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102-587: William Dean Howells was born on March 1, 1837, in Martinsville, Ohio (now known as Martins Ferry, Ohio ), to William Cooper Howells and Mary Dean Howells, the second of eight children. He had Welsh, German, Irish, and English ancestry. His father was a newspaper editor and printer who moved frequently around Ohio. In 1840, the family settled in Hamilton, Ohio , where his father oversaw a Whig newspaper and followed Swedenborgianism . Their nine years there were

204-592: A German immigrant, signed pardons for Fielden, Neebe, and Schwab, calling them victims of "hysteria, packed juries, and a biased judge" and noting that the state "has never discovered who it was that threw the bomb which killed the policeman, and the evidence does not show any connection whatsoever between the defendants and the man who threw it". Altgeld also faulted the city of Chicago for failing to hold Pinkerton guards responsible for repeated use of lethal violence against striking workers. Altgeld's actions concerning labor were used to defeat his reelection. Soon after

306-592: A book for children partly inspired by his own childhood. The same year, he bought a summer home overlooking the Piscataqua River in Kittery Point, Maine . He returned there annually until Elinor's death when he left the house to his son and family and moved to a house in York Harbor. His grandson, John Noyes Mead Howells, donated the property to Harvard University as a memorial in 1979. In 1904 he

408-458: A consensus developed that suppression of anarchist agitation was necessary while for their part, union organizations such as The Knights of Labor and craft unions were quick to disassociate themselves from the anarchist movement and to repudiate violent tactics as self-defeating. Many workers, on the other hand, believed that industry-hired men of the Pinkerton agency were responsible because of

510-757: A decade before Marietta . The settlement got its start as a consequence of a land grant to George Mercer of the Ohio Company in 1748 from the British Crown for 200,000 acres in the Ohio Country , a colloquial term for what is now much of Ohio, and western West Virginia and Pennsylvania. The grant called for among other things, establishment of a fort. The grant was for land south of the Ohio River in West Virginia (then Virginia). Settlement

612-416: A grid system of streets, much of which survives to this day. Martinsville remained an unincorporated settlement for a relatively long time. It was eventually incorporated as a village in 1865 and renamed Martin's Ferry for Ebenezer's father's ferry. It was chartered as a city in 1885, and sometime later the apostrophe was dropped from the city's name. The city developed as an important industrial center during

714-432: A higher salary, though he was frustrated by Fields' close supervision. Howells was made editor in 1871, after five years as assistant editor, and he remained in this position until 1881. In 1869, he met Mark Twain with whom he formed a longtime friendship. But his relationship with journalist Jonathan Baxter Harrison was more important for the development of his literary style and his advocacy of Realism . Harrison wrote

816-402: A jury was extraordinarily difficult, lasting three weeks, and nearly one thousand people called. All union members and anyone who expressed sympathy toward socialism were dismissed. In the end a jury of 12 was seated, most of whom confessed prejudice against the defendants. Despite their professions of prejudice Judge Gary seated those who declared that despite their prejudices they would acquit if

918-401: A long time ago". In the end, Oglesby decided he would only pardon those who asked for clemency. Four of the seven outright refused this on the grounds that they had committed no crime, and so only the two who did request mercy, Fielden and Schwab, had their sentences commuted to life in prison on November 10, 1887. On the eve of his scheduled execution, Lingg died by suicide in his cell with

1020-508: A male householder with no wife present, and 40.9% were non-families. 35.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.89. The median age in the city was 42.1 years. 21.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.5% were from 25 to 44; 28.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of

1122-531: A militant revolutionary force with an armed section equipped with explosives. Its revolutionary strategy centered around the belief that successful operations against the police and the seizure of major industrial centers would lead to massive public support by workers, start a revolution, destroy capitalism, and establish a socialist economy. In October 1884, a convention held by the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions unanimously set May 1, 1886, as

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1224-653: A number of clubs and organizations for veterans, ethnic groups and senior citizens. The city has multiple cemeteries, including Riverview Cemetery, St. Mary's Catholic Cemetery and Walnut Grove Pioneer Cemetery. The latter is the burial place of local heroine, Betty Zane , who saved Fort Henry in Wheeling during one of the last battles of the American Revolutionary War by hiding gunpowder inside her dress. Her brother, Ebenezer Zane , who cut Zane's Trace from Wheeling to Maysville, Kentucky , opening

1326-663: A personal friend to many of them, including Henry Adams , William James , Henry James , and Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. In 1860 Howells wrote Abraham Lincoln 's campaign biography Life of Abraham Lincoln and subsequently gained a consulship in Venice. He married Elinor Mead on Christmas Eve 1862 at the American embassy in Paris . She was a sister of sculptor Larkin Goldsmith Mead and architect William Rutherford Mead of

