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73-865: Common principles that are often associated with Wilsonianism include: Historian Joan Hoff writes, "What is 'normal' Wilsonianism remains contested today. For some, it is 'inspiring liberal internationalism ' based on adherence to self-determination; for others, Wilsonianism is the exemplar of humanitarian intervention around the world,' making U.S. foreign policy a paragon of carefully defined and restricted use of force." Amos Perlmutter defined Wilsonianism as simultaneously consisting of "liberal internationalism, self-determination, nonintervention, humanitarian intervention" oriented in support of collective security , open diplomacy, capitalism , American exceptionalism , and free and open borders , and opposed to revolution . According to University of Chicago political theorist Adom Getachew , Wilson's version of self-determination

146-500: A "peace dividend", as liberal states have relations that are characterized by non-violence, and that relations between democracies are characterized by the democratic peace theory . Liberal internationalism states that, through multilateral organizations such as the United Nations , it is possible to avoid the worst excesses of " power politics " in relations between nations. In addition, liberal internationalists believe that

219-719: A discussion of Korea's sovereignty on the agenda, but did not succeed. Koreans in China also created a plan to secretly extract former Korean emperor Gojong from his house arrest in Korea, and eventually bring him to the conference. Before that could happen, on January 21, 1919, Gojong suddenly died. Japan reported that Gojong had died from natural causes, but he had reportedly been healthy just until his death. Koreans widely suspected that Japan had poisoned him  [ ko ] ; these theories were in part motivated by knowledge of previous attempts on Gojong's life. Public outrage at

292-417: A larger role in regions with more developed transportation, and Cheondoists in regions with less developed transportation. According to one estimate, 17% of arrests made during the protests were of Christians, when they composed less than 1% of the population. 58.4% of arrests were of peasants, and 3.9% were of laborers. The Pyongan region played what historian Michael Shin argued was an outsized role in

365-597: A new international order, reducing the gap between the East and the West. In Egypt, Wilson's self-determination advocation led to hopes that Egypt may be freed from British control and would be afforded the opportunity to rule itself. Sarah Claire Dunstan's work also indicates that Wilson's rhetoric had an impact on marginalised groups within the United States, such as African Americans . Members of disenfranchised groups like

438-566: A plan to protest in the last week of January; these efforts were merged into the Cheondoist ones. They secured alliances from major Christian and Buddhist groups, as well as from several student organizations. They gained the support of several former government officials from the Korean Empire , although they were rebuffed by Joseon -era politicians Park Yung-hyo and Han Kyu-sŏl . They decided to schedule their protest for March 1,

511-444: A process of Japanization : forced cultural assimilation. Land was confiscated from Koreans and given to Japanese people, and economic and administrative systems were created that were systemically discriminatory. Resistance was violently suppressed, and freedom of speech and press were tightly controlled. Japanese colonial policies mandated that Koreans send increasingly significant portions of their economic output to Japan, for what

584-505: A reporter for the Chicago Daily News , reportedly witnessed 30 prisoners being kept in a single 10 ft × 6 ft (3.0 m × 1.8 m) room in a Pyongyang prison. Koreans were reportedly kept separate from Japanese prisoners, and given worse facilities. Another issue was heating; physician Jessie Hirst , head of Severance Hospital , reported that four nurses from his hospital were arrested for protesting in

657-645: A role in the planning of the protests. In mid-February, Robert Grierson allowed secret meetings about the protests to be conducted in his house in Sŏngjin . Protests in Sŏngjin went on to become the first in North Hamgyong Province . On February 28th, Canadian missionary Frank Schofield was asked to document the protests. Schofield's publicization of the protests proved so significant in influencing global public opinion, that he has since been described as

730-494: A series of policies that have since been dubbed " cultural rule  [ ja ; ko ] ". Furthermore, the movement went on to inspire other movements abroad, including the Chinese May Fourth Movement and Indian satyagraha protests. The anniversary of the movement's start has been celebrated since, although this was largely done in secret in Korea until its liberation in 1945. In South Korea, it

