112-514: William Clapham (1722 – 28 May 1763) was an American military officer who participated in the construction of several forts in Pennsylvania during the French and Indian War . He was considered a competent commander in engagements with French troops and Native American warriors, but towards the end of his military career he was unpopular with troops under his command. Following his retirement from
224-922: A block house surrounded by a defensive ditch . There are references in historic documents to a stockade and to the construction (in January, 1757) of "a Room for the Officers & Barracks for the Soldiers...in Hunters Fort." It was described as having "a commanding view of the river." Fort Halifax was 160 feet wide with bastions , so Fort Hunter was likely similar in construction, but no drawings or plans exist. In March 1757, Governor William Denny met with Lord Loudoun , Conrad Weiser , and Colonel Clapham and determined that Fort Hunter should be demolished. Its garrison and supplies were to be divided between Fort Augusta and Fort Halifax. In July and August, settlers in
336-634: A French patrol. In 1755, six colonial governors met with General Edward Braddock , the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the main effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755, and died a few days later. British operations failed in the frontier areas of the Province of Pennsylvania and
448-493: A Saw within a Quarter of a Mile." In later correspondence he mentions the complete absence of roads along the river. The Lenape village of Shamokin had been abandoned a few weeks earlier. On 10 June, Clapham held a conference with Oghaghradisha, an Iroquois chief, at Clapham's military camp. Oghaghradisha presented Clapham with a wampum belt and gave Clapham the Iroquois name "Ugcarumhiunth." He told Clapham that Fort Halifax
560-407: A bakery, smoke house , beef cistern , pork cistern, and a powder magazine with an underground powder keg . The wall facing the river was composed of upright logs, and the rear wall was made up of lengthwise logs. Beyond the main wall was a dry moat that was half as deep as the wall was high. Triangular bastions on each corner permitted a crossfire covering the entire extent of the wall. A well
672-600: A company of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began construction of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754. Governor Duquesne sent additional French forces under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint-Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men south from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754. These forces arrived at the fort on April 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent's small company to withdraw. He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne . Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead
784-690: A dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny River and Monongahela River called the Forks of the Ohio , and the site of the French Fort Duquesne at the location that later became Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22-year-old George Washington ambushed
896-614: A large frontier with several companies of British regulars. When hostilities began, the British colonial governments preferred operating independently of one another and of the government in London. This situation complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies. As the war progressed, the leaders of the British Army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on
1008-491: A larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent's retreat while he was en route. Mingo sachem Tanaghrisson had promised support to the British, so Washington continued toward Fort Duquesne and met with him. He then learned of a French scouting party in the area from a warrior sent by Tanaghrisson, so he added Tanaghrisson's dozen Mingo warriors to his own party. Washington's combined force of 52 ambushed 40 Canadiens (French colonists of New France ) on
1120-490: A reconciliation between the two men. Historian William Albert Hunter comments on this event that: On 5 June 1756, Clapham left Fort Hunter with five companies (400 men), marching north along the Susquehanna River to select a suitable location for Fort Halifax . Clapham and his men marched from Harris's Ferry (present-day Harrisburg, Pennsylvania ), while 18 bateaux and canoes loaded with materials traveled down
1232-460: A reputation for being hot-tempered and arbitrary, and often had his subordinate officers arrested and imprisoned for minor infractions, releasing them after a few days without trial. By late 1756, construction projects and daily maintenance tasks were abandoned due to poor morale. On 8 December, Major James Burd took command of the fort. Clapham resigned his command of the garrison in March, 1757. He
SECTION 10
#17327931023581344-473: A series of demands on Native American tribes with whom he was negotiating for peace as part of the 1764 Treaty of Fort Niagara , including "that they deliver up the murderers of Clapham...to be put to death for their Crimes." Both Keekyuscung and his son Wolf had been killed at the Battle of Bushy Run on 6 August 1763. William Clapham is buried in the cemetery at Trinity Cathedral in Pittsburgh. There
1456-606: A stance of neutrality to ensure continued trade with both French and British. Though maintaining this stance proved difficult as the Iroquois Confederation tribes sided and supported French or British causes depending on which side provided the most beneficial trade. The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan-speaking Catawbas , Muskogee -speaking Creeks and Choctaw , and the Iroquoian-speaking Cherokee tribes. When war broke out,
1568-613: A strong house at the mouth of the Monongahela River on the modern site of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. Governor-General of New France Marquis de la Jonquière died on March 17, 1752, and he was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil. His permanent replacement was to be the Marquis Duquesne , but he did not arrive in New France until 1752 to take over the post. The continuing British activity in