1428-505: A piece for The Atlantic Monthly in which he identified the fears of middle-class Americans concerning labor radicalism, and asserted that the workers had only themselves to blame for their troubles. Edward Aveling remarked, "If these men are ultimately hanged, it will be the Chicago Tribune that has done it." Schaack, who had led the investigation, was dismissed from the police force for allegedly having fabricated evidence in

1530-607: A rally the following day at Haymarket Square (also called the Haymarket), which was then a bustling commercial center near the corner of Randolph Street and Desplaines Street. Printed in German and English, the fliers stated that the police had murdered the strikers on behalf of business interests and urged workers to seek justice. The first fliers contain the words Workingmen Arm Yourselves and Appear in Full Force! When Spies saw

1632-465: A review somewhat more critical of the defendants, historian Jon Teaford concludes that "[t]he tragedy of Haymarket is the American justice system did not protect the damn fools who most needed that protection... It is the damn fools who talk too much and too wildly who are most in need of protection from the state." Historian Timothy Messer-Kruse revisited the digitized trial transcript and argued that

1734-468: A series of articles for The Atlantic Monthly during the 1870s on the lives of ordinary Americans. Howells gave a series of twelve lectures on "Italian Poets of Our Century" for the Lowell Institute during its 1870–71 season. Howells published his first novel Their Wedding Journey in 1872, but his literary reputation soared with the realist novel A Modern Instance (1882), which described

1836-463: A six-day work week. The city became a center for many attempts to organize labor's demands for better working conditions. Employers responded with anti-union measures, such as firing and blacklisting union members, locking out workers, recruiting strikebreakers; employing spies, thugs, and private security forces and exacerbating ethnic tensions in order to divide the workers. Business interests were supported by mainstream newspapers, and were opposed by

1938-639: A slovenly, or an infelicitous page." Mark Twain considered Howells not merely unusually talented as a writer but in fact superlatively so. The following were written during his residence in England and in Italy, as was The Rise of Silas Lapham in 1885. He returned to the United States in 1886. He wrote various types of works, including fiction, poetry, and farces, of which The Sleeping Car , The Mouse-Trap, The Elevator ; Christmas Every Day ; and Out of

2040-513: A smuggled blasting cap which he reportedly held in his mouth like a cigar (the blast blew off half his face and he survived in agony for six hours). The next day (November 11, 1887) four defendants—Engel, Fischer, Parsons, and Spies—were taken to the gallows in white robes and hoods. They sang the Marseillaise , then the anthem of the international revolutionary movement. Family members including Lucy Parsons , who attempted to see them for

2142-461: A typesetter. A search of the premises resulted in the discovery of the "Revenge Poster" and other evidence considered incriminating by the prosecution. On May 7, police searched the premises of Louis Lingg where they found a number of bombs and bomb-making materials. Lingg's landlord William Seliger was also arrested, but cooperated with police, identified Lingg as a bomb-maker, and was not charged. An associate of Spies, Balthazar Rau, suspected as

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2244-556: A volume was published in 1895 under the title Stops of Various Quills . He was the initiator of the school of American realists, and he had little sympathy with any other type of fiction. However, he frequently encouraged new writers in whom he discovered new ideas or new fictional techniques, such as Stephen Crane , Frank Norris , Hamlin Garland , Harold Frederic , Abraham Cahan , Sarah Orne Jewett , and Paul Laurence Dunbar . In 1902, Howells published The Flight of Pony Baker ,

2346-488: Is built on two basic plateaus between a hill and the Ohio River. The lower plateau, along the river, is dominated by a large industrial park, the Martins Ferry Football Stadium, and Ohio State Route 7 (a four-lane traffic artery that runs from north to south across eastern Ohio). The higher plateau, which is the larger of the two, is predominantly residential and commercial, and is home to most of

2448-520: Is intensifying" and articulated the vision advocated by the Knights of Labor for an industrial system of worker-owned co-operatives , another among the strategies pursued to advance the conditions of laborers. The interview was republished as a pamphlet to include the bill Stanford introduced in the Senate to foster co-operatives. Popular pressure continued for the establishment of the 8-hour day. At

2550-876: Is located in and serves the city. In addition to the public school system, Martins Ferry is also served by two religious schools: St Mary's Catholic School and the Martins Ferry Christian School. Martins Ferry has a public library, a branch of the Belmont County District Library. James Wright wrote Autumn Begins in Martins Ferry, Ohio . The James Wright Poetry Festival was held in Martins Ferry from 1981 to 2007. Haymarket affair August Spies   [REDACTED] Albert Parsons   [REDACTED] Samuel Fielden Carter Harrison Sr. John Bonfield The Haymarket affair , also known as

2652-419: Is not like a real grasshopper. But I will own that I think the time is yet far off, and that the people who have been brought up on the ideal grasshopper, the heroic grasshopper, the impassioned grasshopper, the self-devoted, adventureful, good old romantic card-board grasshopper, must die out before the simple, honest, and natural grasshopper can have a fair field." Howells believed the future of American writing