803-483: A subsequent speech to the United States Congress on February 8, 1918, that in the post-war peace settlement "national aspirations must be respected" and people could only be governed "by their own consent". Self-determination was not "a mere phrase" but an "imperative principle of action". Wilson's words launched an atmosphere of intense optimism and hope amongst marginalised peoples in all corners of

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876-684: A testimony that was later submitted into the American Congressional Record : It was on the 5th of March that I [joined a] procession at the South Gate . As we neared the Palace , a Japanese policeman seized me by the hair, and I was thrown violently to the ground. He kicked me mercilessly, and I was rendered almost unconscious. He rushed me along by my hair, and I was led to the Chongno Police Station. At

949-422: A village at night, set it on fire, and killed people who attempted to put the fires out. On April 15, during the now infamous Jeamni massacre , Japanese authorities lured 20 to 30 Korean civilians into a church, opened fire on them, then burned the church down to hide evidence of the killings. There are reports of crucifixions being performed on Korean Christians; this is attested to in one photograph, which

1022-449: Is a national holiday . The North Korean government initially celebrated it as a national holiday, but eventually demoted it and now does not evaluate the movement's significance similarly. It now promotes writings about the event that seek to emphasize the role of the ruling Kim family in the protests. In 1910, Japan formally annexed Korea . Japanese rule was initially especially tight. Japan took control over Korea's economy, and began

1095-462: The Jeamni massacre . Japanese authorities then conducted a global disinformation campaign on the protests. They promoted a wide range of narratives, including outright denial of any protests occurring, portraying them as violent Bolshevik uprisings, and claiming that Koreans were in need of the benevolent rule of Japan. These narratives were publicly challenged by sympathetic foreigners and by

1168-794: The Korean Declaration of Independence in the restaurant Taehwagwan  [ ko ] and in Tapgol Park . The movement grew and spread rapidly. Statistics on the protest are uncertain; there were around 1,500 to 1,800 protests with a total of around 0.8 to 2 million participants. The total population of Korea at the time was around 16 to 17 million. Despite the peaceful nature of the protests, they were frequently violently suppressed. One Korean estimate in 1920 claimed 7,509 deaths and 46,948 arrests. Japanese authorities reported much lower numbers, although there were instances where authorities were observed destroying evidence, such as during

1241-616: The Korean Young People's Independence Organization ( 조선청년독립단 ; 朝鮮靑年獨立團 ) proclaimed and publicly distributed a declaration of independence, which they sent to the Japanese government, attendees of the Paris Peace Conference, and to representatives of various countries. The students were arrested en masse by Japanese authorities, although news of their act reached Korea. In late 1918, leaders of

1314-546: The UN General Assembly , have also been considered examples of liberal internationalism. According to Ikenberry and Yolchi Funabashi, one of the key pillars of liberal internationalism in practice is the democratic constitution and trade-based prosperity of Japan, which makes Japan a major stabilizer of liberal international order in the Asia-Pacific. March 1st Movement The March First Movement

1387-501: The realism represented by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Henry Kissinger . Kennedy argues that every president since Wilson has "embraced the core precepts of Wilsonianism. Nixon himself hung Wilson's portrait in the White House Cabinet Room. Wilson's ideas continue to dominate American foreign policy in the twenty-first century. In the aftermath of 9/11 they have, if anything, taken on even greater vitality." Wilson

1460-480: The "Thirty-fourth Representative" ( 민족대표 34인 ), effectively equating his significance to that of the signers of the declaration. Around noon on March 1, 1919, 29 of the 33 signers of the declaration gathered in Taehwagwan to start the protest. The signers conducted a prominent reading of the declaration in the restaurant. The Korean restaurant owner An Sunhwan ( 안순환 ; 安淳煥 ) rushed over and reported

1533-614: The 1899 and 1907 Hague conferences as being key repertoires of subsequent liberal internationalism. The goal of liberal internationalism is to achieve global structures within the international system that are inclined towards promoting a liberal world order. It foresees a gradual transformation of world politics from anarchy to common institutions and the rule of law. To that extent, global free trade, liberal economics and liberal political systems are all encouraged. In addition, liberal internationalists are dedicated towards encouraging democracy to emerge globally. Once realized, it will result in

