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128-426: Williams practiced both pediatrics and general medicine. He was affiliated with Passaic General Hospital, where he served as the hospital's chief of pediatrics from 1924 until his death. The hospital, which is now known as St. Mary's General Hospital , paid tribute to Williams with a memorial plaque that states "We walk the wards that Williams walked". Randall Jarrell wrote that Williams "feels, not just says, that

256-667: A NICU ). The earliest mentions of child-specific medical problems appear in the Hippocratic Corpus , published in the fifth century B.C., and the famous Sacred Disease . These publications discussed topics such as childhood epilepsy and premature births. From the first to fourth centuries A.D., Greek philosophers and physicians Celsus , Soranus of Ephesus , Aretaeus , Galen , and Oribasius , also discussed specific illnesses affecting children in their works, such as rashes, epilepsy, and meningitis. Already Hippocrates , Aristotle , Celsus , Soranus , and Galen understood

384-481: A Child as an ethical principle for pediatric decision-making, and it is still being used today. The majority of the time, parents have the authority to decide what happens to their child. Philosopher John Locke argued that it is the responsibility of parents to raise their children and that God gave them this authority. In modern society, Jeffrey Blustein, modern philosopher and author of the book Parents and Children: The Ethics of Family , argues that parental authority

512-592: A bottle rack, and was active in the Society of Independent Artists . In 1917 he submitted the now famous Fountain , a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition but they rejected the piece. First an object of scorn within the arts community, the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture. Art world experts polled by

640-487: A brightly colored rag are more necessary expressions than those of some ass who seeks to immortalize himself in oils in finite parlors. The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups. Their activity and art were more political and social, with corrosive manifestos and propaganda, satire, public demonstrations and overt political activities. The intensely political and war-torn environment of Berlin had

768-405: A child and predict to what extent it will affect the child in the future. Genetic and intellectual disorders in children make them incapable of making moral decisions, so people look down upon this kind of testing because the child's future autonomy is at risk. It is still in question whether parents should request these types of testing for their children. Medical experts argue that it could endanger

896-630: A college or university, which will get them a BS, BA or other bachelor's degree. After completing college, future pediatricians will need to attend 4 years of medical school (MD/DO/MBBS) and later do 3 more years of residency training, the first year of which is called "internship." After completing the 3 years of residency, physicians are eligible to become certified in pediatrics by passing a rigorous test that deals with medical conditions related to young children. In high school, future pediatricians are required to take basic science classes such as biology, chemistry, physics, algebra, geometry, and calculus. It

1024-582: A communist organization. Williams retained legal counsel to refute the charges but was never allowed to respond to his critics and never received an apology from the Library of Congress. The next year, however, he received the Bollingen Prize along with Archibald MacLeish . In May 1963, he was posthumously awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Pictures from Brueghel and Other Poems (1962) and

1152-404: A controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments. Cologne's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub, and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress. The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity, but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped. Like Zürich, New York City

1280-525: A distinctly American one; he sought to renew language through the fresh, raw idiom that grew out of America's cultural and social heterogeneity, at the same time freeing it from what he saw as the worn-out language of British and European culture. “No one believes that poetry can exist in his own life,” Williams said. “The purpose of an artist, whatever it is, is to take the life, whatever he sees, and to raise it up to an elevated position where it has dignity.” In 1920, Williams turned his attentions to Contact ,

1408-713: A dramatic impact on the ideas of Berlin Dadaists. Conversely, New York's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically driven, less political nature. According to Hans Richter , a Dadaist who was in Berlin yet "aloof from active participation in Berlin Dada", several distinguishing characteristics of the Dada movement there included: "its political element and its technical discoveries in painting and literature"; "inexhaustible energy"; "mental freedom which included

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1536-473: A few years, the movement had spread to New York City and a variety of artistic centers in Europe and Asia. Within the umbrella of the movement, people used a wide variety of artistic forms to protest the logic , reason , and aestheticism of modern capitalism and modern war. To develop their protest, artists tended to make use of nonsense , irrationality , and an anti-bourgeois sensibility. The art of

1664-618: A group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich. Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition. The origin of the name Dada is unclear; some believe that it is a nonsensical word. Others maintain that it originates from the Romanian artists Tristan Tzara's and Marcel Janco's frequent use of the words "da, da," meaning "yes, yes" in the Romanian language. Another theory says that

1792-564: A house on 9 Ridge Road in Rutherford, New Jersey, where they resided for many years. Shortly afterward, his second book of poems, The Tempers , was published by a London press through the help of his friend Ezra Pound , whom he had met while studying at the University of Pennsylvania. Around 1914, Williams and his wife had their first son, William E. Williams, followed by their second son, Paul H. Williams, in 1917. William E. also became

1920-518: A lack of knowledge in pediatric medicine. Sushruta Samhita , an ayurvedic text composed during the sixth century BCE, contains the text about pediatrics. Another ayurvedic text from this period is Kashyapa Samhita . A second century AD manuscript by the Greek physician and gynecologist Soranus of Ephesus dealt with neonatal pediatrics. Byzantine physicians Oribasius , Aëtius of Amida , Alexander Trallianus , and Paulus Aegineta contributed to

2048-545: A larger volume of distribution than adults, which directly affects the dosing of hydrophilic drugs such as beta-lactam antibiotics like ampicillin. Thus, these drugs are administered at greater weight-based doses or with adjusted dosing intervals in children to account for this key difference in body composition. Infants and neonates also have fewer plasma proteins. Thus, highly protein-bound drugs have fewer opportunities for protein binding, leading to increased distribution. Drug metabolism primarily occurs via enzymes in