1680-404: A very good defense against any body of French and Indians that shall seat themselves before us without cannon." Clapham had largely completed Fort Augusta by late August 1756. Named for Augusta of Saxe-Gotha , the mother of King George III , it was the largest British fort built in Pennsylvania, with earthen walls more than two hundred feet long topped by wooden fortifications. Buildings included
1792-576: Is a reference to "Captain Clapham" in an early version of the song Yankee Doodle , printed in an undated broadside titled “The Recruiting Officer, Together with Yanky Doodle,” probably published between 1748 and before Clapham completed his service in Canada in 1754: French and Indian War [REDACTED] Great Britain [REDACTED] France [REDACTED] Wabanaki Confederacy The French and Indian War (1754–1763)
1904-605: The Anglo-Cherokee War in 1758. In 1758, the Province of Pennsylvania successfully negotiated the Treaty of Easton in which a number of tribes in the Ohio Country promised neutrality in exchange for land concessions and other considerations. Most of the other northern tribes sided with the French, their primary trading partner and supplier of arms. The Creeks and Cherokees were subject to diplomatic efforts by both
2016-483: The Battle of Fort Bull , French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder. They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies. French forces in the Ohio valley also continued to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements. This led to ongoing alarms along
2128-617: The Illinois Country , hugging the east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St. Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women. Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high-ranking unions. British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1 with a population of about 1.5 million ranged along
2240-531: The Iroquois , Catawba , and Cherokee tribes, and the French colonists were supported by Wabanaki Confederacy members Abenaki and Mi'kmaq , and the Algonquin , Lenape , Ojibwa , Ottawa , Shawnee , and Wyandot (Huron). Fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from the Province of Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with
2352-552: The Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia. The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor George Clinton and officials from some of the other American colonies at Albany, New York . Mohawk Chief Hendrick was the speaker of their tribal council, and he insisted that
SECTION 20
#17327931023582464-665: The Navigation Act 1756 , and the Continuance of Laws Act 1756 . England passed the Naval Prize Act 1756 following the proclamation of war on May 17 to allow the capture of ships and establish privateering. The French acquired a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson. Shirley's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated by his inexperience in managing large expeditions. In conjunction, he
2576-685: The Penn's Creek massacre , the Great Cove massacre , and the Gnadenhütten massacre , Benjamin Franklin had been charged with the rapid construction of three small forts in northeastern Pennsylvania ( Fort Allen , Fort Franklin, and Fort Lebanon ) but he felt that the responsibility for building forts should be given to someone with more military training, and offered a commission to Clapham, who accepted. Franklin writes in his autobiography: Clapham
2688-611: The Province of New York during 1755–57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadien scouts, French regular forces, and Native warrior allies. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia , and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755–64) soon afterwards. Orders for the deportation were given by Commander-in-Chief William Shirley without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in arms and those who had sworn
2800-406: The Susquehanna River , arriving on 11 June to start construction. Clapham picked a site near a large stand of pines which he planned to use for construction, close to a water-powered sawmill on Armstrong Creek . In a June 11 letter to Governor Morris, Clapham noted that the site he chose for the fort was appropriate because of "...the vast Plenty of Pine Timber at Hand, its nearness to Shamokin and
2912-425: The curtain where the gate is, with a ditch, covered way, and glacis ." In early July, Clapham marched with his troops from Fort Halifax, while the canoes and bateaux carried supplies downriver, encountering numerous falls and rapids which hindered their progress. On 14 August, Clapham wrote to Governor Morris: "We have the walls of the fort now above-half finished and our other works in such situation that we can make
3024-660: The successful attack on Oswego in August. In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners' personal effects. The Europeans did not consider them prizes and prevented the Indians from stripping the prisoners of their valuables, which angered the Indians. James Otis Sr. James Otis Sr. (1702–1778) was a prominent lawyer in the Province of Massachusetts Bay . His sons James Otis Jr. and Samuel Allyne Otis also rose to prominence, as did his daughter Mercy Otis Warren . He
3136-550: The 1740s during the reign of King George II , so British colonists named this conflict after their opponents, and it became known as the French and Indian War . This continues as the standard name for the war in the United States, although indigenous peoples fought on both sides of the conflict. It also led into the Seven Years' War overseas, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain that did not involve
