The Modoc are an Indigenous American people who historically lived in the area which is now northeastern California and central Southern Oregon . Currently, they include two federally recognized tribes , the Klamath Tribes in Oregon and the Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma , now known as the Modoc Nation .
88-720: Toby " Winema " Riddle (born Nannookdoowah ; c. 1848 – 1920) was a Modoc woman who served as an interpreter in negotiations between the Native American Modoc tribe and the United States Army during the Modoc War (also called the Lava Beds War). She warned the peace commission of a possible Modoc attack, and she saved the life of the chairman Alfred B. Meacham when the 1873 attack took place. She and her family toured with Meacham after
176-493: A heat wave during the summer, no mass health crises occurred. Philadelphia passed an ordinance that authorized Mayor William S. Stokley to appoint 500 men as Centennial Guards for the exposition. Among soldiers and local men hired by the city was Frank Geyer , best known for investigating one of America's first serial killers, H. H. Holmes . Centennial Guards policed exhibits, kept the peace, reunited lost children, and received, recorded, and when possible, returned lost items,
264-544: A brick and marble foundation and was 383 ft (117 m) long, 193 ft (59 m) wide, and 68 ft (21 m) tall. The building was designed in the Moorish style and intended as a tribute to the Crystal Palace of London 's Great Exhibition of 1851. Inside, nurserymen, florists, and landscape architects exhibited a variety of tropical plants, garden equipment, and garden plans. In dramatic fashion,
352-593: A creative and communal means for ordinary citizens to promote the welfare of Union Army soldiers and dedicate themselves to the survival of the nation, and the Great Central Fair bolstered Philadelphia's role as a vital center in the Union war effort. It anticipated the combination of public, private, and commercial investments that were necessary to mount the Centennial Exposition. Both had
440-500: A fence nearly three miles long. There were five main buildings in the exposition. They were the Main Exhibition Building, Memorial Hall, Machinery Hall, Agricultural Hall, and Horticultural Hall. Apart from these buildings, there were separate buildings for state, federal, foreign, corporate, and public comfort buildings. This strategy of numerous buildings in one exposition set it apart from the previous fairs around
528-660: A great-granddaughter of Benjamin Franklin , as president. In its first few months, the group raised $ 40,000. When the group learned the planning commission was not doing much to display the work of women, it raised an additional $ 30,000 for a women's exhibition building. In 1873, the Centennial Commission named Alfred T. Goshorn as the director general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside 450 acres (1.8 km ) of West Fairmount Park for
616-546: A lecture-play "Tragedy of the Lava Beds", starring Winema, Frank, and their son Jeff, and toured with them and Klamath representatives across the country for the next two years. They reached New York before returning to make their home in Oregon. Meacham said that Wi-ne-ma was popular with audiences, as she had worked for peace between the peoples. He also published a book about Winema in 1876 and dedicated it to her: This book
704-552: A loan. The board initially thought it was a subsidy . But after the exposition ended, the federal government sued to have the money returned, and the United States Supreme Court ultimately forced repayment. John Welsh enlisted help from the women of Philadelphia who had helped him in the Great Sanitary Fair. A Women's Centennial Executive Committee was formed with Elizabeth Duane Gillespie,
792-472: A pavilion devoted entirely to the artistic and industrial pursuits of their gender. They had to build their own structure because they lost their spot in one of the larger pavilions (the Main Building) due to an unexpected increase in the participation of foreign countries. Their aim was to employ only women in the construction of the pavilion and even to power it, and they succeeded with the exception of
880-644: A point on the Oregon Trail near Fort Hall, Idaho , and the Willamette Valley in western Oregon. The new route was created to encourage European-Americans to come to western Oregon, and to eliminate the hazards encountered on the Columbia Route. Since the Hudson's Bay Company controlled the Columbia Route, development of an alternate route enabled migration even if there was trouble between
968-461: A popular means for justifying female autonomy outside of the home by demonstrating to visitors the many ways women were making a profitable living. Exhibits demonstrated positive achievements and women's influence in domains such as industrial and fine arts (wood-carvings, furniture-making, and ceramics), fancy articles (clothing and woven goods), and philanthropy as well as philosophy, science, medicine, education, and literature. Mexico participated in