2176-470: A late-comer into an originating force. Dada emerged from a period of artistic and literary movements like Futurism , Cubism and Expressionism ; centered mainly in Italy, France and Germany respectively, in those years. However, unlike the earlier movements Dada was able to establish a broad base of support, giving rise to a movement that was international in scope. Its adherents were based in cities all over

2304-521: A mad, scandalous ballet called Parade . First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917, it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky's Le Sacre du printemps had done almost five years earlier. This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself, something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with. Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of

2432-615: A mentor was with fellow New Jersey poet Allen Ginsberg . Williams included several of Ginsberg's letters in Paterson , stating that one of them helped inspire the fifth section of that work. Williams also wrote the introduction to Ginsberg's first book, Howl and Other Poems in 1956. Williams suffered a heart attack in 1948, and after 1949, a series of strokes. Severe depression after one such stroke caused him to be confined to Hillside Hospital, New York, for four months in 1953. He died on March 4, 1963, at age 79 at his home in Rutherford. He

2560-460: A name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire , André Breton , Max Jacob , Clément Pansaers , and other French writers, critics and artists. Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century. One of its practitioners, Erik Satie , collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in

2688-578: A periodical launched by Williams and fellow writer Robert McAlmon : "The two editors sought American cultural renewal in the local condition in clear opposition to the internationalists—Pound, The Little Review , and the Baroness." Yvor Winters , the poet/critic, judged that Williams's verse bears a certain resemblance to the best lyric poets of the 13th century. Williams sought to invent an entirely fresh and uniquely American form of poetry whose subject matter centered on everyday circumstances of life and

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2816-432: A physician. Although his primary occupation was as a family doctor, Williams had a successful literary career as a poet. His work has a great affinity with painting, in which he had a lifelong interest. In addition to poetry (his main literary focus), he occasionally wrote short stories, plays, novels, essays, and translations. He practiced medicine by day and wrote at night. Early in his career, he briefly became involved in

2944-427: A preference for cake or cherries, to fill a void. The shock and scandal the movement inflamed was deliberate; Dadaist magazines were banned and their exhibits closed. Some of the artists even faced imprisonment. These provocations were part of the entertainment but, over time, audiences' expectations eventually outpaced the movement's capacity to deliver. As the artists' well-known "sarcastic laugh" started to come from

3072-405: A protest "against this world of mutual destruction". According to Hans Richter Dada was not art: it was " anti-art ". Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with traditional aesthetics , Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend. Additionally, Dada attempted to reflect onto human perception and

3200-657: A result, mothers, midwives, "wise women", and general practitioners treated the children instead of doctors. Since mothers could not rely on professional medicine to take care of their children, they developed their own methods, such as using alkaline soda ash to remove the vernix at birth and treating teething pain with opium or wine. The absence of proper pediatric care, rights, and laws in health care to prioritize children's health led to many of their deaths. Ancient Greeks and Romans sometimes even killed healthy female babies and infants with deformities since they had no adequate medical treatment and no laws prohibiting infanticide. In

3328-536: A sculpture." The piece is in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp's neighbour, the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven . In an attempt to "pay homage to the spirit of Dada" a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in a replica of The Fountain with a hammer in January 2006; he also urinated on it in 1993. Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together during

3456-578: A short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called Mécano (1922–23). Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H. N. Werkman , who was in touch with van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine, The Next Call (1923–6). Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German-born and eventually settled in the Netherlands. These were Otto van Rees, who had taken part in

3584-409: A similar meaning (or no meaning at all) in any language, reflecting the movement's internationalism . The roots of Dada lie in pre-war avant-garde. The term anti-art , a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works that challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movement's detachment from

3712-405: A work entitled, Explicatif bearing the word Tabu . In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play The Gas Heart to howls of derision from the audience. When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production, the play provoked a theatre riot (initiated by André Breton ) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism . Tzara's last attempt at a Dadaist drama

3840-510: Is " The Red Wheelbarrow ", an example of the Imagist movement's style and principles (see also " This Is Just to Say "). However, Williams, like his peer and friend Ezra Pound, had rejected the Imagist movement by the time this poem was published as part of Spring and All in 1923. Williams is strongly associated with the American modernist movement in literature and saw his poetic project as

3968-672: Is also advisable to learn a foreign language (preferably Spanish in the United States) and be involved in high school organizations and extracurricular activities. After high school, college students simply need to fulfill the basic science course requirements that most medical schools recommend and will need to prepare to take the MCAT (Medical College Admission Test) in their junior or early senior year in college. Once attending medical school, student courses will focus on basic medical sciences like human anatomy, physiology, chemistry, etc., for

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4096-404: Is considered to be the founder of modern pediatrics as a medical specialty, while his work The diseases of children, and their remedies (1764) is considered to be "the first modern textbook on the subject". However, it was not until the nineteenth century that medical professionals acknowledged pediatrics as a separate field of medicine. The first pediatric-specific publications appeared between

4224-421: Is essential to degrading certain oral drugs before systemic absorption. Therefore, the absorption of these drugs in children is greater than in adults due to decreased breakdown and increased preservation in a less acidic gastric space. Children also have an extended rate of gastric emptying, which slows the rate of drug absorption. Drug absorption also depends on specific enzymes that come in contact with

4352-403: Is granted because the child requires parents to satisfy their needs. He believes that parental autonomy is more about parents providing good care for their children and treating them with respect than parents having rights. The researcher Kyriakos Martakis, MD, MSc, explains that research shows parental influence negatively affects children's ability to form autonomy. However, involving children in