2754-520: The Episcopal Church and the Society of Christian Socialists . These influences led him to write on issues of social justice from a moral and egalitarian point of view, being critic of the social effects of industrial capitalism . He was, however, not a Marxist . Noting the "documentary" and truthful value of Howells's work, Henry James wrote "Stroke by stroke and book by book your work

2856-628: The Haymarket affair , which led him to portray a similar riot in A Hazard of New Fortunes and to write publicly to protest the trials of the men allegedly involved in the affair. In his public writing and in his novels, he drew attention to pressing social issues of the time. He joined the Anti-Imperialist League in 1898, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines . His poems were collected in 1873 and 1886, and

2958-720: The Haymarket massacre , the Haymarket riot , the Haymarket Square riot , or the Haymarket Incident , was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on May 4, 1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago , Illinois , United States. The rally began peacefully in support of workers striking for an eight-hour work day , the day after the events at the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company , during which one person

3060-583: The International Working People's Association [IWPA], his wife and fellow organizer Lucy , and their children. Speaking to a rally outside the West Side, Chicago , McCormick reaper plant on May 3, August Spies advised the striking workers to "hold together, to stand by their union, or they would not succeed". Well-planned and coordinated, the general strike to this point had mainly remained non-violent. However, workers surged to

3162-583: The Anarchists bore bloody fruit in Chicago tonight and before daylight at least a dozen stalwart men will have laid down their lives as a tribute to the doctrine of Herr Johann Most ." (Most was a German-American anarchy-theorist and leader, who was not in Chicago). The article referred to the strikers as a "mob" and used quotation marks around the term "workingmen". At about 10:30 pm, just as Fielden

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3264-539: The Haymarket Affair, were arrested. Ignoring legal requirements such as for search warrants, Chicago police squads subjected the labor activists of Chicago to an eight-week shakedown, ransacking their meeting halls and places of business. The emphasis was on the speakers at the Haymarket rally and the newspaper Arbeiter-Zeitung . A small group of anarchists were declared to have been engaged in making bombs on

3366-641: The Haymarket incident and the Great Upheaval subsided. Employers regained control of their workers and traditional workdays were restored to ten or more hours a day. There was a massive outpouring of community and business support for the police and many thousands of dollars were donated to funds for their medical care and to assist their efforts. The entire labor and immigrant community, particularly Germans and Bohemians, came under suspicion. Police raids were carried out on homes and offices of suspected anarchists. Dozens of suspects, many only remotely related to

3468-680: The Question are characteristic. Martins Ferry, Ohio Martins Ferry is the most populous city in Belmont County, Ohio , United States. The population was 6,260 as of the 2020 census . Located along the Ohio River across from Wheeling, West Virginia , it is part of the Wheeling metropolitan area . Martins Ferry is the oldest European settlement in the state of Ohio , having been settled at least as early as 1779, almost

3570-506: The United States sang the anthem, Eight Hour. The song's chorus reflected the ideology of the Great Upheaval, "Eight Hours for work. Eight hours for rest. Eight hours for what we will." Estimates of the number of striking workers across the U.S. range from 300,000 to half a million. In New York City, the number of demonstrators was estimated at 10,000. and in Detroit at 11,000. In Milwaukee , some 10,000 workers turned out. In Chicago,

3672-496: The United States. He also wrote critically in support of American writers Hamlin Garland , Stephen Crane , Emily Dickinson , Mary E. Wilkins Freeman , Paul Laurence Dunbar , Sarah Orne Jewett , Charles W. Chesnutt , Abraham Cahan , Madison Cawein , and Frank Norris . In his "Editor's Study" column at The Atlantic Monthly and, later, at Harper's , he formulated and disseminated his theories of realism in literature. Howells viewed realism as "nothing more and nothing less than

3774-527: The agency's tactic of secretly infiltrating labor groups and its sometimes violent methods of strike breaking. The police assumed that an anarchist had thrown the bomb as part of a planned conspiracy; their problem was how to prove it. On the morning of May 5, they raided the offices of the Arbeiter-Zeitung , arresting its editor August Spies and his brother, who was not charged. Also arrested were editorial assistant Michael Schwab and Adolph Fischer,

3876-403: The average family size was 2.86. In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.4% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 20.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.5 males. The median income for a household in the city

3978-502: The basis of interviews, that the anarchists had been experimenting for years with dynamite and other explosives, refining the design of their bombs before coming up with the effective one used at the Haymarket. At the last minute, when it was discovered that instructions for manslaughter had not been included in the submitted instructions, the jury was called back, and the instructions were given. The jury returned guilty verdicts for all eight defendants. Before being sentenced, Neebe told

