50-532: William Poundstone is an American author, columnist, and skeptic . He has written a number of books including the Big Secrets series and a biography of Carl Sagan . Poundstone attended MIT and studied physics. An enthusiastic fan of the fiction author Harry Stephen Keeler , Poundstone maintains the Keeler homepage and contributed to the anthology A to Izzard: A Harry Stephen Keeler Companion (2002). He
100-475: A bad or unhealthy form of radical skepticism. On this view, the "good" skeptic is a critically-minded person who seeks strong evidence before accepting a position. The "bad" skeptic, on the other hand, wants to "suspend judgment indefinitely... even in the face of demonstrable truth". Another categorization focuses on the motivation for the skeptical attitude. Some skeptics have ideological motives: they want to replace inferior beliefs with better ones. Others have
150-443: A different route. Moral error theory holds that we do not know that any moral claim is true because Epistemological moral skepticism is a subclass of theory, the members of which include Pyrrhonian moral skepticism and dogmatic moral skepticism. All members of epistemological moral skepticism share two things: first, they acknowledge that we are unjustified in believing any moral claim, and second, they are agnostic on whether (i)
200-521: A doubting attitude toward knowledge claims that are rejected by many. Almost everyone shows some form of ordinary skepticism, for example, by doubting the knowledge claims made by flat earthers or astrologers . Philosophical skepticism, on the other hand, is a much more radical and rare position. It includes the rejection of knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of common sense . Some forms of it even deny that one knows that "I have two hands" or that "the sun will come out tomorrow". It
250-419: A more practical outlook in that they see problematic beliefs as the cause of harmful customs they wish to stop. Some skeptics have very particular goals in mind, such as bringing down a certain institution associated with the spread of claims they reject. Philosophical skepticism is a prominent form of skepticism and can be contrasted with non-philosophical or ordinary skepticism. Ordinary skepticism involves
300-419: A neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the available evidence is insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy , particularly epistemology . More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It
350-523: A number of Sophists . Gorgias , for example, reputedly argued that nothing exists, that even if there were something we could not know it, and that even if we could know it we could not communicate it. The Heraclitean philosopher Cratylus refused to discuss anything and would merely wriggle his finger, claiming that communication is impossible since meanings are constantly changing. Socrates also had skeptical tendencies, claiming to know nothing worthwhile. There were two major schools of skepticism in
400-481: A number of important responses. Hume's Scottish contemporary, Thomas Reid (1710–1796), challenged Hume's strict empiricism and argued that it is rational to accept "common-sense" beliefs such as the basic reliability of our senses, our reason, our memories, and inductive reasoning, even though none of these things can be proved. In Reid's view, such common-sense beliefs are foundational and require no proof in order to be rationally justified. Not long after Hume's death,
450-467: A person and differ from person to person, for example, because they follow different cognitive norms. The opposite of skepticism is dogmatism , which implies an attitude of certainty in the form of an unquestioning belief. A similar contrast is often drawn in relation to blind faith and credulity. Various types of skepticism have been discussed in the academic literature. Skepticism is usually restricted to knowledge claims on one particular subject, which
500-411: A religious skeptic might believe that Jesus existed (see historicity of Jesus ) while questioning claims that he was the messiah or performed miracles. Historically, religious skepticism can be traced back to Xenophanes , who doubted many religious claims of his time, although he recognized that " God is one, supreme among gods and men, and not like mortals in body or in mind." He maintained that there
550-559: A result, a number of ostensibly scientific claims are considered to be " pseudoscience " if they are found to improperly apply or to ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method. Professional skepticism is an important concept in auditing . It requires an auditor to have a "questioning mind", to make a critical assessment of evidence, and to consider the sufficiency of the evidence. Moral skepticism Moral skepticism (or moral scepticism in British English )
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#1732780986656600-496: A thesis: the thesis that knowledge does not exist. Skepticism is related to various terms. It is sometimes equated with agnosticism and relativism . However, there are slight differences in meaning. Agnosticism is often understood more narrowly as skepticism about religious questions, in particular, about the Christian doctrine . Relativism does not deny the existence of knowledge or truth but holds that they are relative to
650-405: A way of life. This is based on the idea that maintaining the skeptical attitude of doubt toward most concerns in life is superior to living in dogmatic certainty, for example because such a skeptic has more happiness and peace of mind or because it is morally better. In contemporary philosophy , on the other hand, skepticism is often understood neither as an attitude nor as a way of life but as