4480-442: Is known as a pediatrician , or paediatrician . The word pediatrics and its cognates mean "healer of children", derived from the two Greek words: παῖς ( pais "child") and ἰατρός ( iatros "doctor, healer"). Pediatricians work in clinics, research centers, universities, general hospitals and children's hospitals , including those who practice pediatric subspecialties (e.g. neonatology requires resources available in

4608-508: Is likely that Dada's catalyst was the arrival in Zürich of artists like Tzara and Janco. The name Cabaret Voltaire was a reference to the French philosopher Voltaire , whose novel Candide mocked the religious and philosophical dogmas of the day. Opening night was attended by Ball, Tzara, Jean Arp , and Janco. These artists along with others like Sophie Taeuber , Richard Huelsenbeck and Hans Richter started putting on performances at

4736-455: Is needed to better understand how these factors should affect the decisions of healthcare providers when prescribing and administering medications to the pediatric population. Many drug absorption differences between pediatric and adult populations revolve around the stomach. Neonates and young infants have increased stomach pH due to decreased acid secretion, thereby creating a more basic environment for drugs that are taken by mouth. Acid

4864-548: Is often largely under the control of ' pediatric organizations (see below) rather than universities and depends on the jurisdiction. Subspecialties of pediatrics include: ( not an exhaustive list ) ( not an exhaustive list ) Dada Dada ( / ˈ d ɑː d ɑː / ) or Dadaism was an anti-establishment art movement that developed in 1915 in the context of the Great War and the earlier anti-art movement. Early centers for dadaism included Zürich and Berlin. Within

4992-694: Is seen as the founder of the Dada movement. The Dadaist movement included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art and literary journals . Passionate coverage of art, politics, and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media. Key figures in the movement included Jean Arp , Johannes Baader , Hugo Ball , Marcel Duchamp , Max Ernst , Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven , George Grosz , Raoul Hausmann , John Heartfield , Emmy Hennings , Hannah Höch , Richard Huelsenbeck , Francis Picabia , Man Ray , Hans Richter , Kurt Schwitters , Sophie Taeuber-Arp , Tristan Tzara , and Beatrice Wood , among others. The movement influenced later styles like

5120-509: Is that children are not simply "little adults". The clinician must take into account the immature physiology of the infant or child when considering symptoms, prescribing medications, and diagnosing illnesses. Pediatric physiology directly impacts the pharmacokinetic properties of drugs that enter the body. The absorption , distribution , metabolism , and elimination of medications differ between developing children and grown adults. Despite completed studies and reviews, continual research

5248-644: Is the Hôpital des Enfants Malades ( French : Hospital for Sick Children ), which opened in Paris in June 1802 on the site of a previous orphanage. From its beginning, this famous hospital accepted patients up to the age of fifteen years, and it continues to this day as the pediatric division of the Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital , created in 1920 by merging with the nearby Necker Hospital , founded in 1778. In other European countries,

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5376-565: Is the branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants , children , adolescents , and young adults. In the United Kingdom , pediatrics covers many of their youth until the age of 18. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends people seek pediatric care through the age of 21, but some pediatric subspecialists continue to care for adults up to 25. Worldwide age limits of pediatrics have been trending upward year after year. A medical doctor who specializes in this area

5504-422: Is the concept of paternalism, which negates autonomy when it is in the patient's interests. This concept aims to keep the child's best interests in mind regarding autonomy. Pediatricians can interact with patients and help them make decisions that will benefit them, thus enhancing their autonomy. However, radical theories that question a child's moral worth continue to be debated today. Authors often question whether

5632-573: Is why it is important to consider lower doses and greater dosing intervals for this population. Diseases that negatively affect kidney function can also have the same effect and thus warrant similar considerations. A major difference between the practice of pediatric and adult medicine is that children, in most jurisdictions and with certain exceptions, cannot make decisions for themselves. The issues of guardianship , privacy, legal responsibility, and informed consent must always be considered in every pediatric procedure. Pediatricians often have to treat

5760-697: The Cabaret Voltaire (housed inside the Holländische Meierei bar in Zürich) co-founded by poet and cabaret singer Emmy Hennings and Hugo Ball . Some sources propose a Romanian origin, arguing that Dada was an offshoot of a vibrant artistic tradition that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Jewish modernist artists, including Tristan Tzara, Marcel Janco , and Arthur Segal settled in Zürich. Before World War I, similar art had already existed in Bucharest and other Eastern European cities; it

5888-709: The Charité (a hospital founded in 1710) in Berlin established a separate Pediatric Pavilion in 1830, followed by similar institutions at Saint Petersburg in 1834, and at Vienna and Breslau (now Wrocław ), both in 1837. In 1852 Britain's first pediatric hospital, the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street was founded by Charles West . The first Children's hospital in Scotland opened in 1860 in Edinburgh . In

6016-694: The Imagist movement through his friendships with Pound and H.D. (whom he had befriended during his medical studies at Penn), but soon he began to develop opinions that differed from theirs and his style changed to express his commitment to a modernist expression of his immediate environment. He was influenced by the "inarticulate poems" of his patients. In 1920, Williams was sharply criticized by many of his peers (including H.D., Pound and Wallace Stevens ) when he published one of his more experimental books Kora in Hell: Improvisations . Pound called

6144-520: The Pediatric Incunabula , four great medical treatises on children's physiology and pathology. While more information about childhood diseases became available, there was little evidence that children received the same kind of medical care that adults did. It was during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that medical experts started offering specialized care for children. The Swedish physician Nils Rosén von Rosenstein (1706–1773)