4080-601: The beginning that this meeting has not been called for any such purpose. The object of this meeting is to explain the general situation of the eight-hour movement and to throw light upon various incidents in connection with it. Following Spies' speech, the crowd was addressed by Parsons, the Alabama-born editor of the radical English-language weekly The Alarm . The crowd was so calm that Mayor Carter Harrison Sr. , who had stopped by to watch, walked home early. Parsons spoke for almost an hour before standing down in favor of

4182-406: The bomb exploded. Spies and Fielden had spoken at the peaceful rally and were stepping down from the speaker's wagon in compliance with police orders to disperse just before the bomb went off. Two others had been present at the beginning of the rally but had left and were at Zepf's Hall, an anarchist rendezvous, at the time of the explosion. They were Arbeiter-Zeitung typesetter Adolph Fischer , and

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4284-407: The bomber, was traced to Omaha and brought back to Chicago. After interrogation, Rau offered to cooperate with police. He alleged that the defendants had experimented with dynamite bombs and accused them of having published what he said was a code word, "Ruhe" ("peace"), in the Arbeiter-Zeitung as a call to arms at Haymarket Square. Rudolf Schnaubelt, the police's lead suspect as the bomb thrower,

4386-605: The case, but was reinstated in 1892. The case was appealed in 1887 to the Supreme Court of Illinois , then to the United States Supreme Court where the defendants were represented by John Randolph Tucker , Roger Atkinson Pryor , General Benjamin F. Butler and William P. Black . The petition for certiorari was denied. After the appeals had been exhausted, it was left to Illinois Governor Richard James Oglesby to decide whether to commute

4488-579: The city was 46.8% male and 53.2% female. During the census of 2000, there were 7,226 people, 3,202 households, and 1,959 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,345.1 inhabitants per square mile (1,291.6/km ). There were 3,680 housing units at an average density of 1,703.6 per square mile (657.8/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 93.19% White , 5.11% African American , 0.30% Native American , 0.04% Asian , 0.03% Pacific Islander , 0.22% from other races , and 1.11% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.64% of

4590-415: The city was 91.6% White , 5.6% African American , 0.3% Native American , 0.1% Asian , 0.2% from other races , and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race 0.7% of the population. There were 3,022 households, of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.2% were married couples living together, 16.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9% had

4692-477: The city's residents. It gradually rises to a steep hillside in the west that forms a natural wall. Directly across the river lies the city of Wheeling, West Virginia , and to the east is the Pennsylvania state line. The city of Columbus is 125 miles (201 km) to the west, and Pittsburgh is 59 miles (95 km) northeast of the city. On the southern end of town, Martins Ferry is directly connected to

4794-601: The court that Schaack's officers were among the city's worst gangs, ransacking houses and stealing money and watches. Schaack laughed and Neebe retorted, "You need not laugh about it, Captain Schaack. You are one of them. You are an anarchist, as you understand it. You are all anarchists, in this sense of the word, I must say." Judge Gary sentenced seven of the defendants to death by hanging and Neebe to 15 years in prison. The sentencing provoked outrage from labor and workers' movements and their supporters, resulting in protests around

4896-513: The court trial was that one of the defendants may have built the bomb, but none of those on trial had thrown it, and only two of the eight were at the Haymarket at the time. Seven were sentenced to death and one to a term of 15 years in prison. Illinois Governor Richard J. Oglesby commuted two of the sentences to terms of life in prison; another died by suicide in jail before his scheduled execution. The other four were hanged on November 11, 1887. In 1893, Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned

4998-474: The date by which the eight-hour work day would become standard, declaring that they resolved that "eight hours shall constitute a legal day's labor, from and after May 1, 1886, and that we recommend to labor organizations that they so direct their laws". As the chosen date approached, U.S. labor unions prepared for a general strike in support of the eight-hour day. On Saturday, May 1, thousands of workers who went on strike and attended rallies held throughout

5100-399: The decay of a marriage. His 1885 novel The Rise of Silas Lapham became his best known work, describing the rise and fall of an American entrepreneur of the paint business. His social views were also strongly represented in the novels Annie Kilburn (1888), A Hazard of New Fortunes (1889), and An Imperative Duty (1891). Howells was particularly outraged by the trials resulting from

5202-485: The defendants. The prosecution, led by Julius Grinnell, argued that, since the defendants had not actively discouraged the person who had thrown the bomb, they were therefore equally responsible as conspirators. The jury heard the testimony of 118 people, including 54 members of the Chicago Police Department and the defendants Fielden, Schwab, Spies and Parsons. Albert Parsons's brother claimed there

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5304-441: The defendants." He further notes that the conspiracy charge was legally unprecedented, the judge was "partisan," and all the jurors admitted prejudice against the defendants. Historian Carl Smith writes, "The visceral feelings of fear and anger surrounding the trial ruled out anything but the pretense of justice right from the outset." Smith notes that scholars have long considered the trial a "notorious" "miscarriage of justice". In

