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88-459: Wingina ( c.  16th century – 1 June 1586), also known as Pemisapan , was a Secotan weroance who was the first Native American leader to be encountered by English colonists in North America . During the late 16th century, English explorers Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe explored the region inhabited by Wingina and his people, detailing conflicts between Wingina's tribe,

176-467: A combined army between the two of them that could outmatch the military of most noble coalitions in the Peninsula. It was impossible to change the entire laws of both realms by force alone, and due to reasonable suspicion of one another, the monarchs kept their kingdoms separate during their lifetimes. The only way to unify both kingdoms and ensure that Isabella, Ferdinand, and their descendants maintained

264-544: A fear of a second Muslim invasion, and in turn a second Muslim occupation, that was hardly unfounded. This fear may have been the base reason for the expulsion of those citizens who had either a religious reason to support the invasion of the Ottomans (Moriscos) or no particular religious reason to be against it (Jews). The Inquisition might have been part of the preparations to enforce these measures and ensure their effectiveness by rooting out false converts that would still pose

352-519: A feast between the two groups. An unspecified number of Neiosioke men and thirty women attended a feast in the town of Croatoan. The Neiosioke had executed an ambush on the Secotans at the feast, and by the time fighting had ended, the Neiosioke had "slewn them every one, reserving the women and children only." In conveying this "inter-tribal" history to Barlowe, Manteo saw an opportunity to advance

440-477: A feast in the town of Neiosioke. The Neiosioke ambushed the Secotans at the feast, and by the time fighting ended, the Neiosioke had "slewn them every one, reserving the women and children only." In conveying this "inter-tribal" history to Barlowe, Wingina saw an opportunity to advance the interest of the Secotans. Wingina and his people attempted on several occasions to convince the English to join them in devising

528-467: A fervent proponent of absolute authority for the church over the kings. Carrillo actively opposed them both and often used Spain's "mixed blood" as an excuse to intervene. The papacy and the monarchs of Europe had been involved in a rivalry for power throughout the high Middle Ages that Rome already won in other powerful kingdoms, like France . Since the legitimacy granted by the church was necessary for both monarchs, especially Isabella, to stay in power,

616-601: A man who didn’t know the meaning of piety, but who made political use of it and would have achieved little if he had known it. He was Machiavelli’s main inspiration while writing The Prince . The hierarchy of the Catholic Church had made many attempts during the Middle Ages to take over Christian Spain politically, such as claiming the Church's ownership over all land reconquered from non-Christians (a claim that

704-420: A nation. Machiavelli considered piety and morals desirable for the subjects but not so much for the ruler, who should use them as a way to unify its population. He also warned of the nefarious influence of a corrupt church in the creation of a selfish population and middle nobility, which had fragmented the peninsula and made it unable to resist either France or Aragon. German philosophers at the time were spreading

792-516: A neighboring tribe at the mouth of the Neuse River , the Neusiok , referred to as the "Neiosioke" by Barlowe. According to Wingina, the Secotans endured years of warfare with the Neiosioke, and "some years earlier," he met with the Neiosioke king, to ensure a "permanent coexistence." The two leaders arranged a feast between the two groups. An unspecified number of Secotan men and 30 women attended

880-692: A new bull (1482) categorically prohibiting the Inquisition's extension to Aragón , affirming that: ... in Aragon, Valencia, Mallorca and Catalonia the Inquisition has for some time been moved not by zeal for the faith and the salvation of souls, but by lust for wealth, and that many true and faithful Christians, on the testimony of enemies, rivals, slaves and other lower and even less proper persons, have without any legitimate proof been thrust into secular prisons, tortured and condemned as relapsed heretics, deprived of their goods and property and handed over to

968-497: A new bull, threatening that he would otherwise separate the Inquisition from Church authority. Sixtus did so on 17 October 1483, naming Tomás de Torquemada Inquisidor General of Aragón, Valencia, and Catalonia . Torquemada quickly established procedures for the Inquisition. In 1484, based on Nicholas Eymerich 's Directorium Inquisitorum , he created a twenty-eight-article inquisitor's code, Compilación de las instrucciones del oficio de la Santa Inquisición (i.e. Compilation of