700-568: Is a class of meta-ethical theories all members of which entail that no one has any moral knowledge. Many moral skeptics also make the stronger, modal claim that moral knowledge is impossible. Moral skepticism is particularly opposed to moral realism : the view that there are knowable and objective moral truths. Some defenders of moral skepticism include Pyrrho , Aenesidemus , Sextus Empiricus , David Hume , J. L. Mackie (1977), Friedrich Nietzsche , Richard Joyce (2001), Joshua Greene, Richard Garner, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong (2006b), and
750-484: Is a cousin of comedian Paula Poundstone . Skeptic Skepticism , also spelled scepticism in British English , is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma . For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining
800-513: Is a position characterized by its commitment to two propositions: (i) all moral claims are false and (ii) we have reason to believe that all moral claims are false. The most famous moral error theorist is J. L. Mackie, who defended the metaethical view in Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (1977). Mackie has been interpreted as giving two arguments for moral error theory. The first argument people attribute to Mackie, often called
850-529: Is an afterlife. In ancient philosophy, skepticism was understood as a way of life associated with inner peace . Skepticism has been responsible for many important developments in science and philosophy. It has also inspired several contemporary social movements. Religious skepticism advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, providence , and revelation . Scientific skepticism advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systematic investigation using
900-473: Is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality ( moral skepticism ), atheism (skepticism about the existence of God ), or the supernatural . Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely. Philosophical skepticism is one important form of skepticism. It rejects knowledge claims that seem certain from
950-412: Is possible ( acatalepsy ). The Academic Skeptics claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, whereas Pyrrhonian skeptics argue that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view. Nearly all the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost. Most of what we know about ancient skepticism is from Sextus Empiricus , a Pyrrhonian skeptic who lived in
1000-511: Is taken seriously in philosophy nonetheless because it has proven very hard to conclusively refute philosophical skepticism. Skepticism has been responsible for important developments in various fields, such as science , medicine , and philosophy . In science, the skeptical attitude toward traditional opinions was a key factor in the development of the scientific method . It emphasizes the need to scrutinize knowledge claims by testing them through experimentation and precise measurement . In
1050-459: Is true (i.e. on whether all moral claims are false). Finally, Noncognitivism holds that we can never know that any moral claim is true because moral claims are incapable of being true or false (they are not truth-apt). Instead, moral claims are imperatives (e.g. "Don't steal babies!"), expressions of emotion (e.g. "stealing babies: Boo!"), or expressions of "pro-attitudes" ("I do not believe that babies should be stolen.") Moral error theory
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#17327809866561100-429: Is why its different forms can be distinguished based on the subject. For example, religious skeptics distrust religious doctrines and moral skeptics raise doubts about accepting various moral requirements and customs. Skepticism can also be applied to knowledge in general. However, this attitude is usually only found in some forms of philosophical skepticism. A closely related classification distinguishes based on
1150-424: The argument from queerness , holds that moral claims imply motivation internalism (the doctrine that "It is necessary and a priori that any agent who judges that one of his available actions is morally obligatory will have some (defeasible) motivation to perform that action" ). Because motivation internalism is false, however, so too are all moral claims. The other argument often attributed to Mackie, often called
1200-498: The scientific method , to discover empirical evidence for them. Skepticism , also spelled scepticism (from the Greek σκέπτομαι skeptomai , to search, to think about or look for), refers to a doubting attitude toward knowledge claims. So if a person is skeptical of their government's claims about an ongoing war then the person has doubts that these claims are true. Or being skeptical that one's favorite hockey team will win
1250-425: The source of knowledge , such as skepticism about perception , memory , or intuition . A further distinction is based on the degree of the skeptical attitude. The strongest forms assert that there is no knowledge at all or that knowledge is impossible. Weaker forms merely state that one can never be absolutely certain. Some theorists distinguish between a good or healthy form of moderate skepticism in contrast to
1300-848: The Ajñana philosopher Sanjaya Belatthiputta . A strong element of skepticism is found in Early Buddhism , most particularly in the Aṭṭhakavagga sutra. However the total effect these philosophies had on each other is difficult to discern. Since skepticism is a philosophical attitude and a style of philosophizing rather than a position, the Ajñanins may have influenced other skeptical thinkers of India such as Nagarjuna , Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa , and Shriharsha . In Greece, philosophers as early as Xenophanes ( c. 570 – c. 475 BCE ) expressed skeptical views, as did Democritus and
1350-683: The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that human empirical experience has possibility conditions which could not have been realized unless Hume's skeptical conclusions about causal synthetic a priori judgements were false. Today, skepticism continues to be a topic of lively debate among philosophers. British philosopher Julian Baggini posits that reason is perceived as "an enemy of mystery and ambiguity," but, if used properly, can be an effective tool for solving many larger societal issues. Religious skepticism generally refers to doubting particular religious beliefs or claims. For example,