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1606-447: The 19th century. Prominent thinkers included Lionel Curtis , Alfred Zimmern and Norman Angell . Among policymakers, liberal internationalism influenced British Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister Lord Palmerston , and was developed in the second decade of the 20th century under U.S. President Woodrow Wilson . In this form it became known as Wilsonianism . After World War I , the foreign policy doctrine of liberal internationalism

1679-657: The 218 administrative districts in Korea hosted protests. Various locations often hosted multiple protests for weeks afterwards. Numerous small villages hosted three or four protests. For example, Hoengseong County held a series of protests from March 27 to mid-April. Protests often coincided with market days, and were often held at government offices. The protests were broadly supported across economic and religious spectrums, including groups such as merchants, noblemen, literati, kisaeng , laborers, monks, Christians, Cheondoists, Buddhists, students, and farmers. Korean shop owners reportedly closed their doors in solidarity with

1752-527: The African-American community were enthusiastic and some members, like peoples in various colonised nations, felt an opportunity had arisen to forward their own case for self-determination. All the hopes for self-determination that Wilson raised would soon be dashed when the Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919. Versailles did not destroy the colonial system, and much of the colonial world

1825-477: The Fourteen Points; for example, around this time it reportedly banned a foreign film from being screened in Korea because the film had images of President Wilson. After the conclusion of the war, various nations participated in the 1919–1920 Paris Peace Conference , during which the sovereignty of a number of nations was discussed. Koreans made a number of unsuccessful attempts to be represented at

1898-595: The Korean diaspora. The movement did not result in Korea's prompt liberation, but had a number of significant effects. It invigorated the Korean independence movement and resulted in the creation of the Korean Provisional Government . It also caused some damage to Japan's international reputation and caused the Japanese colonial government to grant some limited cultural freedoms to Koreans under

1971-652: The Soviet Union and fight Japan. Koreans in Hawaii organized an impromptu meeting upon hearing of the protests that was attended by around 600. A followup meeting dubbed the First Korean Congress was symbolically held in Philadelphia , which they viewed as "the cradle of liberty" in the U.S. They sent statements to President Wilson, but were ignored. The Japanese Government-General of Chōsen

2044-478: The Soviet newspaper Izvestia , gatherings became treated with suspicion by Japanese authorities. In one instance, after a Korean attendee of a wedding was found to have documents linking him to the independence movement, Japanese authorities raided the wedding and conducted mass beatings and arrests. There are numerous reports of prison conditions being extremely poor. Seoul's Seodaemun Prison became infamous for

2117-615: The U.S. and the Allies reportedly greatly increased. The sincerity behind Wilson's advocacy for self-determination is debated. Some scholars argue his advocacy was limited to the former colonies of the defeated Central Powers , which Japan was not a part of. Historian Ku Daeyeol argues Wilson's efforts were sincere, but frustrated by geopolitical realities. The U.S. would not begin openly advocating for Korean independence until decades later, after it joined World War II against Japan. The Japanese colonial government suppressed discussion of

2190-968: The US, it is often associated with the American Democratic Party . Some liberal-leaning neoconservatives shifted towards liberal internationalism in the 2010s. Commonly cited examples of liberal interventionism include NATO 's intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina ; the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia ; British military intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War ; and the 2011 military intervention in Libya . According to historian Timothy Garton Ash , these are distinct because of liberal motivations and limited objectives, from other larger scale military interventions. Multilateral institutions, such as UNDP , UNICEF , WHO , and

2263-484: The West, particularly liberal democracy , which they received in part via the Japanese Taishō Democracy movement and Wilson's Fourteen Points. By early 1919, their ideas coalesced, and they also became angered by the rebuffing of the Korean representatives to the Paris Peace Conference, by the brutality of Japanese rule, and by the possibility that Gojong had been poisoned. On February 8, 600 students of