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1056-575: A saint) in Zaragoza on 15 September 1485 caused public opinion to turn against the conversos and in favour of the Inquisition. In Aragón, the Inquisitorial courts focused specifically on members of the powerful converso minority, ending their influence in the Aragonese administration. The Inquisition was extremely active between 1480 and 1530. Different sources give different estimates of

1144-459: A surprise attack against the Neiosioke. The Englishmen, uncertain of "whether their perswasion be to the ende they may be revenged of their enemies, or for the love they beare to us," declined to help the Secotans wage war against their rivals. Instead, the English established a trusting relationship with the Secotans, exemplified by the willingness of two Secotan chiefs, Manteo and Wanchese , to accompany Amadas and Barlowe back to England. Wingina

1232-646: A system, in which they would travel to Spanish possessions in the Caribbean , to pick up Spanish goods, and take them back to England, with no religious conflicts. By the 1560s, the English faced increasing Spanish hostility. In 1585, the Englishman Richard Hakluyt published a book, Discourse of Western Planting , which concluded that the English should establish their own colony in the mid-latitudes of North America, to end dependency on Spanish goods, by creating their own supply lines. By April of

1320-674: A threat of foreign espionage. In favor of this view, there is the military sense it makes, the many early attempts of peaceful conversion and persuasion that the Monarchs used at the beginning of their reign, and the sudden turn towards the creation of the Inquisition and the edicts of expulsion when those initial attempts failed. The conquest of Naples by the Gran Capitan is also proof of an interest in Mediterranean expansion and re-establishment of Spanish power in that sea that

1408-778: A tool to turn both actual Spain and the Spanish image more European and improve relations with the Pope. The alleged discovery of Morisco plots to support a possible Ottoman invasion was a crucial factor in their decision to create the Inquisition. At this time, the Ottoman Empire was experiencing rapid growth, and the Aragonese Mediterranean Empire was crumbling under debt and war exhaustion. Ferdinand reasonably feared that he would not be capable of repelling an Ottoman attack on Spain’s shores, especially if

1496-525: A trusting relationship with the Croatoan, exemplified by the willingness of two Croatoan men, Manteo and Wanchese, to accompany Amadas and Barlowe back to England. The Secotan remained in the same area until 1644 or 1645, when colonists from Virginia Colony attacked them and drove them off in the last of the Anglo-Powhatan Wars . British settlement in the area increased soon afterward, and

1584-444: A voluntary convert, and accordingly forbidden to revert to Judaism. After the public violence, many of the converts "felt it safer to remain in their new religion." Thus, after 1391, a new social group appeared and was referred to as conversos or New Christians . Many conversos , now freed from the anti-Semitic restrictions imposed on Jewish employment, attained important positions in fifteenth-century Spain, including positions in

1672-658: The Canary Islands , the Kingdom of Naples , and all Spanish possessions in North America and South America . According to some modern estimates, around 150,000 people were prosecuted for various offences during the three-century duration of the Spanish Inquisition, of whom between 3,000 and 5,000 were executed, approximately 2.7 percent of all cases. The Inquisition, however, since the creation of

1760-467: The Croatoan (Hatteras), explained his own tribal history, in relation to a neighboring tribe at the mouth of the Neuse River , the Neusiok , referred to as the Neiosioke by Barlowe. According to Manteo, the Croatoan were enduring years of warfare with the Neiosioke, and "some years earlier," he had met with the Neiosioke king, in an effort to ensure a "permanent coexistence." The two leaders had arranged

1848-527: The Fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, there followed almost seven centuries in which persecutions for heresy became very rare. Some of the old heresies survived, but in a weakened state, and they tended not to operate openly. No new schisms appeared to emerge during this period. The Episcopal Inquisition was created through the papal bull Ad Abolendam ("To abolish") at