6272-430: The machine aesthetic . There is no consensus on the origin of the movement's name; a common story is that the artist Richard Huelsenbeck slid a paper knife randomly into a dictionary, where it landed on "dada", a French term for a hobby horse . Others note it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness and absurdity that appealed to the group. Still others speculate it might have been chosen to evoke

6400-601: The 1790s and the 1920s. The term pediatrics was first introduced in English in 1859 by Abraham Jacobi . In 1860, he became "the first dedicated professor of pediatrics in the world." Jacobi is known as the father of American pediatrics because of his many contributions to the field. He received his medical training in Germany and later practiced in New York City . The first generally accepted pediatric hospital

6528-527: The 1930s, Williams began working on an opera. Titled The First President , it was focused on George Washington and his influence on the history of the United States of America and was intended to "galvanize us into a realization of what we are today." —Say it, no ideas but in things— nothing but the blank faces of the houses and cylindrical trees bent, forked by preconception and accident— split, furrowed, creased, mottled, stained— secret—into

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6656-498: The Cabaret Voltaire and using art to express their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it. Having left Germany and Romania during World War I , the artists arrived in politically neutral Switzerland. They used abstraction to fight against the social, political, and cultural ideas of that time. They used shock art , provocation, and " vaudevillian excess" to subvert the conventions they believed had caused

6784-533: The Dadaist period. For seven years he also published the Dada periodical 391 in Barcelona, New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924. By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada had experienced its last major incarnation. The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara (whose pseudonym means "sad in country,"

6912-561: The Dominican Republic, respectively—spoke Spanish with each other and to young William Carlos." While he wrote in English, "the poet's first language" was Spanish and his "consciousness and social orientation" were shaped by Caribbean customs; his life influenced "to a very important degree by a plural cultural foundation." John Keats and Walt Whitman were important early influences on Williams. Williams received his primary and secondary education in Rutherford until 1897 when he

7040-532: The European avant-garde , Williams and his artistic friends wished to get away from what they saw as a purely derivative style. As one result, he started Contact magazine with Hartley in 1920 in order to create an outlet for works showcasing the belief that creative work should derive from the artist's direct experience and sense of place and reject traditional notions of how this should be done. Precisionism emerged in response to such thinking. In her study of

7168-494: The Great War. The Dadaists believed those ideas to be a byproduct of bourgeois society that was so apathetic it would wage war against itself rather than challenge the status quo : We had lost confidence in our culture. Everything had to be demolished. We would begin again after the tabula rasa . At the Cabaret Voltaire we began by shocking common sense, public opinion, education, institutions, museums, good taste, in short,

7296-559: The Swiss native Sophie Taeuber , would remain in Zürich into the 1920s. "Berlin was a city of tightened stomachers, of mounting, thundering hunger, where hidden rage was transformed into a boundless money lust, and men's minds were concentrating more and more on questions of naked existence... Fear was in everybody's bones" – Richard Hülsenbeck Raoul Hausmann , who helped establish Dada in Berlin, published his manifesto Synthethic Cino of Painting in 1918 where he attacked Expressionism and

7424-692: The US), usually lasting four or five years, have previously completed a three- or four-year university degree, commonly but by no means always in sciences. Medical graduates hold a degree specific to the country and university in and from which they graduated. This degree qualifies that medical practitioner to become licensed or registered under the laws of that particular country, and sometimes of several countries, subject to requirements for " internship " or "conditional registration". Pediatricians must undertake further training in their chosen field. This may take from four to eleven or more years depending on jurisdiction and

7552-771: The US, the first similar institutions were the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia , which opened in 1855, and then Boston Children's Hospital (1869). Subspecialties in pediatrics were created at the Harriet Lane Home at Johns Hopkins by Edwards A. Park . The body size differences are paralleled by maturation changes. The smaller body of an infant or neonate is substantially different physiologically from that of an adult. Congenital defects, genetic variance, and developmental issues are of greater concern to pediatricians than they often are to adult physicians. A common adage

7680-542: The abolition of everything"; and "members intoxicated with their own power in a way that had no relation to the real world", who would "turn their rebelliousness even against each other". In February 1918, while the Great War was approaching its climax, Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin, and he produced a Dada manifesto later in the year. Following the October Revolution in Russia , by then out of

7808-408: The age of 13. Recently, studies made on the decision-making of children have challenged that age to be 12. Technology has made several modern advancements that contribute to the future development of child autonomy, for example, unsolicited findings (U.F.s) of pediatric exome sequencing. They are findings based on pediatric exome sequencing that explain in greater detail the intellectual disability of

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7936-465: The art critics who promoted it. Dada is envisioned in contrast to art forms, such as Expressionism, that appeal to viewers' emotional states: "the exploitation of so-called echoes of the soul". In Hausmann's conception of Dada, new techniques of creating art would open doors to explore new artistic impulses. Fragmented use of real world stimuli allowed an expression of reality that was radically different from other forms of art: A child's discarded doll or

8064-443: The artist Man Ray , they included Walter Conrad Arensberg , Wallace Stevens , Mina Loy , Marianne Moore , Orrick Glenday Johns and Marcel Duchamp . Interlocking with them were the US artists who met at Arensburg's studio, including Marsden Hartley , Joseph Stella , Charles Demuth and Charles Sheeler , with whom Williams developed close friendships. Although he championed the new way of seeing and representation pioneered by

8192-515: The audience, the provocations of Dadaists began to lose their impact. Dada was an active movement during years of political turmoil from 1916 when European countries were actively engaged in World War I, the conclusion of which, in 1918, set the stage for a new political order. There is some disagreement about where Dada originated. The movement is commonly accepted by most art historians and those who lived during this period to have identified with