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2336-539: The adoption of this foreign policy orientation by the United States during the 20th century has improved American liberty at home and ensured American hegemony in world politics, as well as facilitated the spread of liberal democracy and markets. Critics of the foreign policy doctrine (such as realists and proponents of retrenchment ) argue that it tends towards military interventionism and contributes to disorder (for example, through democracy promotion and trade liberalization). Liberal internationalism emerged during

2409-516: The best way to spread democracy is to treat all states equally and cooperatively, whether they are initially democratic or not. According to Abrahamsen, liberal internationalism provides more opportunities to middle powers to advance their economic, security, and political interests. Examples of liberal internationalists include former British Prime Minister Tony Blair , U.S. President Barack Obama , and then Secretary of State Hillary Clinton , and current Secretary of State Antony Blinken . In

2482-427: The border with both Russia and China. In addition, the ratio of Japanese security forces to civilians was lower in the area. In Chūseihoku-dō ( North Chungcheong Province ) and Chūseinan-dō, some radical groups attacked and destroyed Japanese government offices and police stations. Zenrahoku-dō ( North Jeolla Province ) had protests that have been characterized as less intense than others. This has been attributed to

2555-800: The city. News of the protests spread rapidly in Seoul, and marching and public demonstations continued for many hours afterwards. That day, around 3,000 copies of the declaration were distributed around Seoul. These protestors were reportedly consistently peaceful. The declaration contains the text "We entertain no spirit of vengeance towards Japan... [L]et there be no violence". The protestors were often met with violent repression by Japanese authorities, which resulted in deaths and arrests. That same day, similar protests were held in other cities in Korea, including in Pyongyang , Chinnamp'o , Anju , and Wonsan . Despite Japanese repression of information, news of

2628-548: The conference. The Korean-American Korean National Association attempted to send Syngman Rhee and Henry Chung  [ ko ] to the conference, but the U.S. government denied them permission to go. A group of Koreans in China , the New Korean Youth Party  [ ko ] , managed to send Kim Kyu-sik with the Chinese delegation. Chinese leaders, hoping to embarrass Japan, attempted to put

2701-592: The cooperation of major politicians and groups in Korea. Some negotiations were strained and took months; they became so disheartened by these setbacks that they reportedly even considered abandoning their plan. However, the events of January and February 1919 caused a spike in pro-independence activism; around this time, they were able to quickly secure a number of significant alliances. They found that some groups had already been independently planning protests. For example, Presbyterian leaders in Pyongyang reportedly had

2774-405: The day of Gojong's public funeral, in order to capitalize on the significant number of people congregating in Seoul. From February 25 to 27, thirty-three representatives  [ ko ] from these various groups held a series of secret meetings in Seoul, during which they signed the Korean Declaration of Independence . From 6 p.m. to 10 p.m. on February 27, they printed 21,000 copies of

2847-450: The declaration at the printing facilities of Posŏngsa  [ ko ] , a publisher affiliated with Cheondoism. On the morning of the 28th, they distributed these copies around the peninsula. They also coordinated the distribution of copies to members of the Korean diaspora, to U.S. President Wilson, and to participants in the Paris Peace Conference. That day, they held a final meeting at Son Byong-hi's house and reviewed their plans for

2920-426: The end of the document's reading, cheers of "long live Korean independence" ( 대한독립 만세 ) erupted continually from the crowd, and they filed out onto the main street Jongno for a public march. By the time the marchers reached the gate Daehanmun of the former royal palace Deoksugung , their numbers had swelled to the tens of thousands. From there, a number of splinter groups marched in different directions throughout

2993-652: The entrance of the police office twenty or more Japanese policemen, who stood in line, kicked me and struck me [...] in the face so many times... I was made to kneel down with my legs bound together, and each question and answer was accompanied alternately by blows to the face... An April 12 cablegram, sent from Shanghai to the Korean National Association in San Francisco, read: Japan began massacring in Korea. Over [one] thousand unarmed people killed in Seoul during three hours' demonstration on