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#17327752644901056-659: A reservation. The treaty provided that if the Indians drank or stored intoxicating liquor on the reservation, the payments could be withheld and that the United States could locate additional tribes on the reservation in the future. The treaty required that the Modoc surrender their lands near Lost River, Tule Lake, and Lower Klamath Lake in exchange for lands in the Upper Klamath Valley. They did so, under
1144-454: A separate annex was built to house them all. Another structure was built for the display of photography . Memorial Hall was designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann, who basically adopted an art museum plan submitted by Nicholas Félix Escalier to the Prix de Rome competition in 1867–69. Memorial Hall became the prototype, both from a stylistic and organizational standpoint, for other museums such as
1232-542: A similar neo-Gothic appearance, including the waving flags, a huge central hall, the "curiosities" and relics, handmade and industrial exhibits, and also a visit from the U.S. president and his family. The idea of the Centennial Exposition is credited to John L. Campbell, a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy , and astronomy at Wabash College in Crawfordsville, Indiana . In December 1866, Campbell suggested to Philadelphia Mayor Morton McMichael that
1320-486: A woman, she was considered peaceful. After taking a message to Captain Jack's Stronghold to schedule a peace talk, Winema learned of a Modoc plot to assassinate Canby. She warned the peace commission, but they went on as planned with the meeting. Canby and Thomas were killed by Modoc, and other peace commissioners and staff were wounded. Toby Riddle was there and saved Alfred B. Meacham from being scalped and killed. Afterward
1408-665: Is now the University of the Arts . Used for a time as a police station, the building now houses the Please Touch Museum , which includes a faithful 20x30-foot model of the exposition grounds and 200 buildings. The Women's Pavilion was the first structure at an international exposition to highlight the work of women, with exhibits created and operated by women. Female organizers drew upon deep-rooted traditions of separatism and sorority in planning, fundraising, and managing
1496-501: Is written with the avowed purpose of doing honor to the heroic Wi-ne-ma who at the peril of her life sought to save the ill fated peace commission to the Modoc Indians in 1873. The woman to whom the writer is indebted, under God, for saving his life. Meacham wrote, the name of Winema has taken its place beside those of Sara Winnimucca and Sacajawea in the annals of the early west. The personal daring of these Indian Women and
1584-1053: The Art Institute of Chicago (1892–1893), the Milwaukee Public Museum (1893–1897), the Brooklyn Museum (1893–1924), and the Detroit Institute of Art (1920–1927). Libraries such as the Library of Congress , the New York Public Library , and the Free Library of Philadelphia also emulated its form. Finally, Memorial Hall was the architectural inspiration for the German capitol, the Reichstag building in Berlin. After
1672-774: The International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine , was held in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania, from May 10 to November 10, 1876. It was the first official world's fair to be held in the United States and coincided with the centennial anniversary of the Declaration of Independence 's adoption in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. It was held in Fairmount Park along
1760-789: The Lost River of the Goġewa·s or Lower Lost River People Band. The Modoc have also been known as the Modok (Brandt and Davis-Kimball xvi). In the 1820s, Peter Skene Ogden , an explorer for the Hudson's Bay Company , established trade with the Klamath people north of the Modoc. Brothers Jesse and Lindsay Applegate , accompanied by 13 other white settlers, established the Applegate Trail , or South Emigrant Trail, in 1846. It connected
1848-606: The Modoc Plateau , the groups neighboring the Modoc home were: The Modoc, Northern Paiute, and Achomawi shared Goose Lake Valley . The known Modoc village sites are Agawesh, where Willow Creek enters Lower Klamath Lake , of the Gombatwa·s or Lower Klamath Lake People Band; Kumbat and Pashha on the shores of Tule Lake of the Pasganwa·s or Tule Lake People Band; and Wachamshwash and Nushalt-Hagak-ni on
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#17327752644901936-543: The Schuylkill River on fairgrounds designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann . Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exposition, and 37 countries participated in it. The Great Central Fair on Logan Square in Philadelphia , in 1864, also known as the Great Sanitary Fair, was one of the many United States Sanitary Commission 's Sanitary Fairs held during the American Civil War . The fairs provided