8320-443: The autonomous rights the child will possess in the future. However, the parents contend that genetic testing would benefit the welfare of their children since it would allow them to make better health care decisions. Exome sequencing for children and the decision to grant parents the right to request them is a medically ethical issue that many still debate today. Aspiring medical students will need 4 years of undergraduate courses at

8448-443: The avant-garde and downtown music movements, and groups including Surrealism , nouveau réalisme , pop art , and Fluxus . Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond with the outbreak of World War I. For many participants, the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests, which many Dadaists believed were

8576-400: The body of the light! from Paterson: Book I In Paterson (published between 1946 and 1958), an account of the history, people, and essence of Paterson, New Jersey , Williams wrote his own modern epic poem, focusing on "the local" on a wider scale than he had previously attempted. He also examined the role of the poet in American society and famously summarized his poetic method in

8704-532: The cabaret closed down, Dada activities moved on to a new gallery, and Hugo Ball left for Bern. Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas. He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters, and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist. The Cabaret Voltaire re-opened, and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf. Zürich Dada, with Tzara at

8832-498: The chaotic nature of society. Tristan Tzara proclaimed, "Everything is Dada, too. Beware of Dada. Anti-dadaism is a disease: selfkleptomania, man's normal condition, is Dada. But the real Dadas are against Dada". As Hugo Ball expressed it, "For us, art is not an end in itself ... but it is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in." A reviewer from the American Art News stated at

8960-540: The classics "By the road to the contagious hospital", " The Red Wheelbarrow " and "To Elsie". However, in 1922, the publication of T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land had become a literary sensation that overshadowed Williams's very different brand of poetic modernism . In his Autobiography , Williams later wrote of "the great catastrophe to our letters—the appearance of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land. " He said, I felt at once that The Waste Land had set me back twenty years and I'm sure it did. Critically, Eliot returned us to

9088-461: The classroom just at the moment when I felt we were on a point to escape to matters much closer to the essence of a new art form itself—rooted in the locality which should give it fruit. Although he respected the work of Eliot, Williams became openly critical of Eliot's highly intellectual style with its frequent use of foreign languages and allusions to classical and European literature. Instead, Williams preferred colloquial American English. During

9216-504: The constraints of reality and convention. The work of French poets, Italian Futurists , and German Expressionists would influence Dada's rejection of the correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi (1896) by Alfred Jarry and the ballet Parade (1916–17) by Erik Satie would be characterized as proto-Dadaist works. The Dada movement's principles were first collected in Hugo Ball 's Dada Manifesto in 1916. Ball

9344-625: The conviction that poetry was, in his friend Kenneth Burke's phrase, "equipment for living, a necessary guide amid the bewilderments of life." The American ground was wild and new, a place where a blooming foreigner needed all the help he could get. Poems were as essential to a full life as physical health or the love of men and women. Williams's mother had trained as a painter in Paris and passed on her enthusiasm to her son, who also painted in his early years. A painting by him now hangs in Yale University's Beinecke Library and as late as 1962 he

9472-573: The decision-making process allows children to develop their cognitive skills and create their own opinions and, thus, decisions about their health. Parental authority affects the degree of autonomy the child patient has. As a result, in Argentina, the new National Civil and Commercial Code has enacted various changes to the healthcare system to encourage children and adolescents to develop autonomy. It has become more crucial to let children take accountability for their own health decisions. In most cases,

9600-593: The degree of specialization. In the United States, a medical school graduate wishing to specialize in pediatrics must undergo a three-year residency composed of outpatient, inpatient, and critical care rotations. Subspecialties within pediatrics require further training in the form of 3-year fellowships. Subspecialties include critical care, gastroenterology, neurology, infectious disease, hematology/oncology, rheumatology, pulmonology, child abuse, emergency medicine, endocrinology, neonatology, and others. In most jurisdictions, entry-level degrees are common to all branches of

9728-500: The differences between men are less important than their similarities—that he and you and I, together, are the Little Men." Marc Hofstadter wrote that Williams "sought to express his democracy through his way of speaking. His point was to speak on an equal level with the reader and to use the language and thought materials of America in expressing his point of view." Per Hugh Fox, Williams saw "the real [original emphasis] function of

9856-507: The differences in growing and maturing organisms that necessitated different treatment: Ex toto non sic pueri ut viri curari debent ("In general, boys should not be treated in the same way as men"). Some of the oldest traces of pediatrics can be discovered in Ancient India where children's doctors were called kumara bhrtya . Even though some pediatric works existed during this time, they were scarce and rarely published due to

9984-506: The field. The Byzantines also built brephotrophia ( crêches ). Islamic Golden Age writers served as a bridge for Greco-Roman and Byzantine medicine and added ideas of their own, especially Haly Abbas , Yahya Serapion , Abulcasis , Avicenna , and Averroes . The Persian philosopher and physician al-Razi (865–925), sometimes called the father of pediatrics, published a monograph on pediatrics titled Diseases in Children . Also among

10112-471: The figure 5 in gold" (1928) as a homage to Williams's poem "The Great Figure" (1921). Williams's collection Spring and All (1923) was dedicated to the artist and, after his early death, he dedicated the long poem "The Crimson Cyclamen." (1936) to Demuth's memory. Later collaborations with artists include the two poem/ two drawing volume that he shared with William Zorach in 1937 and his poem "Jersey Lyric", written in response to Henry Niese's 1960 painting of