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1936-484: The Florentine School , with whom the kings were known to have contact ( Guicciardini , Pico della Mirandola , Machiavelli , Segni, Pitti, Nardi, Varchi, etc.) Both Guicciardini and Machiavelli defended the importance of centralization and unification to create a strong state capable of repelling foreign invasions and also warned of the dangers of excessive social uniformity to the creativity and innovation of

2024-601: The Middle Ages . In the Kingdom of Aragon , a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition was established by the statute of Excommunicamus et anathematisamus of Pope Gregory IX , in 1231, during the era of the Albigensian heresy, as a condition for peace with Aragon. The Inquisition was ill-received by the Aragonese, which led to prohibitions against insults or attacks on it. Rome was particularly concerned that

2112-533: The Santa Hermandad (the “Holy Brotherhood”, ancestor to the Guardia Civil , a law enforcement body answering to the crown that prosecuted thieves and criminals across counties in a way local county authorities could not), an institution that would guarantee uniform prosecution of crimes against royal laws across all local jurisdictions. The unusual authority wielded by the king over the nobility in

2200-612: The conversos . Torquemada eventually assumed the title of Inquisitor-General Ferdinand II of Aragon pressured Pope Sixtus IV to agree to an Inquisition controlled by the monarchy by threatening to withdraw military support when the Turks were a threat to Rome. The pope issued a bull to stop the Inquisition but was pressured into withdrawing it. On 1 November 1478, Sixtus published the Papal bull , Exigit Sincerae Devotionis Affectus ( Sincere Devotion Is Required ), through which he gave

2288-508: The 1st day of the lunar month Tammuz (June). From there, the violence spread to Córdoba , and by the 17th day of the same lunar month, it had reached Toledo (called then by Jews after its Arabic name "Ṭulayṭulah") in the region of Castile . Then the violence spread to Mallorca , and by the 1st day of the lunar month Elul , it had also reached the Jews of Barcelona in Catalonia , where

2376-572: The American courts, has never had jurisdiction over the indigenous. The King of Spain ordered "that the inquisitors should never proceed against the Indians, but against the old Christians and their descendants and other persons against whom in these kingdoms of Spain it is customary to proceed". The Inquisition was originally intended primarily to identify heretics among those who converted from Judaism and Islam to Catholicism. The regulation of

2464-475: The Church; any authority who failed in this duty was to be excommunicated, removed from office, and stripped of all legal rights. Commercial boycotts would be imposed on cities that supported heretics and declined to participate. It was the start of a centralization process in the fight against heresy. There were a large number of tribunals of the Papal Inquisition in various European kingdoms during

2552-430: The English placed their first settlement on Roanoke Island, Master Philip Amadas and Master Arthur Barlowe executed an expedition on April 27, 1584, on behalf of Sir Walter Raleigh , who received an English charter, to establish a colony a month earlier. During their expedition, Barlowe took detailed notes relating to conflicts and rivalries between different groups of Native Americans. In one such account, Manteo , of

2640-601: The European Jews applied to Spaniards in most European courts, and the idea of them being “greedy, gold-thirsty, cruel and violent” because of the “Jewish and Moorish blood” was prevalent in Europe prior to the discovery of America. Chronicles by foreign travelers circulated through Europe, describing the tolerant ambiance reigning in the court of Isabella and Ferdinand and how Moors and Jews were free to go about without risk of forced conversion. Past and common clashes between

2728-485: The Iberian Peninsula's large Muslim and Jewish population would have a 'heretical' influence on Catholic citizens. Rome pressed the kingdoms to accept the Papal Inquisition after Aragon. Navarra conceded in the 13th century and Portugal by the end of the 14th, though its 'Roman Inquisition' was famously inactive. Castile refused steadily, trusting in its prominent position in Europe and its military power to keep

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2816-469: The Iberian reputation of being too tolerant was a problem. Despite the prestige earned through the reconquest ( Reconquista ), the foreign image of Spaniards coexisted with an almost universal image of heretics and “bad Christians” due to the long coexistence between the three religions they had accepted in their lands. Anti-Jewish stereotypes created to justify or prompt the expulsion and expropriation of