3248-558: The 1749 raid on Dartmouth , Clapham raised a company of 70 men, known as "Clapham's Rangers," to fight the Mi'kmaq. Governor Cornwallis offered £10 for every Mi'kmaq scalp or prisoner. The bounty of scalps was raised to £50 in 1750, motivating Clapham and Francis Bartelo to form new ranger companies to search the land around Halifax for Mi'kmaq. Clapham relieved John Gorham in the Battle at St. Croix on 23 March 1750, by arriving at Pisiguit with his company of rangers and two cannons, forcing
3360-605: The American colonies; some historians make a connection between the French and Indian War and the Seven Years' War overseas, but most residents of the United States consider them as two separate conflicts—only one of which involved the American colonies, and American historians generally use the traditional name. Less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for
3472-513: The Atlantic coast of the continent from Nova Scotia and the Colony of Newfoundland in the north to the Province of Georgia in the south. Many of the older colonies' land claims extended arbitrarily far to the west, as the extent of the continent was unknown at the time when their provincial charters were granted. Their population centers were along the coast, but the settlements were growing into
William Clapham - Misplaced Pages Continue
3584-524: The Austrian Succession ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle , which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe. The issues of conflicting territorial claims between British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision. Frontier areas were claimed by both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in
3696-662: The British abide by their obligations and block French expansion. Clinton did not respond to his satisfaction, and Hendrick said that the " Covenant Chain " was broken, a long-standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown. Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim. He ordered 21-year-old Major George Washington (whose brother
3808-487: The British encampment at Fort Edward at the upper end of navigation on the Hudson River , but Johnson had strongly fortified it, and Dieskau's Indian support was reluctant to attack. The two forces finally met in the bloody Battle of Lake George between Fort Edward and Fort William Henry . The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides withdrawing from the field. Johnson's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and
3920-606: The British, since René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier. Washington's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754. He stated in his report, "The French had swept south", detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent
4032-535: The British. Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years earlier. Céloron, however, had limited the record of French claims to the burial of lead plates, whereas Marin constructed and garrisoned forts. He first constructed Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie's south shore near Erie, Pennsylvania , and he had a road built to the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek . He then constructed a second fort at Fort Le Boeuf in Waterford, Pennsylvania , designed to guard
4144-541: The Canadians attacked under the command of Jumonville's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3. Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms. One of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee , Delaware , and Mingo warriors—just those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence. News of the two battles reached England in August. After several months of negotiations,
4256-526: The Colonel [Clapham] frequently says he will soon resign and go to Philadelphia." Pay for troops and officers at Fort Augusta was delayed repeatedly, to the point where Clapham was forced to loan most of his salary to men and officers under his command to prevent them from deserting or leaving at the end of their enlistment. Shipments of provisions were frequently late, so that the fort's food supply sometimes dwindled to only one or two days' rations. Clapham had
4368-549: The Empire . In Europe, the French and Indian War is conflated into the Seven Years' War and not given a separate name. "Seven Years" refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756—two years after the French and Indian War had started—to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763. The French and Indian War in America, by contrast, was largely concluded in six years from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to
4480-458: The English. I don't know in what way they could be brought back." Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the situation in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken. Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present. The War of
4592-538: The French and British to gain either their support or neutrality in the conflict. At this time, Spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern America. It controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years' War. Florida's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St. Augustine . There were no French regular army troops stationed in America at
William Clapham - Misplaced Pages Continue
4704-465: The French claims on the territory and told them to leave. Céloron's expedition arrived at Logstown where the Indians in the area informed him that they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British colonists regardless of the French. He continued south until his expedition reached the confluence of the Ohio and the Miami rivers, which lay just south of the village of Pickawillany ,
4816-672: The French colonists used their trading connections to recruit fighters from tribes in western portions of the Great Lakes region , which was not directly subject to the conflict between the French and British; these included the Hurons , Mississaugas , Ojibwas , Winnebagos , and Potawatomi . The British colonists were supported in the war by the Iroquois Six Nations and also by the Cherokees, until differences sparked