1400-669: The Renaissance and Reformation, particularly after the complete writings of Sextus Empiricus were translated into Latin in 1569 and after Martin Luther 's skepticism of holy orders. A number of Catholic writers, including Francisco Sanches ( c. 1550–1623 ), Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), and Marin Mersenne (1588–1648) deployed ancient skeptical arguments to defend moderate forms of skepticism and to argue that faith, rather than reason, must be
1450-593: The ancient Greek and Roman world. The first was Pyrrhonism , founded by Pyrrho of Elis ( c. 360–270 BCE ). The second was Academic Skepticism , so-called because its two leading defenders, Arcesilaus ( c. 315–240 BCE ) who initiated the philosophy, and Carneades ( c. 217–128 BCE ), the philosophy's most famous proponent, were heads of Plato's Academy . Pyrrhonism's aims are psychological. It urges suspension of judgment ( epoche ) to achieve mental tranquility ( ataraxia ). The Academic Skeptics denied that knowledge
1500-842: The argument from disagreement, maintains that any moral claim (e.g. "Killing babies is wrong") entails a correspondent "reasons claim" ("one has reason not to kill babies"). Put another way, if "killing babies is wrong" is true then everybody has a reason to not kill babies. This includes the psychopath who takes great pleasure from killing babies, and is utterly miserable when he does not have their blood on his hands. But, surely, (if we assume that he will suffer no reprisals) this psychopath has every reason to kill babies, and no reason not to do so. All moral claims are thus false. All versions of epistemological moral skepticism hold that we are unjustified in believing any moral proposition. However, in contradistinction to moral error theory, epistemological moral skeptical arguments for this conclusion do not include
1550-427: The argument from the non-instantiation of (what Mackie terms) "objective prescriptivity" for moral error theory fails. Russ Shafer-Landau and Daniel Callcut have each outlined anti-skeptical strategies. Callcut argues that moral skepticism should be scrutinized in introductory ethics classes in order to get across the point that "if all views about morality, including the skeptical ones, face difficulties, then adopting
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1600-399: The barber"). This is because all hypothetical imperatives imply that "we have reason to do that which will enable us to accomplish our ends" and so, like moral claims, they imply that we have reason to do something regardless of our preferences. If moral claims are false because they have this implication, then so too are hypothetical imperatives. But hypothetical imperatives are true. Thus
1650-729: The basis of right action is rooted in reasons or consequences, and the diverse, conflicting theories within Western moral philosophy. Criticisms of moral skepticism come primarily from moral realists . The moral realist argues that there is in fact good reason to believe that there are objective moral truths and that we are justified in holding many moral beliefs. One moral realist response to moral error theory holds that it "proves too much"—if moral claims are false because they entail that we have reasons to do certain things regardless of our preferences, then so too are "hypothetical imperatives" (e.g. "if you want to get your hair-cut you ought to go to
1700-402: The basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence. Scientific skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to purported phenomena not subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or empirically testable . Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to systematic investigation via the scientific method . As
1750-417: The beliefs of a paranoiac . As a paranoiac is plainly unjustified in believing his conspiracy theories , so too are we unjustified in believing moral propositions. We therefore have reason to jettison our moral beliefs. Nietzsche's moral skepticism centers on the profound and ongoing lack of consensus among philosophers regarding foundational moral propositions. He highlights the persistent debates on whether
1800-566: The case for skepticism as powerfully as possible. Descartes argued that no matter what radical skeptical possibilities we imagine there are certain truths (e.g., that thinking is occurring, or that I exist) that are absolutely certain. Thus, the ancient skeptics were wrong to claim that knowledge is impossible. Descartes also attempted to refute skeptical doubts about the reliability of our senses, our memory, and other cognitive faculties. To do this, Descartes tried to prove that God exists and that God would not allow us to be systematically deceived about
1850-424: The championship means that one is uncertain about the strength of their performance. Skepticism about a claim implies that one does not believe the claim to be true. But it does not automatically follow that one should believe that the claim is false either. Instead, skeptics usually recommend a neutral attitude: beliefs about this matter should be suspended. In this regard, skepticism about a claim can be defined as
1900-547: The field of medicine, skepticism has helped establish more advanced forms of treatment by putting into doubt traditional forms that were based on intuitive appeal rather than empirical evidence . In the history of philosophy, skepticism has often played a productive role not just for skeptics but also for non-skeptical philosophers. This is due to its critical attitude that challenges the epistemological foundations of philosophical theories. This can help to keep speculation in check and may provoke creative responses, transforming