2904-561: The Jews in Spain, during which an estimated 200,000 Jews changed their religion or else concealed their religion, becoming known in Hebrew as Anusim , meaning "those who are compelled [to hide their religion]." Only a handful of the more principal persons of the Jewish community, those who had found refuge among the viceroys in the outlying towns and districts, managed to escape. Forced baptism

2992-580: The Kingdom of Castile contributed to the kingdom’s prosperity in Europe. This strong control kept the kingdom politically stable and prevented in-fighting that weakened other countries like England. Under the Trastámara dynasty , both kings of Castile and Aragon had lost power to the great nobles, who now formed dissenting and conspiratorial factions. Taxation and varying privileges differed from county to county, and powerful noble families constantly extorted

3080-522: The Ottomans had internal help. The regions with the highest concentration of Moriscos were those close to the common naval crossings between Spain and Africa. The weakness of the Aragonese Naval Empire combined with the resentment of the higher nobility against the monarchs, the dynastic claims of Portugal on Castile , and the two monarchs’ exterior politics that turned away from Morocco and other African nations in favor of Europe, created

3168-568: The Pope and the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula regarding the Inquisition in Castile’s case and regarding South Italy in Aragon’s case also reinforced their image of heretics in the international courts. These accusations and images could have had direct political and military consequences, especially considering that the union of two powerful kingdoms was a delicate moment that could prompt fear and violent reactions from neighbors, more so if combined with

3256-409: The Pope's behalf, presumably) without the Pope's intervention. The Inquisition was, despite its title of "Holy", not necessarily formed by the clergy, and secular lawyers were equally welcome to it. If it was an attempt at keeping Rome out of Spain, it was an extremely successful and refined one. It was a bureaucratic body that had the nominal authority of the church and permission to prosecute members of

3344-405: The Pope's interventionism in check. England and Castile were the only Western European kingdoms that withstood the establishment of the Inquisition in their realms by the end of the Middle Ages. England’s success was because of its distance and the voluntary compliance of its people, while Castile, which would later become part of Spain, resisted because of its people’s resistance and the power of

3432-523: The Secotan and a rival tribe known as the Neusiok . When English colonization of the region began, relations between the colonists and the Secotan quickly broke down. On 1 June 1586, in an effort to gain more stocks of food for the colony, Sir Ralph Lane led an attack on the Secotan; Wingina was decapitated during the attack by one of Lane's men. This attack and crime doomed the Roanoke colony. Before

3520-495: The Spanish crown, and he successfully persuaded the groups to construct housing and make food provisions, which created eleven Spanish settlements in the Carolinas. The Spanish still inhabited the Carolinas when the English arrived. While the Spanish settled in the interior of the Carolinas, the English arrived on the coast. The placement of a colony at Roanoke marked the first English colonial presence in North America. Before

3608-687: The adherents of other cults — pagans, Jews, and heretics. Though only in the fourth century of its existence, Christianity had spread widely and was already beginning to experience a multiplicity of schisms within itself. Among the most significant of the heresies at this time were Arianism , Manichaeism , Gnosticism , the Adamites , the Donatists , the Pelagians , and Priscillianists . The Edict of Thessalonica issued on 27 February 380 by Emperor Theodosius I established Nicene Christianity as

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3696-554: The area of Andalusia , and trade flourished. In 1533, Spanish officials began to harass the English in Spain, who were required as Englishmen to "swear under oath" that Henry VIII was the head of the church. The requirement of the oath made the Englishmen in Spain subject to persecution, under charges of heresy, by the Spanish Inquisition . To circumvent Spanish officials and the inquisition, English traders devised

3784-547: The book A History of the Jewish People , In 1482 the pope was still trying to maintain control over the Inquisition and to gain acceptance for his own attitude towards the New Christians which was generally more moderate than that of the Inquisition and the local rulers. In 1483, Jews were expelled from all of Andalusia . Though the pope wanted to crack down on abuses, Ferdinand pressured him to promulgate

3872-551: The bull Exigit sincerae devotionis affectus , permitting the monarchs to select and appoint two or three priests over forty years of age to act as inquisitors. In 1483, Ferdinand and Isabella established a state council to administer the inquisition with the Dominican Friar Tomás de Torquemada acting as its president, even though Sixtus IV protested the activities of the inquisition in Aragon and its treatment of