4928-400: The French fleet had already sailed. Admiral Edward Hawke detached a fast squadron to North America in an attempt to intercept them. In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships. The British harassed French shipping throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen. These actions contributed to
5040-472: The French forces after Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him. Over dinner, Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint-Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it." He told Washington that France's claim to the region was superior to that of
5152-570: The French posts at Fort Duquesne , Venango , and Fort Le Boeuf , and the Lenape village of Kittanning , and had assembled at the mouth of Anderson Creek , where they built bateaux to descend the Susquehanna River, bringing with them two or three small brass cannons. They observed Fort Augusta from a distance, however they were too far away for their guns to shoot from the hill opposite the fort. The force then withdrew after deciding that
5264-530: The French war party attacked the trading center at Pickawillany, capturing three traders and killing 14 Miami Indians, including Old Briton. He was reportedly ritually cannibalized by some Indians in the expedition party. In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue was given command of a 2,000-man force of Troupes de la Marine and Indians. His orders were to protect the King's land in the Ohio Valley from
5376-534: The French with military action, which Marin contemptuously dismissed. The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond. Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey , meaning "he who does great things." He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of
5488-561: The French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after the British captured it in 1759). Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755 in the sole British success that year, cutting off the French Fortress Louisbourg from land-based reinforcements. To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered
5600-553: The French, with whom they had long trading relationships. One of Tanaghrisson's men told Contrecoeur that Jumonville had been killed by British musket fire. Historians generally consider the Battle of Jumonville Glen as the opening battle of the French and Indian War in North America, and the start of hostilities in the Ohio valley. Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity , which
5712-571: The Mi'kmaq to withdraw. Clapham fought in the Battle at Chignecto on 3 September 1750. Although fighting continued across the Chignecto Isthmus during 1751, by summer Cornwallis had disbanded all ranger companies except Gorham's Rangers , a primarily Native American unit formed in 1744. During the 1751 raid on Dartmouth (also referred to as the Dartmouth Massacre) on 13 May 1751, Miꞌkmaq warriors and Acadian militia under
SECTION 50
#17327931023585824-568: The Ohio territories prompted Longueuil to dispatch another expedition to the area under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade , an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. Langlade was given 300 men, including French-Canadians and warriors of the Ottawa tribe . His objective was to punish the Miami people of Pickawillany for not following Céloron's orders to cease trading with the British. On June 21,
5936-689: The Otis and Hutchinson families. Otis was the presiding justice of the Barnstable County Court of Common Pleas during the Sept. 27, 1774, protest against the British "Intolerable Acts." In meeting the protesters demands, he agreed to ignore the requirements of the Parliament's new legislation and so preserved for Barnstable the large measure of self-government that Massachusetts had enjoyed under its 1691 charter. His son James Otis Jr. played
6048-481: The St. Lawrence, continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario , crossed the portage at Niagara, and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie . At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona, New York , the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River , which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh . There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country. Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur-traders, he informed them of
6160-450: The Third Battalion, Pennsylvania Regiment of Foot, known as the Augusta Regiment, which was originally formed to build and garrison Fort Augusta. In August 1756, Fort Granville was destroyed by French and Indian forces, and soon afterwards Clapham was informed by chief Oghaghradisha that several hundred French and Native American troops had traveled down the Great Shamokin Path to destroy the fort. This raiding party had been gathered from
6272-444: The area protested that removing the fort would put their homes in danger, and after several months of consideration, the governor instead decided to demolish Fort Halifax and transfer its garrison to Fort Hunter, strengthening it from 40 men to 80 men. The fort was abandoned after the end of Pontiac's War in 1763 and fell into ruins. The community of Fort Hunter, Pennsylvania was established nearby after 1787. Clapham's temperament
6384-431: The army, he and his family were killed by Lenape warriors on his farm in 1763. Nothing is known of William Clapham's early life. He was appointed captain in Boston on 1 November 1747, and may have been born in Massachusetts. He was married to Mary Clapham. He had one son, William Clapham, Jr., who served as a lieutenant in the Third Battalion, Pennsylvania Regiment of Foot after it was formed in late March, 1756, and who
6496-431: The campaigns to expel the Acadians ranging around the Bay of Fundy , on the Petitcodiac and St. John rivers, and Île Saint-Jean . Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755. He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on