2024-554: The beaux-arts style , it was the largest art hall in the country when it opened, with a massive 1.5-acre (0.61 ha) footprint and a 150 ft (46 m) dome atop a 59 ft (18 m)-high structure. The central domed area is surrounded by four pavilions on the corners, with open arcades to the east and west of the main entrance. It provided 75,000 sq ft (7,000 m ) of wall surface for paintings and 20,000 sq ft (1,900 m ) of floor space for sculptures. The exposition received so many art contributions that
2112-624: The California government approved it. In 1870 Kintpuash (also called Captain Jack) led a band of Modoc to leave the reservation and return to their traditional homelands. They built a village near the Lost River. These Modoc had not been adequately represented in the treaty negotiations and wished to end the harassment by the Klamath on the reservation. In November 1872, the U.S. Army
2200-631: The Centennial or on trains heading for Philadelphia. Philadelphia streetcars increased service, and the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains from Philadelphia's Market Street , New York City , Baltimore , and Pittsburgh . The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad ran special trains from the Center City part of Philadelphia. A small hospital was built on the exposition's grounds by the Centennial's Medical Bureau, but despite
2288-612: The Exposition, six from typhoid fever , one from smallpox , and one from organic disease of the heart. The Centennial National Bank was chartered on January 19, 1876, to be the "financial agent of the board at the Centennial Exhibition, receiving and accounting for daily receipts, changing foreign moneys into current funds, etc.," according to an article three days later in The Philadelphia Inquirer . Its main branch, designed by Frank Furness ,
2376-583: The Exposition, the building continued to be used for horticultural exhibits until it was severely damaged by Hurricane Hazel in 1954 and was subsequently demolished. As a replacement, the Fairmount Park Horticulture Center was built on the site in 1976 as part of the United States Bicentennial exposition. Designed by Joseph M. Wilson and Henry Pettit, Machinery Hall was the second largest structure in
2464-495: The Main Exhibition Building dealt with mining , metallurgy , manufacturing , education, and science. Offices for foreign commissioners were placed in proximity to the products exhibited along in the aisles along the sides of the building. The walkways leading to the exit doors were ten feet wide. After the Exposition, the structure was turned into a permanent building for the International Exhibition. During
2552-745: The Maryland House, which was moved to Druid Hill Park in Baltimore , where it is extant today, and the Missouri House, which was moved to Spring Lake, New Jersey , along with several other exhibition buildings, some of which are still extant in various Jersey Shore towns. The United States government had a cross-shaped building that held exhibits from various government departments. The remaining structures were corporate exhibitions, administration buildings, restaurants, and other buildings designed for public comfort. The formal name of
2640-954: The Modoc War, to give the Indian perspective, which he published in 1914. Toby attended the Centennial Exposition of 1876 in Philadelphia, and the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco in 1915. In later years, Riddle lived at Yainax Butte, Oregon , on the Klamath Reservation. Many of the Riddle descendants continue to live in the area of the Klamath Reservation . Modoc people The Modoc, like
2728-511: The Modoc on the Lost River, but most agree that Wright planned to ambush them, which he did in November 1852. Wright and his forces attacked, killing approximately 40 Modoc, in what came to be known as the "Ben Wright Massacre." The United States, the Klamath, the Modoc, and the Yahooskin band of Snake tribes signed a treaty in 1864 that established the Klamath Reservation . It required
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2816-532: The Modoc territory. Beginning in 1847, the Modoc raided the invading emigrants on the Applegate Trail under the leadership of Old Chief Schonchin. In September 1852, the Modoc destroyed an emigrant train at Bloody Point on the east shore of Tule Lake , killing all but three of the 65 people in the party. The Modoc took two young girls as captives. One or both of them may have been killed several years later by jealous Modoc women. The only man to survive
2904-537: The Modoc tribe at the time of the Modoc War. Winema married Frank Riddle, a white settler who had emigrated from Kentucky to California during the California Gold Rush . They settled near her family in the Lost River area and had a son, Charka ("the handsome one"). They also named him Jefferson C. Davis Riddle, in honor of the Army general Jefferson C. Davis who ended the Modoc War. Winema Riddle