3960-466: The bull of creation was granted, the head of the Inquisition was the Monarch of Spain. It was in charge of enforcing the laws of the king regarding religion and other private-life matters, not of following orders from Rome, from which it was independent. This independence allowed the Inquisition to investigate, prosecute, and convict clergy for both corruption and treason of conspiracy against the crown (on

4048-519: The church, which the kings could not do, while answering only to the Spanish Crown. This did not prevent the Pope from having some influence on the decisions of Spanish monarchs, but it did force the influence to be through the kings, making direct influence very difficult. Other hypotheses that circulate regarding the Spanish Inquisition's creation include: Fray Alonso de Ojeda, a Dominican friar from Seville, convinced Queen Isabella of

4136-465: The creation of the Spanish Inquisition may have been a way to concede to the Pope's demands and criticism regarding Spain's mixed religious heritage, while simultaneously ensuring that the Pope could hardly force the second Inquisition of his own and create a tool to control the power of the Roman Church in Spain. The Spanish Inquisition was unique at the time because it was not led by the Pope. Once

4224-443: The ecclesiastical hierarchy, at times becoming severe detractors of Judaism. Some even received titles of nobility and, as a result, during the following century, some works attempted to demonstrate many nobles of Spain descended from Israelites. According to this hypothesis, the Inquisition was created to standardize various laws and the numerous jurisdictions Spain was divided into. It would be an administrative program analogous to

4312-797: The end of the Reconquista and aimed to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and replace the Medieval Inquisition , which was under papal control. Along with the Roman Inquisition and the Portuguese Inquisition , it became the most substantive of the three different manifestations of the wider Catholic Inquisition . The "Spanish Inquisition" may be defined broadly as operating in Spain and in all Spanish colonies and territories, which included

4400-495: The end of the 12th century by Pope Lucius III , with the support of emperor Frederick I , to combat the Albigensian heresy in southern France. Heretics were to be handed over to secular authorities for punishment, have their property seized, and face excommunication. Holders of public office, counts, barons, and rectors in cities and other places were required to take responsibility for punishing heretics handed over to them by

4488-446: The enforcement of Catholicism across the realm might indeed be the result of simple religious devotion by the monarchs. (see § purely religious reasons ) The recent scholarship on the expulsion of the Jews leans towards the belief of religious motivations being at the bottom of it. However, considering the reports on Ferdinand’s political persona, that is unlikely the only reason. Machiavelli, among others, described Ferdinand as

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4576-575: The existence of Crypto-Judaism among Andalusian conversos during her stay in Seville between 1477 and 1478. A report, produced by Pedro González de Mendoza , Archbishop of Seville, and by the Segovian Dominican Tomás de Torquemada —of converso family himself—corroborated this assertion. Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella requested a papal bull to establish an inquisition in Spain in 1478. Pope Sixtus IV granted

4664-552: The expansion of the Ottoman Turks on the Mediterranean. The creation of the Inquisition and the expulsion of both Jews and Moriscos may have been part of a strategy to whitewash the image of Spain and ease international fears regarding Spain's allegiance. In this scenario, the creation of the Inquisition could have been part of the Catholic Monarchs' strategy to "turn" away from African allies and "towards" Europe,

4752-408: The faith of newly converted Catholics was intensified following royal decrees issued in 1492 and 1502 ordering Jews and Muslims to convert to Catholicism or leave Castile , or face death, resulting in hundreds of thousands of forced conversions , torture and executions, the persecution of conversos and moriscos , and the mass expulsions of Jews and Muslims from Spain . The Inquisition

4840-477: The family might secretly be honoring the Sabbath), the buying of many vegetables before Passover, or the purchase of meat from a converted butcher. The court could employ physical torture to extract confessions . Crypto-Jews were allowed to confess and do penance, although those who relapsed were executed. In 1484, Pope Innocent VIII attempted to allow appeals to Rome against the Inquisition, which would weaken