6608-460: The capture of Montreal in 1760. Canadians conflate both the European and American conflicts into the Seven Years' War ( Guerre de Sept Ans ). French Canadians also use the term "War of Conquest" ( Guerre de la Conquête ), since it is the war in which New France was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire. In Quebec, this term was promoted by popular historians Jacques Lacoursière and Denis Vaugeois , who borrowed from
6720-520: The case is not recorded. Following his service in Nova Scotia, Clapham returned to Boston to face divorce proceedings. Records for the Massachusetts House of Representatives for 17 October 1754, show a "special act" in the case of Mary Clapham v. William Clapham, sponsored in part by James Otis Sr. , dissolving their marriage contract, after William Clapham stood convicted of "leaving the said Mary, cohabiting and committing Adultery with Another Woman in Nova Scotia." The act allowed Mary to marry again, and
6832-457: The city of Quebec (1759). The following year the British were victorious in the Montreal Campaign in which the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1763) . France also ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain, as well as French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain's loss to Britain of Spanish Florida . (Spain had ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for
SECTION 60
#17327931023586944-542: The colonial administrations. New France's Governor-General Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such as George Croghan . In June 1747, he ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron to lead a military expedition through the area. Its objectives were: Céloron's expedition force consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians, and they covered about 3,000 miles (4,800 km) between June and November 1749. They went up
7056-512: The colonies at a time when France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the limited forces that they had in New France, preferring to concentrate their forces against Prussia and its allies who were now engaged in the Seven Years' War in Europe. The conflict in Ohio ended in 1758 with the British–American victory in the Ohio Country. Between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture French Canada . They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately
7168-404: The command of Acadian Joseph Broussard , raided Dartmouth, Nova Scotia , destroying the town, killing twenty British civilians and wounding four British soldiers. Captain Clapham and 60 troops from the 45th Regiment of Foot were stationed on Blockhouse Hill. He and the company are reported to have remained within the blockhouse firing from the loopholes during the whole raid. A court martial
7280-401: The council later awarded Mary her household furniture, worth £100. Clapham then moved to Pennsylvania to assist Benjamin Franklin in constructing a series of forts along the frontier. In late 1755, Governor Robert Hunter Morris ordered the construction of forts garrisoned with colonial militia, and plans were made to begin building Fort Hunter , Fort Halifax , and Fort Augusta . Following
7392-419: The delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved by the Crown. Nevertheless, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the prototype for confederation during the War of Independence . The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755. General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne, while Massachusetts governor William Shirley
7504-606: The deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area. Monckton's forces, including companies of Rogers' Rangers , forcibly removed thousands of Acadians, chasing down many who resisted and sometimes committing atrocities. Cutting off supplies to Louisbourg led to its demise. The Acadian resistance was sometimes quite stiff, in concert with Indian allies including the Mi'kmaq, with ongoing frontier raids against Dartmouth and Lunenburg , among others. The only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757, other than
7616-451: The eastern portions of the province of Canada , as well as much of Maine. The Iroquois Confederation dominated much of upstate New York and the Ohio Country , although Ohio also included Algonquian -speaking populations of Delaware and Shawnee , as well as Iroquoian -speaking Mingos . These tribes were formally under Iroquois rule and were limited by them in their authority to make agreements. The Iroquois Confederation initially held
7728-420: The eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756. An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754. The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with the Indians, since the allegiance of the various tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding. The plan that
7840-453: The first census of the population of Pittsburgh, conducted under the direction of Colonel Henry Bouquet , in which he recorded 104 houses and a total population of 332 people, composed of 95 officers, soldiers and their families, and 238 civilians. Soon afterwards, Clapham entered into an economic venture with Indian trader George Croghan to develop a trading post and a settlement, later referred to as Oswegly Old Town. In 1762, he applied for
7952-444: The former site of the Native American village of Shamokin . The fort was positioned so as to prevent Native American war parties from descending the Susquehanna River, to serve as a refuge for civilians under attack, and as a staging area for military expeditions against enemy forces. The plan of the fort had been previously drawn up by Governor Morris, who wrote to Clapham on 12 June recommending "a square with one ravelin to protect
8064-576: The fort was too well defended. In November 1756, Clapham informed Deputy Governor William Denny that about fifty miles up the West Branch Susquehanna River was an Indian village with only ten families, located near Great Island (now known as Lock Haven, Pennsylvania ). The inhabitants had formerly lived at Shamokin and were reportedly under French influence. Clapham believed that war parties from this village had been ambushing, killing and scalping soldiers and civilians, including