5406-470: The event, Henry David wrote a history, which preceded another scholarly treatment by Paul Avrich in 1984, and a "social history" of the era by Bruce C. Nelson in 1988. In 2006, labor historian James Green wrote a popular history. Christopher Thale writes in the Encyclopedia of Chicago that lacking credible evidence regarding the bombing, "...the prosecution focused on the writings and speeches of

5508-479: The evidence points to Rudolph Schnaubelt, brother-in-law of Schwab, as the likely perpetrator. An extensive collection of documents relating to the Haymarket Affair and the legal proceedings related to it, The Haymarket Affair Digital Collection, has been created by the Chicago Historical Society . Among supporters of the labor movement in the United States and abroad and others, the trial

5610-411: The evidence supported it, refusing to dismiss for prejudice. Eventually the peremptory challenges of the defense were exhausted. Frustrated by the hundreds of jurors who were being dismissed, a bailiff was appointed who selected jurors rather than calling them at random. The bailiff proved prejudiced himself and selected jurors who seemed likely to convict based on their social position and attitudes toward

5712-493: The firm McKim, Mead, and White . Among their children was architect John Mead Howells . Howells and his family returned to the United States in 1865 and settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts . He wrote for various magazines, including The Atlantic Monthly and Harper's Magazine . In January 1866, James Fields offered him a position as assistant editor at The Atlantic Monthly ; he accepted after successfully negotiating for

5814-520: The first time on the political field in the summer following the Haymarket Affair.... [T]he Knights of Labor doubled its membership, reaching 40,000 in the fall of 1886. On Labor Day the number of Chicago workers in parade led the country. On the first anniversary of the event, May 4, 1887, the New-York Tribune published an interview with Senator Leland Stanford , in which he addressed the consensus that "the conflict between capital and labor

5916-529: The gates to confront strikebreakers when the end-of-the-workday bell sounded. Spies called for calm, but the police fired on the crowd. Two McCormick workers were killed; some newspaper accounts said there were six fatalities. Spies later testified, "I was very indignant. I knew from experience of the past that this butchering of people was done for the express purpose of defeating the eight-hour movement." Outraged by this act of police violence , local anarchists quickly printed and distributed fliers calling for

6018-566: The incident as the "bloody fruit" of "the villainous teachings of the Anarchists". ref> The New York Times , May [4] 6, 1886, quoted in Avrich, The Haymarket Tragedy , p. 217.</ref> The Chicago Times described the defendants as "arch counselors of riot, pillage, incendiarism and murder"; other reporters described them as "bloody brutes", "red ruffians", "dynamarchists", "bloody monsters", "cowards", "cutthroats", "thieves", "assassins", and "fiends". The journalist George Frederic Parsons wrote

6120-596: The incident from complications related to injuries received that day. Police captain Michael Schaack later wrote that the number of wounded workers was "largely in excess of that on the side of the police". The Chicago Herald described a scene of "wild carnage" and estimated at least fifty dead or wounded civilians lay in the streets. It is unclear how many civilians were wounded since many were afraid to seek medical attention, fearing arrest. They found aid where they could. A harsh anti-union clampdown followed

6222-590: The labor and immigrant press. During the economic slowdown between 1882 and 1886, socialist and anarchist organizations were active. Membership of the Knights of Labor , which rejected socialism and radicalism but supported the eight-hour work day, grew from 70,000 in 1884 to over 700,000 by 1886. In Chicago, the anarchist movement of several thousand, mostly immigrant, workers centered on the German-language newspaper Arbeiter-Zeitung ("Workers' Newspaper"), edited by August Spies . Other anarchists operated

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6324-752: The last speaker of the evening, the English-born socialist, anarchist, and labor activist Methodist pastor, Rev. Samuel Fielden, who delivered a brief ten-minute address. Many of the crowd had already left as the weather was deteriorating. A New York Times article, with the dateline May 4, and headlined "Rioting and Bloodshed in the Streets of Chicago ... Twelve Policemen Dead or Dying", reported that Fielden spoke for 20 minutes, alleging that his words grew "wilder and more violent as he proceeded". Another New York Times article, headlined "Anarchy's Red Hand" and dated May 6, opens with: "The villainous teachings of

6426-413: The last time, were arrested and searched for bombs (none was found). According to witnesses, in the moments before the men were hanged , Spies shouted, "The time will come when our silence will be more powerful than the voices you strangle today." In their last words, Engel and Fischer called out, "Hurrah for anarchism!" Parsons then requested to speak, but he was cut off when the signal was given to spring

6528-498: The late 19th century and early 20th century. It became an important rail hub and river port. Over the past 50 years, the town's population has decreased significantly as industries have closed or moved elsewhere. Today, the city's population is less than half of what it once was. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 2.33 square miles (6.03 km ), all land. The town