2992-399: The Modoc, like all Plateau Indians , they caught salmon during salmon runs and migrated seasonally to hunt and gather other food. In winter, they built earthen dugout lodges shaped like beehives, covered with sticks and plastered with mud, near lake shores with reliable sources of seeds from aquatic wokas plants and fishing. In addition to the Klamath, with whom they shared a language and
3080-513: The Stronghold and began to splinter. Kintpuash and his group were the last to be captured, on June 4, 1873, when they voluntarily gave themselves up. U.S. government personnel had assured them that their people would be treated fairly and the warriors would be allowed to live on their own land. The U.S. Army tried, convicted and executed Kintpuash and three of his warriors in October 1873 for
3168-529: The US Army, commanded by General Jefferson C. Davis , finally captured Captain Jack and other Modoc leaders. They were tried and convicted before a US military court, and Captain Jack and three others were executed. 153 members of the band were removed as prisoners of war to Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma . Some other Modoc, including the Riddle family, returned to the Klamath Reservation. Meacham continued to champion Native American rights . He wrote
3256-612: The United States Centennial be celebrated with an exposition in Philadelphia. Naysayers argued that the project would not be able to find funding, other nations might not attend, and domestic exhibits might compare poorly to foreign ones. The Franklin Institute became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the Philadelphia City Council for use of Fairmount Park . With reference to
3344-583: The United States and the United Kingdom. The Applegate brothers became the first known white people in present-day Lava Beds National Monument . The opening of the Applegate Trail appeared to bring the first regular contact between the Modoc and the European-American settlers, who had largely ignored their territory before. Many of the events of the Modoc War took place along the trail. From 1846 to 1873, thousands of emigrants entered
3432-539: The United States. On June 1, 1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money. The board's president was John Welsh , brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for the Great Sanitary Fair in 1864. The board was authorized to sell up to $ 10 million in stock via $ 10 shares. The board sold $ 1,784,320 ($ 45,381,205 in 2023 ) worth of shares by February 22, 1873. Philadelphia contributed $ 1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave $ 1 million. On February 11, 1876, Congress appropriated $ 1.5 million in
3520-631: The Women's Pavilion was commissioned in 1873 by the United States Centennial Board of Finance with the expectation that it would generate enthusiasm for the celebration of the fair and increase subscriptions to exposition stock. Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, president of the Women's Centennial Committee, led the effort to gather 82,000 signatures in two days to raise money for the pavilion. Gillespie also helped convince Congress to grant additional funding. It took only four months to raise
3608-416: The aboriginal population of the Modoc at 400. Alfred L. Kroeber estimated the Modoc population within California as 500 at the year 1770. University of Oregon anthropologist Theodore Stern suggested that there had been a total of about 500 Modoc. In 1846, the population may have included "perhaps 600 warriors (an overestimate, probably)". Until the 19th century, when European explorers first encountered
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3696-480: The attack made his way to Yreka, California . After hearing his news, Yreka settlers organized a militia under Sheriff Charles McDermit, Jim Crosby, and Ben Wright. They went to the scene of the massacre to bury the dead and avenge their deaths. Crosby's party had a skirmish with a band of Modoc and returned to Yreka. Wright and a small group stayed on to avenge the deaths. He was a notorious Indian hater. Accounts differ as to what took place when Wright's party met
3784-402: The auction held on December 1, 1876, it was bought for $ 250,000. It quickly ran into financial difficulties but remained open through 1879 and was finally demolished in 1881. The third-largest structure at the exposition was Agricultural Hall. Designed by James H. Windrim , Agricultural Hall was 820 ft (250 m) long and 540 ft (160 m) wide. Made of wood and glass, the building
3872-481: The building was east–west in direction, making it well lit, and glass was used between the frames to let in light. Skylights were set over the central aisles of the structure. The corridors of the building were separated by fountains that were attractive and also provided cooling. The structure of the building featured a central avenue with a series of parallel sheds that were 120 ft (37 m) wide, 1,832 ft (558 m) long, and 75 ft (23 m) high. It