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3066-566: The event to the Japanese Government-General of Chōsen , which caused the signers to be arrested by around 80 Japanese military police officers. Meanwhile, around 4,000 to 5,000 people assembled at Tapgol Park after hearing there was going to be an announcement made there. Around 2 p.m., an unidentified young man rose up before the crowd and began reading the Korean Declaration of Independence aloud. Near

3139-504: The fact that the significance of Wilsonianism in Asia and Africa had received little attention from scholars. The reaction in the colonised world was largely the result of Wilson's Fourteen Points speech on 8 January 1918, in which Wilson advocated the formation of a "general association of nations", "for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike". He declared in

3212-694: The globe. Erez Manela argues that by December 1918, shortly before the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920) , Wilson was "a man of almost transcendent significance". Wilson's rhetoric certainly had an impact in Asian nations, including India, where he was hailed as "The Modern Apostle of Freedom" by Indian nationalist Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi , and in China, where Wilson's words were viewed as a crucial opportunity to improve China's situation domestically and internationally. According to Manela, many in Asia had faith that Wilson could and did intend to form

3285-803: The mistreatment and extrajudicial killings of prisoners. There, women were stripped naked in front of male guards. An April 22, 1919 pamphlet by the Presbyterian Church in America read: [When] they put Korean women in the question box—this, mind you, is before they are condemned at all—they are stripped absolutely naked... From here they have to walk across an open court where they can be seen by any one who pleases... Some women, who tried to cover themselves, had their hands tied behind them. There are reports that conditions were extremely cramped and dirty, and that some rooms were so cramped that people were unable to sit or lie down. William R. Giles,

3358-425: The native Korean religion Cheondoism , including Kwŏn Tongjin  [ ko ] , O Se-chang , and Son Byong-hi , reached a consensus that nonviolent resistance and turning international public opinion against Japan would be effective in advocating for Korea's independence. They also agreed that they needed assistance from other major groups in Korea. They dispatched representatives to negotiate and secure

3431-498: The number of protestors at around 20,000 to 30,000. This was around 10% of the total Korean population of the region at the time. One person, who had sent her son to the protest, later recalled what she had heard of it: I heard that a large crowd of people gathered from all over to hear the news. After the noon bell finished ringing, a large flag celebrating Korea's independence was unfurled. Everyone raised their own flags and shouted "long live Korean independence". The flag blocked

3504-465: The peninsula opening fire or conducting organized bayonet charges on unarmed protestors. During an intense raid on Suwon and Anseong , Japanese authorities reportedly burnt 276 private homes down, killed 29, and arrested around 2,000 people. Many Koreans were tortured and executed. On April 6, the Sucheon-ri massacre  [ ko ] occurred, during which Japanese authorities entered

3577-584: The possibility that Gojong had been murdered has since been evaluated as having a critical impact on the timing of, and even the altogether occurrence of, the March First Movement. By the mid-1910s, several hundred Korean students were studying in Japan as part of Japan's cultural assimilation efforts. While there, they were exposed to and developed a variety of ideas, which they discussed and debated. Of particular interest to them were ideas from

3650-564: The pre-war world order, which placed the Western powers at the top and marginalised the majority of the rest of the world, to be demolished and non-European nations would be given their rightful place. Erez Manela is a key historian of the Wilsonian moment, having produced work on the topic which include case studies on the Wilsonian moment in Egypt, Korea, China, and India. He aimed to address

3723-660: The protest in Seoul reached these cities quickly, as they were connected to Seoul via the Gyeongui and Gyeongwon railway lines. On March 2, more protests were held in Kaesong and Keiki-dō ( Gyeonggi Province ). On March 3, more were held in Yesan and Chūseinan-dō ( South Chungcheong Province ). Protests continued to spread in this fashion, until by March 19, all thirteen provinces of Korea had hosted protests. On March 21, Jeju Island held their first protest. All but seven of