6630-534: The line, he said he would not speak at the rally unless the words were removed from the flier. All but a few hundred fliers were destroyed, and new fliers were printed without the offending words; More than 20,000 copies were distributed. The rally began peacefully under a light rain on the evening of May 4. August Spies , Albert Parsons , and the Rev. Samuel Fielden spoke to a crowd estimated variously at between 600 and 3,000 while standing in an open wagon adjacent to

6732-497: The longest period that they stayed in one place. The family had to live frugally, although the young Howells was encouraged by his parents in his literary interests. He began at an early age to help his father with typesetting and printing work, a job known at the time as a printer's devil . In 1852, his father arranged to have one of his poems published in the Ohio State Journal without telling him. In 1856, Howells

6834-459: The movement's center, an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 workers had gone on strike and there were perhaps twice as many people out on the streets participating in various demonstrations and marches, as, for example, a march by 10,000 men employed in the Chicago lumber yards. Though participants in these events added up to 80,000, it is disputed whether there was a march of that number down Michigan Avenue led by anarchist Albert Parsons , founder of

6936-526: The path of the advancing police, where it exploded, killing policeman Mathias J. Degan and severely wounding many of the other policemen. Witnesses maintained that immediately after the bomb blast, there was an exchange of gunshots between police and demonstrators. It is unclear who fired first. Historian Paul Avrich maintains that "nearly all sources agree that it was the police who opened fire", reloaded and then fired again, killing at least four and wounding as many as 70 people. In less than five minutes,

7038-529: The police were wounded by each other's revolvers. ... It was every man for himself, and while some got two or three squares away, the rest emptied their revolvers, mainly into each other." In all, seven policemen and at least four workers were killed. Avrich said that most of the police deaths were from police gunfire. Historian Timothy Messer-Kruse argues that, although it is impossible to rule out lethal friendly fire, several policemen were probably shot by armed protesters. Another policeman died two years after

7140-409: The population. There were 3,202 households, out of which 26.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.2% were married couples living together, 15.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.8% were non-families. 35.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and

7242-508: The possessing classes, which followed the throwing of the bomb on May 4, the Chicago wage earners only united their forces and stiffened their resistance. The conservative and radical central bodies – there were two each of the trade unions and two also of the Knights of Labor – the socialists and the anarchists, the single taxers and the reformers, the native born...and the foreign born Germans, Bohemians, and Scandinavians, all got together for

7344-485: The proceedings were fair for their time, a challenge to the historical consensus that the trial was a travesty. Historian Nathan Fine points out that trade-union activities continued to show signs of growth and vitality, culminating later in 1886 with the establishment of the Labor Party of Chicago. Fine observes: [T]he fact is that despite police repression, newspaper incitement to hysteria, and organization of

7446-561: The remaining defendant and criticized the trial. The site of the incident was designated a Chicago landmark in 1992, and a sculpture was dedicated there in 2004. In addition, the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997 at the defendants' burial site in Forest Park . The Haymarket affair is generally considered significant as the origin of International Workers' Day held on May 1. It

7548-473: The same day as the incident, including round ones like the one used in Haymarket Square. Newspaper reports declared that anarchist agitators were to blame for the "riot", a view adopted by an alarmed public. As time passed, press reports and illustrations of the incident became more elaborate. Coverage was national, then international. Among property owners, the press, and other elements of society,

7650-489: The sentences of the convicted. Hundreds of thousands of people across the country petitioned him to do so, though the press at the time largely called for executions. Oglesby was troubled by the case. Parson's attorney had noted in the trial that hanging these men would be the equivalent of hanging abolitionists who had sympathized with John Brown . Oglesby, a former Radical Republican himself, acknowledged that under these laws "all of us abolitionists would have been hanged

7752-405: The square on Des Plaines Street. A large number of on-duty police officers watched from nearby. Paul Avrich , a historian specializing in the study of anarchism, quotes Spies as saying: There seems to prevail the opinion in some quarters that this meeting has been called to inaugurate a riot, hence these warlike preparations on the part of so-called 'law and order.' However, let me tell you at

7854-524: The square was empty except for the casualties. According to the May 4 New York Times , demonstrators began firing at the police, who then returned fire. In his report on the incident, Inspector Bonfield wrote that he "gave the order to cease firing, fearing that some of our men, in the darkness, might fire into each other". An anonymous police official told the Chicago Tribune , "A very large number of

7956-406: The time of the bombing; he was also later pardoned. Not directly tied to the Haymarket rally, but arrested for their militant radicalism were George Engel , who had been at home playing cards on that day, and Louis Lingg , the hot-headed bomb-maker denounced by his associate, Seliger. Another defendant who had not been present that day was Oscar Neebe , an American-born citizen of German descent who