3960-423: The building's corners. These towers had small balconies at different heights that served as observation galleries. Within the building, exhibits were arranged in a grid, in a dual arrangement of type and national origin. Exhibits from the United States were placed in the center of the building, and foreign exhibits were arranged around the center, based on the nation's distance from the United States. Exhibits inside
4048-458: The city and state, and Daniel Johnson Morrell introduced a bill to create a United States Centennial Commission. The bill, which passed on March 3, 1871, provided that the U.S. government would not be liable for any expenses. The United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3, 1872, with Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as president. The Centennial Commission's commissioners included one representative from each state and territory in
4136-787: The delegations was from the Modoc and Klamath tribes. In 1909, the group in Oklahoma was given permission to return to Oregon. Several people did, but most stayed at their new home. The religion of the Modoc is not known in detail. The number five figured heavily in ritual, as in the Shuyuhalsh , a five-night dance rite of passage for adolescent girls. A sweat lodge was used for purification and mourning ceremonies. Modoc Plateau , Modoc National Forest , Modoc County, California ; Modoc, Indiana ; and numerous other places are named after this group of people. Centennial Exposition The Centennial International Exhibition , officially
4224-403: The design by Hermann J. Schwarzmann. Their overarching goal was to advance women's social, economic, and legal standing, abolish restrictions discriminating against their gender, encourage sexual harmony, and gain influence, leverage, and freedom for all women in and outside of the home by increasing women's confidence and ability to choose. A project of the Women's Centennial Executive Committee,
4312-432: The evolved bicycle, with tension spokes and a large front wheel. Two English manufacturers, Bayless Thomas and Rudge, displayed their high-wheel bikes (called "ordinary bikes" or "penny farthings") at the exposition. The bicycle displays inspired Albert Augustus Pope to begin making high-wheel bikes in the United States. He started the Columbia Bike Company and published a journal called " LAW Bulletin and Good Roads", which
4400-627: The exposition and located west of the Main Exhibition Building. With a superstructure made of wood and glass resting on a foundation of massive masonry, it had a main hall painted light blue, 1,402 ft (427 m) long and 360 ft (110 m) wide, with a wing of 208 ft (63 m) by 210 ft (64 m) attached on the south side of the building. The length of the building was 18 times its height. With eight entrances, it occupied 558,440 sq ft (51,881 m ), had 1,900 exhibitors, and took six months to construct. The exhibits focused on machines and evolving industries. Machinery Hall
4488-419: The exposition introduced the general public to the notion of landscape design, as exemplified the building itself and the grounds surrounding it. A long, sunken parterre leading to Horticultural Hall became the exposition's iconic floral feature, reproduced on countless postcards and other memorabilia. This sunken garden enabled visitors on the raised walkways to see the patterns and shapes of the flowerbeds. After
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#17327752644904576-544: The exposition mainly consisted of two types of building, traditional masonry monuments and buildings with a structural framework of iron and steel. The Centennial Commission turned to third-place winner's architect Henry Pettit and engineer Joseph M. Wilson for design and construction of the Main Exhibition Building. A temporary structure, the Main Building was the largest building in the world by area, enclosing 21.5 acres (87,000 m ). It measured 464 ft (141 m) in width and 1,880 ft (570 m) in length. It
4664-409: The exposition the next day. The average daily attendance for May was 36,000 and for June 39,000. A severe heat wave began in mid-June and continued into July, hurting attendance. The average temperature was 81 °F (27 °C), and on ten days during the heat wave the temperature reached 100 °F (38 °C). The average daily attendance for July was 35,000, but it rose in August to 42,000 despite
4752-411: The exposition was the International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine, but the official theme was the celebration of the United States centennial. This was reinforced by promotional tie-ins, such as the publication of Kate Harrington 's Centennial, and Other Poems , which celebrated the exposition and the centennial. At the same time, the exposition was designed to show