4928-411: The first English settlement on Roanoke Island, Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe explored the area (April 27, 1584) on behalf of Raleigh, who had received an English charter to establish a colony a month earlier. During their expedition, Barlowe took detailed notes relating to conflicts and rivalries between different groups of Native Americans. In one account, Wingina explained his tribal history, about

5016-660: The function of the institution as protection against the pope, but Ferdinand in December 1484 and again in 1509 decreed death and confiscation for anyone making use of such procedures without royal permission. With this, the Inquisition became the only institution that held authority across all the realms of the Spanish monarchy and, in all of them, a useful mechanism at the service of the crown. The cities of Aragón continued resisting and even saw revolt, as in Teruel , from 1484 to 1485. The murder of Inquisidor Pedro Arbués (later made

5104-426: The government and the Church. Among many others, physicians Andrés Laguna and Francisco López de Villalobos (Ferdinand's court physician), writers Juan del Encina , Juan de Mena , Diego de Valera , and Alonso de Palencia, and bankers Luis de Santángel and Gabriel Sánchez (who financed the voyage of Christopher Columbus ) were all conversos . Conversos —not without opposition—managed to attain high positions in

5192-469: The importance of a vassal sharing the religion of their lord. The Inquisition may have just been the result of putting these ideas into practice. The use of religion as a unifying factor across a land that was allowed to stay diverse and maintain different laws in other respects, and the creation of the Inquisition to enforce laws across it, maintain said religious unity, and control the local elites were consistent with most of those teachings. Alternatively,

5280-484: The instructions of the office of the Holy Inquisition) , essentially unaltered for more than three centuries following Torquemada's death. A new court would be announced with a thirty-day grace period for self-confessions and denunciations, and the gathering of accusations by neighbors and acquaintances. Evidence that was used to identify a crypto-Jew included the absence of chimney smoke on Saturdays (a sign

5368-410: The interest of the Croatoan. Manteo and his people attempted on several occasions to convince the English to join them in devising a surprise attack against the Neiosioke. The Englishmen, uncertain of "whether their perswasion be to the ende they may be revenged of their enemies, or for the love they beare to us," declined to help the Croatoan wage war against their rivals. Instead, the English established

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5456-598: The kingdom. Within the context of medieval Europe, there are several hypotheses of what prompted the creation of the tribunal after centuries of tolerance . The Spanish Inquisition is interpretable as a response to the multi-religious nature of Spanish society following the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Moors . The Reconquista did not result in the total expulsion of Muslims from Spain since they, along with Jews, were tolerated by

5544-408: The kings to attain further concessions, particularly in Aragon. The main goals of the reign of the Catholic Monarchs were to unite their two kingdoms and strengthen royal influence to guarantee stability. In pursuit of this, they sought to unify the laws of their realms further and reduce the power of the nobility in certain local areas. They attained this partially by raw military strength by creating

5632-786: The land was officially transferred from the Virginia Colony to the Province of Carolina in 1665. Surviving Secotan descendants merged into the Machapunga . Spanish Inquisition God Schools Relations with: The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition ( Spanish : Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición ) was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs , King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile . It began toward

5720-652: The late 13th century and into the 14th century. England and France expelled their Jewish populations in 1290 and 1306 , respectively. During the Reconquista , Spain's anti-Jewish sentiment steadily increased. This prejudice climaxed in the summer of 1391 when violent anti-Jewish riots broke out in Spanish cities like Barcelona . To linguistically distinguish them from non-converted or long-established Catholic families, new converts were called conversos , or New Catholics. According to Don Hasdai Crescas , persecution against Jews began in earnest in Seville in 1391, on

5808-676: The monarchs exclusive authority to name the inquisitors in their kingdoms. The first two inquisitors, Miguel de Morillo and Juan de San Martín were not named until two years later, on 27 September 1480, in Medina del Campo . The first auto de fé was held in Seville on 6 February 1481: six people were burned alive. From there, the Inquisition grew rapidly in the Kingdom of Castile . By 1492, tribunals existed in eight Castilian cities: Ávila , Córdoba , Jaén , Medina del Campo , Segovia , Sigüenza , Toledo , and Valladolid . Sixtus IV promulgated