10240-588: The first books about pediatrics was Libellus [Opusculum] de aegritudinibus et remediis infantium 1472 ("Little Book on Children Diseases and Treatment"), by the Italian pediatrician Paolo Bagellardo. In sequence came Bartholomäus Metlinger 's Ein Regiment der Jungerkinder 1473, Cornelius Roelans (1450–1525) no title Buchlein, or Latin compendium, 1483, and Heinrich von Louffenburg (1391–1460) Versehung des Leibs written in 1429 (published 1491), together form

10368-506: The first three years, the second year of which is when medical students start to get hands-on experience with actual patients. The training of pediatricians varies considerably across the world. Depending on jurisdiction and university, a medical degree course may be either undergraduate-entry or graduate-entry. The former commonly takes five or six years and has been usual in the Commonwealth . Entrants to graduate-entry courses (as in

10496-790: The gold medal for Poetry of the National Institute of Arts and Letters . The Poetry Society of America presents the William Carlos Williams Award annually for the best book of poetry published by a small, non-profit or university press. Williams's house in Rutherford was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. He was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame in 2009. Pediatrics Pediatrics ( American English ) also spelled paediatrics ( British English ),

10624-669: The helm, published the art and literature review Dada beginning in July 1917, with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris. Other artists, such as André Breton and Philippe Soupault , created "literature groups to help extend the influence of Dada". After the fighting of the First World War had ended in the armistice of November 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities. Others, such as

10752-755: The imagination as breaking through the alienation of the near at hand and reviving its wonder." Williams was born in Rutherford, New Jersey , in 1883. His father, William George Williams, was born in England but raised from "a very young age" in the Dominican Republic and "was most comfortable speaking in Spanish, which was the primary language spoken in the Williams's New Jersey household"; his mother, Raquel Hélène Hoheb, from Mayagüez, Puerto Rico ,

10880-424: The importance of putting patients' interests first, making autonomy for patients a top priority in health care.   In ancient times, society did not view pediatric medicine as essential or scientific. Experts considered professional medicine unsuitable for treating children. Children also had no rights. Fathers regarded their children as property, so their children's health decisions were entrusted to them. As

11008-469: The influence of painting on Williams, Ruth Grogan devoted several paragraphs to the dependency of some of his poems on the paintings of Charles Sheeler in this style, singling out in particular the description of a power house in Williams's "Classic Scene". But the close relationship with Charles Demuth was more overt. Williams's poem "The Pot of Flowers" (1923) references Demuth's painting "Tuberoses" (1922), which he owned. On his side, Demuth created his "I saw

11136-636: The letters. His quick transparent lines have the nervous and contracted strength, move as jerkily and intently as a bird. R. P. Blackmur said of Williams's poetry, "the Imagism of 1912, self-transcended." A contemporary, Harriet Monroe , stated "to assert his freedoms he must play the devil, showing himself rioting in purple and turquoise pools of excess." Williams's major collections are Spring and All (1923), The Desert Music and Other Poems (1954), Pictures from Brueghel and Other Poems (1962), and Paterson (1963, repr. 1992). His most anthologized poem

11264-481: The liver and can vary according to which specific enzymes are affected in a specific stage of development. Phase I and Phase II enzymes have different rates of maturation and development, depending on their specific mechanism of action (i.e. oxidation , hydrolysis , acetylation , methylation , etc.). Enzyme capacity, clearance , and half-life are all factors that contribute to metabolism differences between children and adults. Drug metabolism can even differ within

11392-452: The lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the "variable foot" which Williams never clearly defined, although the concept vaguely referred to Williams's method of determining line breaks. The Paris Review called it "a metrical device to resolve the conflict between form and freedom in verse." One of Williams's aims, in experimenting with his "variable foot", was to show the American (opposed to European) rhythm that he claimed

11520-402: The machinations of Picabia, re-cast Dada's history. Dada's European chroniclers—primarily Richter, Tzara, and Huelsenbeck—would eventually become preoccupied with establishing the pre-eminence of Zürich and Berlin at the foundations of Dada, but it proved to be Duchamp who was most strategically brilliant in manipulating the genealogy of this avant-garde formation, deftly turning New York Dada from

11648-434: The medical profession, but in some jurisdictions, specialization in pediatrics may begin before completion of this degree. In some jurisdictions, pediatric training is begun immediately following the completion of entry-level training. In other jurisdictions, junior medical doctors must undertake generalist (unstreamed) training for a number of years before commencing pediatric (or any other) specialization . Specialist training

11776-455: The movement began primarily as performance art, but eventually spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage , sound poetry , cut-up writing , and sculpture. Dadaist artists expressed their discontent toward violence, war, and nationalism and maintained political affinities with radical politics on the left-wing and far-left politics . The movement had no shared artistic style , although most artists had shown interest in

11904-528: The name "Dada" came during a meeting of the group when a paper knife stuck into a French–German dictionary happened to point to 'dada', a French word for ' hobbyhorse '. The movement primarily involved visual arts , literature , poetry , art manifestos , art theory , theatre , and graphic design , and concentrated its anti-war politics through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works. The creations of Duchamp, Picabia, Man Ray, and others between 1915 and 1917 eluded

12032-578: The oral drug as it travels through the body. Supply of these enzymes increase as children continue to develop their gastrointestinal tract. Pediatric patients have underdeveloped proteins , which leads to decreased metabolism and increased serum concentrations of specific drugs. However, prodrugs experience the opposite effect because enzymes are necessary for allowing their active form to enter systemic circulation. Percentage of total body water and extracellular fluid volume both decrease as children grow and develop with time. Pediatric patients thus have

