on land originally inhabited by the Chitimacha Tribe. As early as 1719, European colonizers brought enslaved people from the western coast of Africa to the nascent port city, which eventually became a hub of the United States slave trade. While Africans made up the majority of enslaved people in Louisiana , research conducted by Leila K. Blackbird,

8118-423: The similar cultural practices of Mardi Gras Indians and West Africans in the music, polyrhythms, and regalia. She says: "I would say this tradition is an African-American community neighborhood-based tradition that often uses a Native American motif, which includes the feather headdresses and beadwork. But basically, everything else about it is West African." The tradition is male-dominated, and women struggle to have

8217-554: The single, the group signed with Barclay Records , a French label, and secured distribution of their albums in America with Polydor Records . Two critically acclaimed full-length albums followed, in 1974 and 1975, and a single, "Smoke My Peace Pipe (Smoke it Right)", cracked the Billboard Black Singles chart, peaking at #74 in 1974. Reviewing the 1974 Wild Magnolias LP in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of

8316-478: The spiritualist movement was active in New Orleans as early as 1852 to 1853. According to authors Judith Bettelheim and Stephen Wehmeyer, since the beginning of the American spiritualist movement in the 19th century, the imagery of Native Americans in the beliefs and practices of American spiritualists were associated with the movement. Bettelheim and Wehmeyer suggest that American Indian images were incorporated into

8415-486: The streets of New Orleans during the Reconstruction era . Masking Indians honor the help given their ancestors by Native Americans who took runaway enslaved people into their tribes by incorporating American Indian symbols into their carnivals. They add animals Native Americans hold sacred beaded into their regalia and pay homage to Indigenous people for helping their ancestors escape from slavery. An article from

8514-532: The streets of North Claiborne Avenue, North Robertson and Annette. The dances and songs of Mardi Gras Indians have spiritual meanings. Funerals in Black neighborhoods in New Orleans are attended by Mardi Gras Indians. Black Americans put on their suits and play Mardi Gras Indian jazz to celebrate the life of the person who died. These Mardi Gras Indian jazz funerals have intense drumming, dancing, and call-and-response . Although Black people in New Orleans masks as Native Americans their culture, drumming, and music

8613-640: The streets of their ward or gang." These are African Americans who "mask" as Native Americans. Some Mardi Gras Indians describe their decorative aesthetic as their culture and religion . Other Black maskers do not mask as Native Americans but as orisha spirits from the Yoruba religion and Skull and Bones gangs. Their tradition is rooted in African-American spirituality and Black culture. The suits (regalia), dances, songs, drumbeats, and celebrations performed convey spiritual and cultural meanings about

8712-421: The suits and flags. Mardi Gras Indians perform healing rituals during their street performances to unite and heal communities. Historian Richard Brent Turner says that Central African cultures from Bakongo peoples, Haitian carnivals , and Black American culture blended at Congo Square that are expressed in their regalia and music. Curator and author Paulette Richards suggests that masquerade performances in

8811-425: The suits made by Black people in New Orleans are original creations, and not imitations from entertainment shows. Author and poet Kalamu ya Salaam argues that the Mardi Gras Indians were formed before the wild west shows of the 1880s. Salaam cites other examples of carnivals and festivals in the Caribbean during the era of enslavement that were similar to New Orleans Black masking Indian performances. Also, in 1781

8910-443: The suits of Mardi Gras Indians. Mardi Gras Indians dislike this interpretation because "...it emphasizes imitation over originality and agency, attributing what they consider a sacred tradition to a cheap form of entertainment that exploited rather than honored Native Americans." In addition, this interpretation does not see this cultural tradition created from syncretic blends of Native American, African, and Caribbean cultures. Many of

9009-813: The tradition came to New Orleans by way of Caribbean and African cultures where the dead are honored in the Haitian Vodou religion. Skull and Bones masker, Bruce "Sunpie" Barnes, traveled to Africa and said he saw skeleton-like spirits and Voodoo markets. During Mardi Gras, Barnes recognizes the Guédé , a family of spirits in Haitian Vodou that are guardians of the cemetery. Skull and Bones gangs act as spiritual town guardians and carnival town criers. Jazz historian John McCusker found skeleton maskers were referenced in archives dating back to 1875. A 1902 local newspaper, Times-Democrat , referenced young Black maskers on

9108-463: Was a cultural center for African music and dance ; the city was also a major southern trade port that became a cultural melting pot. New Orleans was more open-minded than many Southern cities, and on Sundays enslaved African people gathered to sing folk songs, play traditional music, and dance. The lively parties were recounted by a Northern observer as being "indescribable... Never will you see gayer countenances, demonstrations of more forgetfulness of

9207-405: Was a settlement known as Natanapalle of armed freedom seekers and Indigenous peoples. According to various authors, freedom seekers adapted some of the culture of Native Americans. Whites in Louisiana feared an alliance of Africans and Indigenous people growing in the swamps and bayous. In 1729, 280 enslaved Africans joined forces with Natchez people during the " Natchez Revolt ." The revolt

9306-428: Was carried out to prevent French colonists from taking Natchez land for tobacco production. During the revolt, the Natchez killed almost all of the 150 Frenchmen at Fort Rosalie, and only about 20 managed to escape, some fleeing to New Orleans. The Natchez spared the enslaved Africans; many were locked inside a house on the bluff, guarded by several warriors, from where they could see the events. Some scholars argue that

9405-450: Was colonized by the Spanish and they trafficked Yoruba people to the island for enslaved labor. Enslaved Yoruba people's masquerade culture of Egungun syncretized with New Orleans enslaved communities further contributing to the Mardi Gras Indian culture. The cultural influences of Yoruba people are prevalent in the Americas as Egungun masquerade celebrations influenced Black carnivals and costume making in African descended communities in

9504-694: Was hailed by the Daily Picayune as "the people's choice". There was at least one black cowboy in the show, and there were numerous black cowhands. According to author Michael Smith, the Buffalo Soldiers who fought the Plains Indians could have returned to New Orleans and competed in Wild West shows and carnivals. On Mardi Gras in 1885, 50 to 60 Plains Indians marched in native dress on the streets of New Orleans. Later that year, it

9603-492: Was officially founded in 1982 by Bess Lomax Hawes , the first director of the Folk and Traditional Arts Program at the NEA, following a five-year period of development. In 1982, the monetary award associated with the Fellowship was $ 5,000; in 1993, it was increased to $ 10,000 and since 2009, the award amount is $ 25,000, which is considered "enough to make a difference, but not enough to go to anyone's head". Each recipient receives

9702-810: Was surrounded by swamps, bayous, and rivers resulting in a number of maroon settlements. In Louisiana, the road to freedom on the Underground Railroad for the enslaved went south to maroon camps because traveling to northern free territories and Canada were too far for freedom seekers. These maroon camps attacked whites, stole cattle from nearby farms for food, and freed nearby enslaved people, and freedom seekers escaped and lived with other maroons. The maroons lived in huts and grew their own food of corn, squash, rice, and herbs. African culture thrived in maroon communities, and some were located near Native American villages. Native Americans helped maroons and freedom seekers by providing food and weapons to defend themselves from whites and slave catchers . In colonial Louisiana, there

9801-461: Was where West-Central African culture blended with Native American culture. In its beginning, they decorated their ornaments with pearls, rhinestones, turkey feathers, fish scales, discarded beads, and sequins—along with their brightly colored ostrich feather headdresses, these can weigh over 150 pounds. Over the years, their suits became more elaborate and colorful and incorporated cultural elements from Africa. In its early history, they resembled

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