5896-429: The nobility and high clergy among those investigated by the Inquisition supported this hypothesis, as well as the many administrative and civil crimes the Inquisition oversaw. The Inquisition prosecuted the counterfeiting of royal seals and currency, ensured the effective transmission of the orders of the kings, and verified the authenticity of official documents traveling through the kingdoms, especially from one kingdom to

5984-491: The nobility and local interests of either kingdom. According to this view, the prosecution of heretics would be secondary, or simply not considered different, from the prosecution of conspirators, traitors, or groups of any kind who planned to resist royal authority. Royal authority rested on the divine right and oaths of loyalty held before God, so the connection between religious deviation and political disloyalty would appear obvious. The disproportionately high representation of

6072-658: The number of trials and executions in this period; some estimate about 2,000 executions, based on the documentation of the autos de fé , the great majority being conversos of Jewish origin. He offers striking statistics: 91.6% of those judged in Valencia between 1484 and 1530, and 99.3% of those judged in Barcelona between 1484 and 1505 were of Jewish origin. The Inquisition had jurisdiction only over Christians. It had no power to investigate, prosecute, or convict Jews, Muslims, or any open member of other religions. Anyone who

6160-412: The only one with enough popular support that the nobility could not easily attack it. Through the Spanish Inquisition, Isabella and Ferdinand created a personal police force and personal code of law that rested above the structure of their respective realms without altering or mixing them and could operate freely in both. As the Inquisition had the backing of both kingdoms, it would exist independent of both

6248-408: The other. At a time in which most of Europe had already expelled the Jews from the Christian kingdoms , the "dirty blood" of Spaniards was met with open suspicion and contempt. As the world became smaller and foreign relations became more relevant to stay in power, this foreign image of "being the seed of Jews and Moors" may have become a problem. In addition, the coup that allowed Isabella to take

6336-529: The others, as counter-colonizers of the Carolinas as exhibited through the study of Roanoke Island . In 1490, prior to England's entry into North American colonialism, the Treaty of Medina del Campo lowered tariffs between England and Spain, and ushered in an era of increased trading between the two countries. The marriage of Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon (Spain) sealed the treaty. During this time, many English traders moved to southern Spain, in

6424-457: The power of both kingdoms without uniting them in life was to find or create an executive, legislative, and judicial arm directly under the Crown empowered to act in both kingdoms. This goal, the hypothesis goes, might have given birth to the Spanish Inquisition. The religious organization capable of overseeing this role was obvious. Catholicism was the only institution common to both kingdoms and

6512-606: The ruling Catholics, Jews, and Muslims. As historian Henry Kamen notes, the "so-called convivencia was always a relationship between unequals." Despite their legal inequality, there was a long tradition of Jewish service to the Crown of Aragon, and Jews occupied many important posts, both religious and political. Castile itself had an unofficial rabbi . Ferdinand's father, John II , named the Jewish Abiathar Crescas Court Astronomer . Antisemitic attitudes increased throughout Europe during

6600-501: The ruling Christian elite. Large cities, especially Seville , Valladolid , and Barcelona , had significant Jewish populations centered on Juderia , but in the coming years, the Muslims became increasingly alienated and relegated from power centers. Cultural historian Américo Castro has characterized post-reconquest medieval Spain as a society of relatively peaceful co-existence ( convivencia ) punctuated by occasional conflict among

6688-573: The same year, Sir Richard Grenville left England, bound for the Carolina coast, with 100 colonists, which marked the beginning of England's colonial endeavors in America. Spanish colonies established the first European colonies in the Carolinas, under the leadership of Spanish captain, Juan Pardo , in 1567 and 1568. Pardo declared that the Catawba , Wateree , and Saxaphaw groups were subject to

6776-442: The secular arm to be executed, to the peril of souls, setting a pernicious example, and causing disgust to many. Outraged, Ferdinand feigned doubt about the bull's veracity, arguing that no sensible pope would have published such a document. He wrote the pope on May 13, 1482, saying: "Take care therefore not to let the matter go further, and to revoke any concessions and entrust us with the care of this question." According to