4840-420: The exposition, Memorial Hall reopened in 1877 as the Pennsylvania Museum of Art and included the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art. In 1928 the museum moved to Fairmount at the head of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, and in 1938 was renamed the Philadelphia Museum of Art . Memorial Hall continued to house the school, and afterward was taken over by the Fairmount Park Commission in 1958. The museum school
4928-417: The exposition, which was dedicated on July 4, 1873, by Secretary of the Navy George M. Robeson . The Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments: agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher John W. Forney agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at
5016-437: The exposition. Despite fears of a European boycott and high American tariffs making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation. To accommodate out-of-town visitors, temporary hotels were constructed near the exposition's grounds. A Centennial Lodging-House Agency made a list of rooms in hotels, boarding houses , and private homes and then sold tickets for the available rooms in cities promoting
5104-418: The exposition. In 1869, Schwarzmann began working for the Fairmount Park Commission, which administered the site of the 1876 Centennial Exposition. It is one of the great urban parks of the United States; its importance in landscape history was surpassed only by Central Park . Schwarzmann was the chief architect for the Centennial Exposition, designing Memorial Hall, Horticultural Hall, other small buildings, and
5192-429: The fairgrounds, and exorbitant rates were charged by carriage drivers. Drawing lessons from this failure, the Philadelphia exposition was ready for its visitors, with direct railroad connections to service passenger trains every 30 minutes, trolley lines, street cars, carriage routes, and even docking facilities on the river. More than 200 buildings were constructed within the exposition's grounds, which were surrounded by
5280-479: The federal government purchased for them. Originally they were placed on the Quapaw Indian Reservation in Oklahoma's far northeast corner. They are descendants of the band Captain Jack ( Kintpuash ) led during the Modoc War. The federal government officially recognized the Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma in 1978, and its constitution was approved in 1991. Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. James Mooney put
5368-454: The funds for the pavilion. Much of the pavilion was devoted to human ecology and home economics . On exhibit were over 80 patented inventions, including a reliance stove, a hand attachment for sewing machines, a dishwasher, a fountain griddle-greaser, a heating iron with removable handle , a frame for stretching and drying lace curtains, and a stocking and glove darner. The Centennial women not only showed domestic production but also employed
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#17327752644905456-407: The landscaping around them. His work for the Centennial Exposition was informed by the Vienna International Exposition in 1873 , which Schwarzmann visited to study the buildings and the grounds layout. The Vienna International Exposition in 1873 was marred by disastrous logistic planning and was taken as a cautionary example. At the Vienna Exposition, there was no convenient way for visitors to reach
5544-402: The leadership of Chief Schonchin. The Indian agent estimated the total population of the three tribes at about 2,000 when the treaty was signed. The land of the reservation did not provide enough food for both the Klamath and the Modoc peoples. Illness and tension between the tribes increased. The Modoc requested a separate reservation closer to their ancestral home, but neither the federal nor
5632-414: The longest 125 ft (38 m) in length. The construction included red and black brick-laid design with stained glass or painted glass decorations. The Interior walls were whitewashed, and woodwork was decorated with shades of green, crimson, blue, and gold. The flooring of the building was made of wooden planks that rested directly on the ground without any air space underneath them. The orientation of
5720-444: The most unusual of which were front hair pieces and false teeth. Guards were required to live onsite and were housed at six police stations strategically located throughout the Exposition. A magistrate's office and courtroom were located at the only two-story police station located on the grounds and was used to conduct prisoner hearings. Officers slept in cramped quarters, which fostered health issues. Eight guards died while working
5808-445: The murder of Major General Edward Canby earlier that year at a parley. Canby had violated agreements made with the Modoc. The Army sent the rest of the band to Oklahoma as prisoners of war with Scarfaced Charley as their chief. The tribe's spiritual leader, Curley Headed Doctor , was also forced to remove to Indian Territory . In the 1870s, Peter Cooper brought Indians to speak to Indian rights groups in eastern cities. One of