12160-550: The originators converged there. Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of Dada , Le Cannibale , and Littérature featured Dada in several editions.) The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the Salon des Indépendants in 1921. Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including

12288-418: The parents and sometimes, the family, rather than just the child. Adolescents are in their own legal class, having rights to their own health care decisions in certain circumstances. The concept of legal consent combined with the non-legal consent (assent) of the child when considering treatment options, especially in the face of conditions with poor prognosis or complicated and painful procedures/surgeries, means

12416-497: The pediatric population, separating neonates and infants from young children. Drug elimination is primarily facilitated via the liver and kidneys. In infants and young children, the larger relative size of their kidneys leads to increased renal clearance of medications that are eliminated through urine. In preterm neonates and infants, their kidneys are slower to mature and thus are unable to clear as much drug as fully developed kidneys. This can cause unwanted drug build-up, which

12544-473: The pediatrician must take into account the desires of many people, in addition to those of the patient. The term autonomy is traceable to ethical theory and law, where it states that autonomous individuals can make decisions based on their own logic. Hippocrates was the first to use the term in a medical setting. He created a code of ethics for doctors called the Hippocratic Oath that highlighted

12672-407: The pediatrician, parent, and child work as a team to make the best possible medical decision. The pediatrician has the right to intervene for the child's welfare and seek advice from an ethics committee. However, in recent studies, authors have denied that complete autonomy is present in pediatric healthcare. The same moral standards should apply to children as they do to adults. In support of this idea

12800-706: The phrase "No ideas but in things" (found in his poem "A Sort of a Song" and repeated again and again in Paterson ). In his later years, Williams mentored and influenced many younger poets. He had a significant influence on many of the American literary movements of the 1950s, including the Beat movement , the San Francisco Renaissance , the Black Mountain school , and the New York School . One of Williams's more dynamic relationships as

12928-493: The picture should make them more or less the same thing." However, in the case of his references to much earlier painters, culminating in Pictures from Brueghel (1962), his approach was more commentarial. Of this late phase of his work it has been claimed that "Williams saw these artists solving, in their own ways, the same problems that concerned him," but his engagement with them was at a distance. The U.S. National Book Award

13056-474: The postwar economic and moral crisis, a savior, a monster, which would lay waste to everything in its path... [It was] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization... In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege." To quote Dona Budd's The Language of Art Knowledge , Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War . This international movement was begun by

13184-796: The root cause of the war, and against the cultural and intellectual conformity—in art and more broadly in society—that corresponded to the war. Avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. They had seen (or participated in) Cubist exhibitions held at Galeries Dalmau , Barcelona (1912), Galerie Der Sturm in Berlin (1912), the Armory Show in New York (1913), SVU Mánes in Prague (1914), several Jack of Diamonds exhibitions in Moscow and at Moderne Kunstkring , Amsterdam (between 1911 and 1915). Futurism developed in response to

13312-408: The same title: View of winter trees before one tree in the foreground where by fresh-fallen snow lie 6 woodchunks ready for the fire Throughout his career, Williams thought of his approach to poetry as a painterly deployment of words, saying explicitly in an interview, "I've attempted to fuse the poetry and painting, to make it the same thing….A design in the poem and a design in

13440-543: The so-called Dutch Dada campaign in 1923, where van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (entitled What is Dada? ), Schwitters read his poems, Vilmos Huszár demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg (Theo's wife), played avant-garde compositions on piano. Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in De Stijl , although under a pseudonym, I.K. Bonset, which was only revealed after his death in 1931. 'Together' with I.K. Bonset, he also published

13568-400: The sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize , Gordon's gin, voted it "the most influential work of modern art". As recent scholarship documents, the work is still controversial. Duchamp indicated in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work: "One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as

13696-427: The term Dada at the time, and " New York Dada " came to be seen as a post facto invention of Duchamp. At the outset of the 1920s the term Dada flourished in Europe with the help of Duchamp and Picabia, who had both returned from New York. Notwithstanding, Dadaists such as Tzara and Richter claimed European precedence. Art historian David Hopkins notes: Ironically, though, Duchamp's late activities in New York, along with

13824-410: The time that "Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man." Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a "reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide". Years later, Dada artists described the movement as "a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of

13952-450: The traditionalist basis for museum art. New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor. In his book Adventures in the arts: informal chapters on painters, vaudeville and poets Marsden Hartley included an essay on " The Importance of Being 'Dada'   ". During this time Duchamp began exhibiting " readymades " (everyday objects found or purchased and declared art) such as

14080-757: The treatment and equality of a child and an adult should be the same. Author Tamar Schapiro notes that children need nurturing and cannot exercise the same level of authority as adults. Hence, continuing the discussion on whether children are capable of making important health decisions until this day. According to the Subcommittee of Clinical Ethics of the Argentinean Pediatric Society (SAP), children can understand moral feelings at all ages and can make reasonable decisions based on those feelings. Therefore, children and teens are deemed capable of making their own health decisions when they reach

14208-699: The twentieth century, medical experts began to put more emphasis on children's rights. In 1989, in the United Nations Rights of the Child Convention, medical experts developed the Best Interest Standard of Child to prioritize children's rights and best interests. This event marked the onset of pediatric autonomy. In 1995, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) finally acknowledged the Best Interest Standard of

14336-603: The walls of the Nazi's Entartete Kunst exhibition in 1937. Despite high ticket prices, the exhibition lost money, with only one recorded sale. The Berlin group published periodicals such as Club Dada , Der Dada , Everyman His Own Football , and Dada Almanach . They also established a political party, the Central Council of Dada for the World Revolution . In Cologne , Ernst, Baargeld, and Arp launched