8176-477: The fort's walls: On 8 September 1756, he wrote to Franklin requesting additional supplies and horses: In late October, Clapham described the final stages of the fort's construction: "In eight or ten days more the ditch will be carried quite around the parapet , the barrier gates finished and erected, and the pickets of the glacis completed." The fort was garrisoned by sixteen officers and 337 men and had twelve cannons and two swivel guns . It served as base for
8288-605: The government of the Duke of Newcastle decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French. They chose Major General Edward Braddock to lead the expedition. Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock's departure for North America. In response, King Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France under the command of Baron Dieskau in 1755. The British sent out their fleet in February 1755, intending to blockade French ports, but
8400-472: The headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. As he moved south, he drove off or captured British traders, alarming both the British and the Iroquois. Tanaghrisson was a chief of the Mingo Indians, who were remnants of Iroquois and other tribes who had been driven west by colonial expansion. He intensely disliked the French whom he accused of killing and eating his father. He traveled to Fort Le Boeuf and threatened
8512-555: The home of the Miami chief known as " Old Briton ". Céloron threatened Old Briton with severe consequences if he continued to trade with British colonists, but Old Briton ignored the warning. Céloron returned disappointedly to Montreal in November 1749. Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report. "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French," he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to
8624-731: The ideas of Maurice Séguin in considering this war as a dramatic tipping point of French Canadian identity and nationhood. At this time, North America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Great Britain or France. Large areas had no colonial settlements. The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily concentrated along the St. Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present-day New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia ), including Île Royale ( Cape Breton Island ). Fewer lived in New Orleans ; Biloxi, Mississippi ; Mobile, Alabama ; and small settlements in
8736-691: The interior. The British captured Nova Scotia from France in 1713, which still had a significant French-speaking population. Britain also claimed Rupert's Land where the Hudson's Bay Company traded for furs with local Indian tribes. Between the French and British colonists, large areas were dominated by Indian tribes. To the north, the Mi'kmaq and the Abenakis were engaged in Father Le Loutre's War and still held sway in parts of Nova Scotia, Acadia, and
8848-502: The loyalty oath to the king. Natives likewise were driven off the land to make way for settlers from New England. The British Pitt government fell due to disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry ; this last was followed by the Natives torturing and massacring their colonial victims. William Pitt came to power and significantly increased British military resources in
8960-485: The morning of May 28 in what became known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen . They killed many of the Canadiens, including their commanding officer Joseph Coulon de Jumonville , whose head was reportedly split open by Tanaghrisson with a tomahawk. Historian Fred Anderson suggests that Tanaghrisson was acting to gain the support of the British and to regain authority over his own people. They had been inclined to support
9072-536: The mouth of Fishing Creek , near its confluence with the Susquehanna River , in present-day Dauphin County . Fort Hunter was initially a stockaded gristmill in the Great Valley , owned by Samuel Hunter who lived on Fishing Creek. The mill was fortified with a simple stockade in January, 1756, and garrisoned with volunteer militia recruited by Thomas McKee, an Indian trader who operated a trading post nearby. He
9184-646: The north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec . His plan, however, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York's Governor Sir Charles Hardy , and consequently gained little support. Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun , with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command. Neither of these men had as much campaign experience as
9296-482: The onset of war. New France was defended by about 3,000 troupes de la marine , companies of colonial regulars (some of whom had significant woodland combat experience). The colonial government recruited militia support when needed. The British had few troops. Most of the British colonies mustered local militia companies to deal with Indian threats, generally ill trained and available only for short periods, but they did not have any standing forces. Virginia, by contrast, had
9408-659: The province. Later, in 1762, like his father John (a judge, representative to the Massachusetts Bay General Court, and member of the Council of Massachusetts), he was elected to the Council. Otis expected to be appointed Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court , but the position instead went to Thomas Hutchinson appointed in 1761 by Governor Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet ; creating enmity between
9520-696: The retreat—two future opponents in the American Revolutionary War . The British government initiated a plan to increase their military capability in preparation for war following news of Braddock's defeat and the start of parliament's session in November 1755. Among the early legislative measures were the Recruiting Act 1756 , the Commissions to Foreign Protestants Act 1756 for the Royal American Regiment ,