6864-423: The slain was approximately two-hundred and fifty. Indeed, many Jews who resided in the neighboring provinces of Lleida and Gironda and the kingdom of Valencia had also been affected, as were the Jews of Al-Andalus (Andalucía). While many died a martyr's death, others converted to save themselves. Encouraged by the preaching of Ferrand Martínez , Archdeacon of Ecija , the general unrest affected nearly all

6952-534: The state church of the Roman Empire. It condemned other Christian creeds as heresies of "foolish madmen" and approved their punishment. In 438, under Emperor Theodosius II , the Codex Theodosianus (Theodosian Code), a compilation of laws of the Roman Empire, already provided for the confiscation of property and the death penalty for heretics. The Spanish ascetic and theologian Priscillian

7040-489: The throne from Joanna of Castile ("la Beltraneja") and the Catholic Monarchs to marry had estranged Castile from Portugal, its historical ally, and created the need for new relationships. Similarly, Aragon's ambitions lay in control of the Mediterranean and the defense against France. As their policy of royal marriages proved, the Catholic Monarchs were deeply concerned about France's growing power and expected to create strong dynastic alliances across Europe. In this scenario,

7128-572: The two European powers, the English and the Spanish. Rivalries also existed between the Native American groups. Additionally, the Europeans often found themselves caught in the middle of conflicts, which existed between Native American groups. Each group, European or Native American placed the interest of their group over the interest of all others. The English, the Spanish, and the Native American groups they had contact with each acted against

7216-400: Was abolished in 1834, during the reign of Isabella II , after a period of declining influence in the preceding century. The Roman Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in 312. Having been severely persecuted under previous emperors, the new religion now felt capable of commencing its program of persecution. From the moment it was recognised and empowered, there were persecutions against

7304-468: Was bound to generate frictions with the Ottoman Empire and other African nations. Therefore, the Inquisition would have been created as a permanent body to prevent the existence of citizens with religious sympathies with African nations now that rivalry with them had been deemed unavoidable. The creation of the Spanish Inquisition was consistent with the most important political philosophers of

7392-415: Was contrary to the law of the Catholic Church and, theoretically, anybody who had been forcibly baptized could legally return to Judaism. Legal definitions of the time theoretically acknowledged that a forced baptism was not a valid sacrament but confined this to cases where it was administered by physical force: a person who had consented to baptism under threat of death or serious injury was still regarded as

7480-530: Was decapitated by one of Raleigh's men (at the time under the command of Sir Ralph Lane ), the Irish settler Edward Nugent, in the summer of 1586. Secotan They spoke the Carolina Algonquian language , an Eastern Algonquian language. In the Carolinas, colonization did not exist as a straight-line transition, from Native American to European rule. A rivalry marked the relationship between

7568-401: Was excommunicated in 380 after being accused of magic and libertinage. In response to the instigation of two Christian bishops, Emperor Magnus Maximus condemned Priscillian and his companions to death, though prominent figures such as Saint Martin of Tours and Saint Ambrose challenged this verdict. Priscillian has been described as the first martyr killed by a Spanish Inquisition. After

7656-686: Was known to identify as either Jew or Muslim was outside of Inquisitorial jurisdiction and could be tried only by the King. All the Inquisition could do in some of those cases was to deport the individual according to the King's law, but usually, even that had to go through a civil tribunal. The Inquisition had the authority to try only those who self-identified as Christians (initially for taxation purposes, later to avoid deportation as well) while practicing another religion de facto. Even those were treated as Christians. If they confessed or identified not as judaizantes but as fully practicing Jews, they fell back into

7744-465: Was rejected by Castile but accepted by Aragon and Portugal). In the past, the papacy had tried and partially succeeded in forcing the Mozarabic Rite out of Iberia. Its intervention had been pivotal for Aragon's loss of Rosellon . The meddling regarding Aragon's control over South Italy was even stronger historically. In their lifetime, the Catholic Monarchs had problems with Pope Paul II ,

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