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3796-626: The protests, and began organizing their own. In Ussuriysk , a protest was held and suppressed on March 17. The Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan had been part of the Allies of World War I , and had signed agreements to suppress the Korean independence movement. Inspired by the Ussuriysk protest, the Koreans of the enclave Sinhanch'on in Vladivostok launched their own that same day, which

3869-486: The protests, with some reportedly refusing to reopen even after Japanese soldiers attempted to force them to. Some shop owners demanded the release of imprisoned protestors. The protests were decentralized and diverse. The diversity in the protests was influenced by local culture and religion. In some regions, Christians played a more significant role in organizing protests, and in others Cheondoists were more significant. The scholar Kim Jin-bong argued that Christians played

3942-540: The protests. They initially planned to start the protest by inviting thousands of observers to Tapgol Park in Seoul. However, they worried that if they were prominently arrested, angered Korean observers could possibly violently retaliate against authorities. In the interest of maintaining the non-violence of the protests, they decided to change the starting location to the less-visible restaurant Taehwagwan  [ ko ] in Insa-dong . Foreigners also played

4015-619: The protests. Many of the movement's earliest protests were in the region, and a plurality of the signers were from there (11 of the 33). This region contained the second-largest city in Korea Pyongyang, was a center of Christianity, and produced a large number of intellectuals. North Hamgyong Province was the last province to join the protests; they began on March 10. Its protests have been characterized as less intense than others, possibly due to transportation being less developed there, as well as security being tighter due to it being on

4088-514: The region being relatively depleted after having previously heavily participated in the 1894–1895 Donghak Peasant Revolution and subsequent righteous army conflicts. In this province and in Zenranan-dō ( South Jeolla Province ), students often played a significant role in protests. Women both led and participated in many of the protests. A group of female students wrote a public letter entitled "From Korean School Girls" to world leaders that

4161-465: The sun, and the shouting echoed like thunder. When the Japanese authorities saw this, their faces turned ashen. Japanese authorities pressured the Chinese warlord Zhang Zuolin into suppressing the protest. This resulted in around 17 to 19 deaths. Like in Korea, the Koreans continued to hold protests for weeks afterwards; by mid-May they would host at least 50 more. Koreans in Russia also learned of

4234-450: The time of the movement. Japan had been successfully rapidly industrializing since the late 19th century. Around this time, Western theories surrounding social Darwinism and colonial civilizing missions gained significant traction in Japan. These theories were often used to justify and promote Japanese colonialism . The devastation during the 1914–1918 First World War was a shock to many, and motivated intellectuals in Korea and around

4307-605: The twentieth century has had as lasting, as benign, or as widespread an influence." Liberal internationalism Liberal internationalism is a foreign policy doctrine that supports international institutions, open markets, cooperative security, and liberal democracy. At its core, it holds that states should participate in international institutions that uphold rules-based norms , promote liberal democracy , and facilitate cooperation on transnational problems (such as environmental problems, arms control, and public health). Proponents of liberal internationalism argue that

4380-543: The twenty-eighth. Japanese troops, fire brigades, and civilians are ordered [to shoot, beat, and hook [ sic ]] people mercilessly throughout Korea. Killed several thousand since twenty-seventh. Churches, schools, homes of leaders destroyed. Women made naked and beaten before crowds, especially leaders' family. The imprisoned being severely tortured. Doctors are forbidden caring wounded. Foreign Red Cross urgently needed. Foreigners were also reportedly persecuted by Japanese authorities. American missionary Eli M. Mowry

4453-530: The world to discuss liberal reforms, especially anti-colonialism , and ideals that would serve to discourage future such conflicts. After the end of the war in 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson announced his vision for establishing peace and the new world order. This vision was dubbed the Fourteen Points, and included the right of national self-determination . Koreans who learned of Wilson's vision were inspired, and interpreted it as signaling support for their independence movement. Their sympathy to

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4526-468: Was a reassociation of an idea that others had previously imbued with different meanings. Wilson's version of self-determination "effectively recast self-determination as a racially differentiated principle, which was fully compatible with imperial rule." The Wilsonian moment was a time in the wake of the First World War in which many of those in the colonised world hoped that the time had come for