5896-551: The neighboring Klamath , spoke dialectic varieties of the Klamathan/Lutuamian language , a branch of the Plateau Penutian language family . Both peoples called themselves maklaks , meaning "people". To distinguish between the tribes, the Modoc called themselves Moatokni maklaks , from muat meaning "South". The Achomawi , a band of the Pit River tribe , called them Lutuami , meaning "Lake Dwellers". About 600 Modoc live in Klamath County, Oregon , in and around their ancestral homelands. This group includes those who stayed on
5984-404: The numerous events of national importance that were held in the past and related to the city of Philadelphia, the City Council resolved in January 1870 to hold the Centennial Exposition in the city in 1876. The Philadelphia City Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly created a committee to study the project and seek support of the U.S. Congress . Congressman William D. Kelley spoke for
6072-460: The occasion written by Dudley Buck and Sidney Lanier was performed. The opening ceremony concluded in Machinery Hall, with Grant and Pedro II turning on the Corliss Steam Engine which powered most of the other machines at the exposition. The official number of first day attendees was 186,272 people, with 110,000 entering with free passes. In the days following the opening ceremony, attendance dropped dramatically, with only 12,720 people visiting
6160-454: The pavilion's exhibits, indicating the growth of a sector of elite women during the Porfirio Díaz regime of the late nineteenth century, with many individual women sending examples of woven textiles and embroidery. Eleven nations had their own exhibition buildings, and others contributed small structures, including the Swedish School house referenced below, now in Central Park , New York City. The British buildings were extensive and exhibited
6248-429: The reservation during the Modoc War , as well as the descendants of those who chose to return in 1909 to Oregon from Indian Territory in Oklahoma or Kansas. Since that time, many have followed the path of the Klamath . The shared tribal government of the Klamath, Modoc and Yahooskin in Oregon is known as the Klamath Tribes . Two hundred Modoc live in Oklahoma on a small reservation in Ottawa County, Oklahoma , that
6336-578: The roles they played as negotiators between their people and the palefaces have lifted them above considerations of race into the ranks of the great women of all time. Because of her heroic role in trying to save the peace commissioners during the 1873 talks, Meacham petitioned Congress to award Riddle a military pension. In 1891 the US Congress authorized a military pension for Toby Riddle of $ 25 per month, which she received until her death in 1920. Toby and Frank's son Jeff C. Riddle wrote his own account of
6424-559: The south entrance of the building served as a primary entrance to the building for streetcars. The north side related the building to the Art Gallery and the west side served as a passageway to the Machinery and Agricultural Halls. In the Main Exhibition Building, columns were placed at a uniform distance of 24 ft (7.3 m). The entire structure consisted of 672 columns, the shortest column 23 ft (7.0 m) in length and
6512-472: The tribes to cede the land bounded on the north by the 44th parallel , on the west and south by the ridges of the Cascade Mountains , and on the east by lines touching Goose Lake and Henley Lake back up to the 44th parallel. In return, the United States was to make a lump sum payment of $ 35,000, and annual payments totaling $ 80,000 over 15 years, as well as provide infrastructure and staff for
6600-523: The war, starring in his lecture-play "Tragedy of the Lava Beds", to inform American people about the war. Meacham later published a book about Winema, which he dedicated to her. In 1891 Toby Riddle was one of the few Native American women to be awarded a military pension by the United States Congress , for her heroic actions during the peace negotiations in 1873. (Her first name also appears spelled as "Tobey" in historical records.) She
6688-481: The world that had relied exclusively on having one or a few large buildings. The Centennial Commission sponsored a design competition for the principal buildings, conducted in two rounds; winners of the first round had to have details such as construction cost and time prepared for the runoff on September 20, 1873. After the ten design winners were chosen, it was determined that none of them allowed enough time for construction and limited finances. The architecture of