8058-492: The town of Jefferson was platted by Absalom Martin, one of the city's earliest settlers, who operated a ferry there. In 1801, he abandoned his plat when St. Clairsville was selected as the county seat of the newly organized county of Belmont , one of the founding territories of the Northwest Territory . In 1835, Ebenezer Martin, the son of Absalom Martin, redesigned the town, which he called Martinsville , with

8160-461: The trap door. Witnesses reported that the condemned men did not die immediately when they dropped, but strangled to death slowly, a sight which left the spectators visibly shaken. Notwithstanding the convictions for conspiracy, no actual bomber was ever brought to trial, "and no lawyerly explanation could ever make a conspiracy trial without the main perpetrator seem completely legitimate." Historians such as James Joll and Timothy Messer-Kruse say

8262-511: The trial, anarchist Dyer Lum wrote a history of the trial critical of the prosecution. In 1888, George McLean, and in 1889, police captain Michael Schack, wrote accounts from the opposite perspective. Awaiting sentencing, each of the defendants wrote their own autobiographies (edited and published by Philip Foner in 1969), and later activist Lucy Parsons published a biography of her condemned husband Albert Parsons . Fifty years after

8364-435: The truthful treatment of material." In defense of the real, as opposed to the ideal , he wrote, "I hope the time is coming when not only the artist, but the common, average man, who always 'has the standard of the arts in his power,' will have also the courage to apply it, and will reject the ideal grasshopper wherever he finds it, in science, in literature, in art, because it is not 'simple, natural, and honest,' because it

8466-628: The village of Bridgeport . The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and dry, cold winter temperatures. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Martins Ferry has a Humid continental climate . As of the census of 2010, there were 6,915 people, 3,022 households, and 1,787 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,967.8 inhabitants per square mile (1,145.9/km ). There were 3,431 housing units at an average density of 1,472.5 per square mile (568.5/km ). The racial makeup of

8568-415: The well-known activist Albert Parsons , who had spoken for an hour at the Haymarket rally before going to Zepf's. Parsons, who believed that the evidence against them all was weak, subsequently voluntarily turned himself in, in solidarity with the accused. A third man, Spies's assistant editor Michael Schwab (who was the brother-in-law of Schnaubelt) was arrested, as he had been speaking at another rally at

8670-635: The west for settlement, is also buried in Walnut Grove Pioneer Cemetery, along with Absalom and Ebenezer Martin and other important early settlers. The volunteer fire department celebrates Betty Zane Frontier Days annually, in honor of American Revolutionary War participant Betty Zane . In early spring, the city holds a Soap Box Derby. The children of Martins Ferry are educated by the Martins Ferry City School District. Martins Ferry High School

8772-509: The world, and elevating the defendants to the status of martyrs, especially abroad. Portrayals of the anarchists as bloodthirsty foreign fanatics in the press along with the 1889 publication of Captain Schaack's sensational account, Anarchy and Anarchism, on the other hand, inspired widespread public fear and revulsion against the strikers and general anti-immigrant feeling, polarizing public opinion. In an article datelined May 4, entitled "Anarchy's Red Hand", The New York Times had described

8874-687: The year in their Cambridge home on Concord Avenue ; though, without Elinor, they found it "dreadful in its ghostliness and ghastliness". Howells died in his sleep shortly after midnight on May 11, 1920, of influenza and was buried in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Eight years later his daughter published his correspondence as a biography of his literary life. In addition to his own creative works, Howells wrote criticism, and essays about contemporary literary figures such as Henrik Ibsen , Émile Zola , Giovanni Verga , Benito Pérez Galdós , and, especially, Leo Tolstoy , which helped establish their reputations in

8976-551: The years, it has been known as Hoglinstown, Mercertown, Norristown (1785), Jefferson (1795), Martinsville (1835), and Martin's Ferry (1865). Squatters from across the Ohio were the earliest settlers. The settlement formed in the shadow of Virginia's Fort Fincastle, later renamed Fort Henry on the Virginia side of the Ohio, built in 1774. The town was disbanded a couple of times before becoming established as Norristown in 1785. In 1795,

9078-561: Was $ 23,960, and the median income for a family was $ 32,365. Males had a median income of $ 30,486 versus $ 21,979 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 16,672. About 16.1% of families and 18.3% of the population were below the poverty line , including 28.6% of those under age 18 and 9.9% of those age 65 or over. There are 14 churches providing places of worship for Catholics, Baptists, Methodists, Nazarenes, Pentecostals, Presbyterians, Lutherans, Greek Orthodox Christians, Episcopalians and non-denominational Christians. There are also

9180-621: Was also the climax of the social unrest among the working class in America, known as the Great Upheaval. Following the Civil War, particularly following the Long Depression , industrial production was rapidly expanded in the United States. Chicago was a major industrial center, and tens of thousands of German and Bohemian immigrants were employed at about $ 1.50 a day. American workers worked, on average, slightly over 60 hours during