4599-529: Was a remarkably effective writer and thinker, and his diplomatic policies had a profound influence on shaping the world. Diplomatic historian Walter Russell Mead said: "Wilson's principles survived the eclipse of the Versailles system and they still guide European politics today: self-determination, democratic government, collective security, international law, and a league of nations. Wilson may not have gotten everything he wanted at Versailles, and his treaty

4672-619: Was a series of protests against Japanese colonial rule that was held throughout Korea and internationally by the Korean diaspora beginning on March 1, 1919. Protests were largely concentrated in March and April, although related protests continued until 1921. In South Korea, the movement is remembered as a landmark event of not only the Korean independence movement , but of all of Korean history. The protests began in Seoul , with public readings of

4745-448: Was also suppressed. They launched another the following day. In Moscow on August 12, a public rally in support of the March First Movement was held, and was reportedly attended by around 200 people, including at least one Soviet politician. The rally was left-leaning; its speakers, including an ethnic Korean Red Army officer (likely Yi Ouitjyong ), interpreted the movement in a socialist framework and advocated for Koreans to ally with

4818-679: Was left in disillusionment. Manela suggests this led to violent protest movements in various marginalised nations, including the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 , the May Fourth Movement in China, Mahatma Gandhi 's passive resistance movement in India, and the March 1st Movement in Korea. Historian David Kennedy argues that American foreign relations since 1914 have rested on Wilsonian idealism , even if adjusted somewhat by

4891-461: Was never ratified by the Senate, but his vision and his diplomacy, for better or worse, set the tone for the twentieth century. France, Germany, Italy, and Britain may have sneered at Wilson, but every one of these powers today conducts its European policy along Wilsonian lines. What was once dismissed as visionary is now accepted as fundamental. This was no mean achievement, and no European statesman of

4964-585: Was reportedly unaware that the protests would occur until they began, and was surprised by the scale and intensity of them. It rushed to recruit people from various backgrounds, including firemen and security guards at railroads, to stop the protests. The government-general received more military police and police officers from Japan, as well as more army divisions. They equipped these groups with lethal weapons and distributed them around Korea. A significant number of mass murders of Korean civilians occurred. There are numerous reports of Japanese authorities around

5037-478: Was reprinted in American newspapers and paired with expressions of outrage. Korean schoolgirls are attested to being stripped and publicly flogged. An anecdote attested to claims a girl had her hand cut off by a Japanese soldier because she was holding a copy of the declaration. She then reportedly switched to holding the item in her other hand, and continued to protest. One female student of Ewha Haktang gave

5110-556: Was reprinted in international newspapers. The role of women in the protests was hailed by international feminist observers, and described as a milestone in their changing social status, especially in contrast to their status during the conservative Joseon period . On March 7, Koreans in Manchuria learned of the movement. They held a large protest in Longjing on March 13. Estimates of the number of protestors vary, although some put

5183-573: Was retained by the intellectual founders of the League of Nations and augmented somewhat with ideas from classical radicalism and the political party platform of the International Entente of Radical and Similar Democratic Parties . Daniel Deudney and John Ikenberry have also associated liberal internationalism with foreign policy ideas promoted by Franklin D. Roosevelt . Paul K. MacDonald has linked diplomatic practices developed at

5256-501: Was seen as inadequate compensation. This caused a significant decline in the quality of life for many farmers and laborers, who began publicly protesting their treatment. In 1916, there were 6 strikes with 362 participants. In 1917, there were 8 strikes with 1,128, and by 1918 there were 50 strikes with 4,442. Historians of the National Institute of Korean History argue that this reflected increasing discontent in Korea around

5329-483: Was sentenced to hard labor for allegedly harboring demonstrators. An American woman was reportedly attacked in Pyongyang. According to the League of Friends of Korea , two American women "were beaten by the Japanese soldiers for no other reason than they were sympathetic with the Koreans". Japanese authorities searched the residences of foreigners, reportedly without warrant . According to an August 15 article in

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