1950-527: The history of philosophy and is still widely discussed today. As a philosophical school or movement, skepticism arose both in ancient Greece and India. In India the Ajñana school of philosophy espoused skepticism. It was a major early rival of Buddhism and Jainism , and possibly a major influence on Buddhism. Two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha , Sariputta and Moggallāna , were initially students of
2000-831: The nature of reality. Many contemporary philosophers question whether this second stage of Descartes's critique of skepticism is successful. In the eighteenth century a new case for skepticism was offered by the Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711–1776). Hume was an empiricist, claiming that all genuine ideas can be traced back to original impressions of sensation or introspective consciousness. Hume argued that on empiricist grounds there are no sound reasons for belief in God, an enduring self or soul, an external world, causal necessity, objective morality, or inductive reasoning. In fact, he argued that "Philosophy would render us entirely Pyrrhonian, were not Nature too strong for it." As Hume saw it,
2050-422: The perspective of common sense . Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or rational belief is possible" and urge us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters. More moderate forms claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about nonempirical matters, such as whether God exists, whether human beings have free will, or whether there
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2100-473: The philosopher James Flynn . Strictly speaking, Gilbert Harman (1975) argues in favor of a kind of moral relativism , not moral skepticism. However, he has influenced some contemporary moral skeptics. Moral skepticism is divided into three subclasses: moral error theory (or moral nihilism ), epistemological moral skepticism, and noncognitivism . All three of these theories reach the same conclusions, which are: However, each method arrives at (a) and (b) by
2150-610: The premise that "all moral claims are false." For example, Michael Ruse gives what Richard Joyce calls an "evolutionary argument" for the conclusion that we are unjustified in believing any moral proposition. He argues that we have evolved to believe moral propositions because our believing the same enhances our genetic fitness (makes it more likely that we will reproduce successfully). However, our believing these propositions would enhance our fitness even if they were all false (they would make us more cooperative, etc.). Thus, our moral beliefs are unresponsive to evidence; they are analogous to
2200-658: The primary guide to truth. Similar arguments were offered later (perhaps ironically) by the Protestant thinker Pierre Bayle in his influential Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697–1702). The growing popularity of skeptical views created an intellectual crisis in seventeenth-century Europe. An influential response was offered by the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650). In his classic work, Meditations of First Philosophy (1641), Descartes sought to refute skepticism, but only after he had formulated
2250-434: The real basis of human belief is not reason, but custom or habit. We are hard-wired by nature to trust, say, our memories or inductive reasoning, and no skeptical arguments, however powerful, can dislodge those beliefs. In this way, Hume embraced what he called a "mitigated" skepticism, while rejecting an "excessive" Pyrrhonian skepticism that he saw as both impractical and psychologically impossible. Hume's skepticism provoked
2300-607: The second or third century CE . His works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments. Ancient skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire, particularly after Augustine (354–430 CE ) attacked the skeptics in his work Against the Academics (386 CE ). There was little knowledge of, or interest in, ancient skepticism in Christian Europe during the Middle Ages. Interest revived during
2350-438: The theory in question in order to overcome the problems posed by skepticism. According to Richard H. Popkin, "the history of philosophy can be seen, in part, as a struggle with skepticism". This struggle has led many contemporary philosophers to abandon the quest for absolutely certain or indubitable first principles of philosophy, which was still prevalent in many earlier periods. Skepticism has been an important topic throughout
2400-622: The thesis that "the only justified attitude with respect to [this claim] is suspension of judgment". It is often motivated by the impression that one cannot be certain about it. This is especially relevant when there is significant expert disagreement. Skepticism is usually restricted to a claim or a field of inquiry. So religious and moral skeptics have a doubtful attitude about religious and moral doctrines. But some forms of philosophical skepticism, are wider in that they reject any form of knowledge. Some definitions, often inspired by ancient philosophy , see skepticism not just as an attitude but as
2450-402: The two denominations conflict concerning some belief. Additionally, they may also be skeptical of the claims made by atheists. The historian Will Durant writes that Plato was "as skeptical of atheism as of any other dogma". The Baháʼí Faith encourages skepticism that is mainly centered around self-investigation of truth. A scientific or empirical skeptic is one who questions beliefs on
2500-552: Was one greatest God. God is one eternal being, spherical in form, comprehending all things within himself, is the absolute mind and thought, therefore is intelligent, and moves all things, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind." Religious skepticism is not the same as atheism or agnosticism , though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divine omnipotence ). Religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when
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