9632-465: The return of Havana , Cuba.) France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , confirming Great Britain's position as the dominant colonial power in northern America . In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William's War or Queen Anne's War . There had already been a King George's War in
9744-580: The right to settle on land 18 miles southeast of Fort Pitt , which he had purchased from George Croghan, and his application was approved by Colonel Bouquet and General Robert Monckton . Clapham cleared his land in February 1763, and subsequently operated a trading post and extensive plantation where Sewickley Creek enters into the Youghiogheny River (between present-day Sutersville, Pennsylvania and West Newton, Pennsylvania ). He and Croghan planned to sell corn, hay, and cattle at Fort Pitt. He
9856-874: The soldier killed in September at Bloody Spring . He ordered a raiding party of 42 men, with Andrew Montour acting as a guide, to destroy the village, and instructed the commander, Captain Hambright, "to Kill, Scalp, and capture as many as you can." The raiding party found the village empty, but returned later and destroyed it. Clapham and his men were dissatisfied when the Commissary General , James Young, arrived in mid-July to deliver their pay, much of which had been withheld. Young wrote to Governor Morris on 18 July: Clapham immediately wrote to Governor Morris: On 5 August 1756, Edward Shippen III wrote to his son, Colonel Joseph Shippen, at Shamokin: "You tell me
9968-605: The south. The disputes also extended into the Atlantic Ocean , where both powers wanted access to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland . In 1749, the British government gave land to the Ohio Company of Virginia for the purpose of developing trade and settlements in the Ohio Country. The grant required that it settle 100 families in the territory and construct a fort for their protection. But
10080-552: The territory was also claimed by Pennsylvania, and both colonies began pushing for action to improve their respective claims. In 1750, Christopher Gist explored the Ohio territory, acting on behalf of both Virginia and the company, and he opened negotiations with the Indian tribes at Logstown. He completed the 1752 Treaty of Logstown in which the local Indians agreed to terms through their "Half-King" Tanacharison and an Iroquois representative. These terms included permission to build
10192-505: The trio of officers whom France sent to North America. French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession . On May 17, 1756, Britain formally declared war on France, which expanded
10304-530: The war into Europe and came to be known as the Seven Years' War . Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in addition to his role as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived. Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry. In
10416-526: The war, in 1756, Great Britain declared war on France, beginning the worldwide Seven Years' War. Many view the French and Indian War as being merely the American theater of this conflict; however, in the United States the French and Indian War is viewed as a singular conflict which was not associated with any European war. French Canadians call it the guerre de la Conquête ('War of the Conquest'). The British colonists were supported at various times by
10528-609: The western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning east to get away from the action. The new British command was not in place until July. Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold action against his inertia. He built on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George. With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led
10640-560: Was a theater of the Seven Years' War , which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French , each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the start of the war, the French colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 settlers, compared with 2 million in the British colonies. The outnumbered French particularly depended on their native allies. Two years into
10752-409: Was a disaster. It was attacked by French regulars, Canadian Militiamen , and Indian warriors ambushing them from hiding places up in trees and behind logs, and Braddock called for a retreat. He was killed and approximately 1,000 British soldiers were killed or injured. The remaining 500 British troops retreated to Virginia, led by Washington. Washington and Thomas Gage played key roles in organizing
10864-503: Was a stockade fort 160 feet (49 m) square, with four bastions and surrounding earthworks about 10 feet high. Once finished, it was garrisoned by Pennsylvania Colonial Militia and served as the chief supply post between the area settlements and Shamokin where Fort Augusta would be built later that summer. The fort was abandoned in late 1757, and was dismantled in mid-1763. In June, 1756, Major James Burd finally received sufficient funding and supplies to begin building Fort Augusta at
10976-444: Was a well known and respected figure on the trans-Appalachian frontier in Pennsylvania, but unlike his associate George Croghan, he was not trusted by the Ohio Valley tribes. Clapham's Trading Post was the site of the first attack in Pennsylvania of Pontiac's Rebellion . On 28 May 1763, Keekyuscung , his son Wolf, and two other Indians allegedly murdered and scalped Clapham, his wife and child at Clapham's farm on Sewickley Creek. This
11088-567: Was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory in October 1753. Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam as an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a company surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson. On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf. Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre succeeded Marin as commander of