9282-433: Was arrested twice early on and released. By May 14, when it became apparent he had played a significant role in the event, he had fled the country. William Seliger, who had turned state's evidence and testified for the prosecution, was freed by the state. On June 4, 1886, eight other suspects were indicted by the grand jury, and stood trial for being accessories to the murder of Degan. Of these, only two had been present when

9384-560: Was associated with the Arbeiter-Zeitung and had attempted to revive it in the aftermath of the Haymarket riot. Of the eight defendants, five – Spies, Fischer, Engel, Lingg and Schwab – were immigrants born in Germany; a sixth, Neebe, was a U.S.-born citizen of German descent. The remaining two, Parsons and Fielden, born in the U.S. and England, respectively, were of British heritage. The trial, Illinois vs. August Spies et al. , began on June 21, 1886, and went on until August 11. The trial

9486-409: Was conducted in an atmosphere of extreme prejudice by both public and media toward the defendants. It was presided over by Judge Joseph Gary , who displayed open hostility to the defendants, consistently ruled for the prosecution, and failed to maintain decorum. A motion to try the defendants separately was denied. The defense counsel included Sigmund Zeisler and William Perkins Black . Selection of

9588-721: Was elected as a clerk in the State House of Representatives . In 1858, he began to work at the Ohio State Journal , where he wrote poetry and short stories, and also translated pieces from French, Spanish, and German. He avidly studied German and other languages and was greatly interested in Heinrich Heine . In 1860, he visited Boston, Massachusetts and met with writers James T. Fields , James Russell Lowell , Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. , Nathaniel Hawthorne , Henry David Thoreau , and Ralph Waldo Emerson . He became

9690-572: Was evidence linking the Pinkertons to the bomb. This reflected a widespread belief among the strikers. Police investigators under Captain Michael Schaack had a lead fragment removed from a policeman's wounds chemically analyzed. They reported that the lead used in the casing matched the casings of bombs found in Lingg's home. A metal nut and fragments of the casing taken from the wound also roughly matched bombs made by Lingg. Schaack concluded, on

9792-400: Was finishing his speech, police arrived en masse, marching in formation towards the speakers' wagon, and ordered the rally to disperse. Fielden insisted that the meeting was peaceful. Police Inspector John Bonfield proclaimed: I command you [addressing the speaker] in the name of the law to desist and you [addressing the crowd] to disperse. A home-made fragmentation bomb was thrown into

9894-654: Was hampered by the outbreak of the French and Indian War. The settlement was named Zanesburg (renamed Wheeling in 1795). The Ohio Company was dissolved in 1779, and claims issued by the Crown became moot after the Revolutionary War. The community across the river was a westward extension of Zanesburg, but at that time, settlement on the west bank of the Ohio River was prohibited by the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , 1768. Through

9996-469: Was killed and many workers injured. An unknown person threw a dynamite bomb at the police as they acted to disperse the meeting, and the bomb blast and ensuing retaliatory gunfire by the police caused the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians; dozens of others were wounded. Eight anarchists were charged with the bombing. The eight were convicted of conspiracy in the internationally publicized legal proceedings. The evidence put forward in

10098-646: Was not in poetry but in novels, a form which he saw shifting from "romance" to a serious form. Howells was a Christian socialist whose ideals were greatly influenced by Russian writer Leo Tolstoy . He joined a Christian socialist group in Boston between 1889 and 1891 and attended several churches, including the First Spiritual Temple and the Church of the Carpenter , the latter being affiliated with

10200-607: Was one of the first seven people chosen for membership in the American Academy of Arts and Letters , of which he became president. In February 1910, Elinor Howells began using morphine to treat her worsening neuritis . She died on May 6, a few days after her birthday, and only two weeks after the death of Howells's friend Mark Twain. Henry James offered his condolences, writing "I think of this laceration of your life with an infinite sense of all it will mean for you". Howells and his daughter Mildred decided to spend part of

10302-499: Was to become, for this exquisite notation of our whole democratic light and shade and give and take, in the highest degree documentary." The late 19th-century English novelist George Gissing read two of Howells's works, The Shadow of a Dream and A Fearful Responsibility , calling the latter "inane triviality". Bliss Perry considered a knowledge of his work vital for an understanding of the American provincial novel and believed that "he has never in his long career written an insincere,

10404-407: Was widely believed to have been unfair, and even a serious miscarriage of justice . Prominent people including novelist William Dean Howells , celebrated attorney Clarence Darrow , poet and playwright Oscar Wilde , playwright George Bernard Shaw , and poet William Morris strongly condemned it. On June 26, 1893, Illinois governor John Peter Altgeld , the progressive governor of Illinois, himself

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