6776-594: The world the United States' industrial and innovative prowess. The exposition was originally scheduled to open in April, marking the anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord , but construction delays caused the date to be pushed back to May 10. Bells rang all over Philadelphia to signal the exposition's opening. The opening ceremony was attended by President Ulysses Grant and his wife as well as Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his wife . A cantata commissioned for
6864-420: Was 45 ft (14 m) tall, weighed 650 tons, and had 1 mi (1.6 km) of overhead line belts connecting to the machinery in the building. It symbolized the technology that was transforming the United States into an industrial powerhouse. Amenities available to the visitors within the hall were rolling chairs, telegraph offices, and dinner for fifty cents. Machinery Hall had 8,000 operating machines and
6952-405: Was born Nannookdoowah , which means "strange child," as she was born with red-tinted hair. As a girl, she was named Winema , (woman chief) after rescuing some playmates from being caught in cascades in their canoe. As a young woman, she was said to have ridden with raiding parties of men to gather horses from enemy camps. Winema was a cousin of Kintpuash (also known as Captain Jack), the leader of
7040-402: Was constructed using prefabricated parts, with a wood and iron frame resting on a substructure of 672 stone piers. Wrought iron roof trusses were supported by the columns of the superstructure. The building took eighteen months to complete and cost $ 1,580,000. The building was surrounded by portals on all four sides. The east entrance of the building was used as an access way for carriages, and
7128-504: Was designed to look like various barn structures pieced together. The building's exhibits included products and machines used in agriculture and other related businesses. Situated high atop a hill presiding over Fountain Avenue, Horticultural Hall epitomized floral achievement, which attracted professional and amateur gardeners. Unlike the other main buildings, it was meant to be permanent. Horticultural Hall had an iron and glass frame on
7216-405: Was filled with a wide assortment of hand tools, machine tools, material handling equipment, and the latest fastener technology. Some of the sandstone that was used to build the hall was from Curwensville, Pennsylvania . The Art Gallery building (now known as Memorial Hall ) is the only large exhibit building still standing on the exposition site. Constructed of brick, glass, iron, and granite in
7304-430: Was one of several Modoc who learned English, and her husband Frank had learned her language. They both served as interpreters before and during negotiations related to the creation of the Klamath Reservation. They served as interpreters again to the peace commission appointed in 1873 to settle the Modoc War . During the 1873 negotiations, sometimes Winema carried messages between General Edward Canby and Kintpuash ; as
7392-496: Was opened that April on the southeast corner of Market Street and 32nd Street. A branch office operated during the exposition on the fairgrounds. The Centennial Commission ran out of funds for printing and other expenses. Philadelphia city officials appropriated $ 50,000 to make up for the shortfall. Herman J. Schwarzmann , an engineer for the Fairmount Park Commission, was appointed the main designer of
7480-407: Was sent to Lost River to attempt to force Kintpuash's band back to the reservation. A battle broke out, and the Modoc escaped to what is called Captain Jack's Stronghold in what is now Lava Beds National Monument , California . The band of fewer than 53 warriors was able to hold off the 3,000 U.S. Army troops for several months, defeating them in combat several times. In April 1873, the Modoc left
7568-767: Was the beginning of the Good Roads Movement . . The main British building, also known as St. George's Hall or the English Commission Building, survived at its original site as Fairmount Park offices until it was demolished in 1961. 26 of the 37 U.S. states constructed buildings along States Drive in the exhibition grounds. Only three such state houses are still extant: the Ohio House at its original location in Fairmount Park,
7656-473: Was the longest nave ever introduced into an exhibition building up to that time. On both sides of the nave were avenues 100 ft (30 m) in width and 1,832 ft (558 m) in length. Aisles 48 ft (15 m) wide were located between the nave and the side avenues, and smaller aisles 24 ft (7.3 m) in width were on the outer sides of the building. The exterior of the building featured four towers, each 75 ft (23 m) high, at each of
7744-503: Was the show case for the state of the art industrial technology that was being produced at the time. The United States of America alone took up two-thirds of the exhibit space in the building. One of the major attractions on display in the building was the Corliss Centennial Steam Engine that ran power to all the machinery in the building as well as other parts of the world's fair. The 1,400 horsepower engine
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