14464-433: The war, Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express communist sympathies. Grosz, together with John Heartfield , Höch and Hausmann developed the technique of photomontage during this period. Johannes Baader , the uninhibited Oberdada, was the "crowbar" of the Berlin movement's direct action according to Hans Richter and is credited with creating the first giant collages, according to Raoul Hausmann . After

14592-755: The war, the artists published a series of short-lived political magazines and held the First International Dada Fair , 'the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists', in the summer of 1920. As well as work by the main members of Berlin Dada – Grosz, Raoul Hausmann , Hannah Höch , Johannes Baader , Huelsenbeck and Heartfield – the exhibition also included the work of Otto Dix , Francis Picabia , Jean Arp, Max Ernst , Rudolf Schlichter , Johannes Baargeld and others. In all, over 200 works were exhibited, surrounded by incendiary slogans, some of which also ended up written on

14720-400: The whole prevailing order. Ball said that Janco's mask and costume designs, inspired by Romanian folk art, made "the horror of our time, the paralyzing background of events" visible. According to Ball, performances were accompanied by a "balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk-songs." Often influenced by African music , arrhythmic drumming and jazz were common at Dada gatherings. After

14848-731: The work "incoherent" and H.D. thought the book was "flippant". The Dada artist and poet Baroness Elsa criticized Williams's sexual and artistic politics in her experimental prose poem review titled "Thee I call 'Hamlet of Wedding Ring'", published in The Little Review in March 1921. Williams had an affair with the Baroness, and published three poems in Contact, describing the forty-year-old as "an old lady" with "broken teeth [and] syphilis". In 1923, Williams published Spring and All , one of his seminal books of poetry, which contained

14976-413: The work of various artists. Dada subsequently combined these approaches. Many Dadaists believed that the 'reason' and 'logic' of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos and irrationality . For example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as

15104-433: The world including New York, Zürich, Berlin, Paris and others. There were regional differences like an emphasis on literature in Zürich and political protest in Berlin. Prominent Dadaists published manifestos, but the movement was loosely organized and there was no central hierarchy. On 14 July 1916, Ball originated the seminal Dada Manifesto . Tzara wrote a second Dada manifesto, considered important Dada reading, which

15232-494: Was a refuge for writers and artists from the First World War. Soon after arriving from France in 1915, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray . By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States. American Beatrice Wood , who had been studying in France, soon joined them, along with Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven . Arthur Cravan , fleeing conscription in France,

15360-488: Was also in New York for a time. Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz 's gallery, 291 , and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg . The New Yorkers, though not particularly organized, called their activities Dada, but they did not issue manifestos. They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as The Blind Man , Rongwrong , and New York Dada in which they criticized

15488-526: Was buried in Hillside Cemetery in Lyndhurst, New Jersey . The poet and critic Randall Jarrell stated of Williams's poetry, William Carlos Williams is as magically observant and mimetic as a good novelist. He reproduces the details of what he sees with surprising freshness, clarity, and economy; and he sees just as extraordinarily, sometimes, the forms of this earth, the spirit moving behind

15616-657: Was his " ironic tragedy " Handkerchief of Clouds in 1924. In the Netherlands the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg , best known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name. Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in De Stijl such as Hugo Ball , Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters . Van Doesburg and Thijs Rinsema  [ nl ] (a cordwainer and artist in Drachten ) became friends of Schwitters, and together they organized

15744-531: Was of French extraction. Williams's maternal grandmother was named Emily Dickinson, though he was no relation to the poet of that name . Scholars note that the Caribbean culture of the family home had an important influence on Williams. Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera observes, "English was not his primary means of communication until he was a teenager. At home his mother and father—who were raised in Puerto Rico and

15872-473: Was present in everyday American language. Stylistically, Williams also worked with variations on a line-break pattern that he labeled " triadic-line poetry " in which he broke a long line into three free-verse segments. A well-known example of the "triadic line [break]" can be found in Williams's love-poem " Asphodel, That Greeny Flower ." In a review of Herbert Leibowitz's biography of Williams, book critic Christopher Benfey wrote: Early and late, Williams held

16000-410: Was published in 1918. Tzara's manifesto articulated the concept of "Dadaist disgust"—the contradiction implicit in avant-garde works between the criticism and affirmation of modernist reality. In the Dadaist perspective modern art and culture are considered a type of fetishization where the objects of consumption (including organized systems of thought like philosophy and morality) are chosen, much like

16128-551: Was reestablished in 1950 with awards by the book industry to authors of books published in 1949 in three categories. Williams won the first National Book Award for Poetry , recognizing both the third volume of Paterson and Selected Poems . In 1952, Williams was named Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress in Washington, DC, but was barred from serving out his term due to unfounded accusations of Williams's membership in

16256-765: Was sent for two years to a school near Geneva and to the Lycée Condorcet in Paris. He attended the Horace Mann School upon his return to New York City and, having passed a special examination, was admitted in 1902 to the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania , from which he graduated in 1906. Upon leaving Penn, Williams did internships at both French Hospital and Child's Hospital in New York, then went to Leipzig for advanced study of pediatrics. He published his first book, Poems , in 1909. Williams married Florence ("Flossie") Herman (1891–1976) in 1912 after he returned from Germany. They moved into

16384-407: Was still remembering in an interview that "I'd like to have been a painter, and it would have given me at least as great a satisfaction as being a poet." For most of his life Williams wrote art criticism and introductions to exhibitions by his friends. In 1915, Williams began to associate with the New York group of artists and writers known as "The Others." Founded by the poet Alfred Kreymborg and

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