11200-447: Was appointed captain of "McKee's Volunteers," but provisions, clothing and ammunition were in short supply, and the post was vulnerable to attack. On 8 March 1756, Benjamin Franklin wrote to August Gottlieb Spangenberg that: On 7 April 1756, Governor Morris ordered Clapham to march his regiment to Hunter's Mill to begin construction. On 11 May 1756, McKee handed over command of the fort to Colonel Clapham. The fort probably consisted of
11312-474: Was better organized than Shirley's, which was noticed by New France's governor the Marquis de Vaudreuil . Vaudreuil had been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley's expected attack. Vaudreuil saw Johnson as the larger threat and sent Dieskau to Fort St. Frédéric to meet that threat. Dieskau planned to attack
11424-472: Was called on 14 May, the day after the raid, to inquire into the conduct of the commanding officers who allowed the town to be destroyed. In June, Clapham's sergeant was acquitted. In 1751, Clapham was prosecuted in Halifax for killing a drunk prisoner by gagging him too tightly. The case was unique in that Clapham was not brought before a court martial, but was instead tried in a civilian court. The outcome of
11536-453: Was evidently an unpopular commander, as suggested by Edward Shippen III in a letter to Major James Burd on 26 March 1757: On 5 April, Shippen wrote again to Major Burd, commenting on the news that Clapham intended to become a fur trader: After assisting in the establishment of frontier forts, Clapham retired from the army and moved to Pittsburgh in July 1760. On 14 April 1761, Clapham published
11648-538: Was given the task of fortifying Fort Oswego and attacking Fort Niagara . Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St. Frédéric at Crown Point, New York , and Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beauséjour to the east on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia. Braddock led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on the Braddock expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, with George Washington as one of his aides. The expedition
11760-567: Was killed by two Panis slaves in June 1762. Clapham also had a daughter Mary. Court records for Suffolk County, Massachusetts , show that on 30 June 1747, Clapham filed charges against William MacLanahan for defamation , claiming that MacLanahan The outcome of the case is not recorded. In 1748, Clapham was sent as a company commander to defend Annapolis Royal as part of a New England reinforcement for Nova Scotia , where he served with Jedidiah Preble and Benjamin Goldthwait . Clapham
11872-466: Was located in the westernmost bastion. In front of the main gate, a small bridge over the moat could be raised in the event of an attack. Blockhouses connected by a stockade formed a covered way to the river. Clapham was concerned that the fort would be vulnerable to French assault from the west, if the French were to deploy artillery. On 7 September 1756, he wrote to Franklin requesting permission to hire another carpenter for additional fortification of
11984-532: Was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara. As a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull , and Fort Williams, the last two located on the Oneida Carry between the Mohawk River and Wood Creek at Rome, New York . Supplies were cached at Fort Bull for use in the projected attack on Niagara. Johnson's expedition
12096-579: Was often called "Colonel James" because of his military rank and also to distinguish between him and his famous son. He was a stalwart member of the Popular Party, as was his son, in Boston, Massachusetts. Born in Barnstable, Massachusetts , Otis became the undisputed head of the bar in the colony. As a result of his distinguished service, in 1748 Colonel James was appointed Attorney General of
12208-636: Was promoted from captain to colonel in February, 1756, and given command over the Third Battalion, Pennsylvania Regiment of Foot (known as the Augusta Regiment), and over defenses in Northampton County . The Pennsylvania government decided to construct a fort at Hunter's Mill in response to the Penn's Creek Massacre in October 1755. The mill was located about six miles north of Harris' Ferry, probably five hundred feet east of
12320-750: Was reportedly done in retaliation for the destruction of a Lenape community at Great Island ( Lock Haven, Pennsylvania ), ordered by Clapham in November, 1756. Wolf may also have been seeking revenge for having been arrested and imprisoned at Fort Pitt in 1762 on charges of horse theft. He had escaped and plotted his revenge together with his father. Soon after the massacre, Pontiac’s allied tribes in other regions of Pennsylvania captured Fort Presque Isle and laid siege to Fort Pitt . William Trent , then Superintendent of Fort Pitt, wrote on 29 May: An article in The Pennsylvania Gazette on 31 May stated: On 2 May 1764, Colonel Henry Bouquet drew up
12432-676: Was revealed in May, 1756, when he and several officers stayed with Governor Robert Morris at Harris's Ferry, operated by John Harris Sr. and the future site of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania . Captain Joseph Shippen later wrote to his father that Governor Morris had made some remarks which offended Clapham, so that Clapham refused to speak to the governor for several days afterward, and eventually saddled his horse with intent to ride away and abandon his troops. Captain Shippen and other officers persuaded Clapham not to leave, and were able to mediate
12544-517: Was stationed in Nova Scotia during Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755). On 19 August 1749, Captain Clapham was in command at Canso, Nova Scotia , when Lieutenant Joseph Gorham and his party were attacked by Mi'kmaq who took twenty prisoners and carried them off to Louisbourg . After Governor Edward Cornwallis complained to the Governor of Ile Royale , the prisoners were released. After
#357642