The wird (plural: awrād ) is a regular litany and a mystical invocation practiced by murids , saliks and wasils in Islamic sufism .
126-480: In Sufism , the murid 's transformation and salvation is done by the practice of special disciplines such as performance of dhikr , remembrance of Allah and his prophet Muhammad , and wird as special invocations, and Quranic recitations, or doing Salah . The wird is then viewed as a devotion or liturgy specific to a particular Sufi order or Tariqa in which the substance is defined and based on dhikr and wird. Sufis designated specific times devoted to Allah and
252-410: A hadith : "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees you." Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil , the complete human who personifies the attributes of Absolute Reality , and view him as their ultimate spiritual guide. Sufi orders trace most of their original precepts from Muhammad through Ali ibn Abi Talib , with the notable exception of
378-436: A sheikh supervision and named wazifa. The most effective medication for the disease of ghaflah (heedlessness) is the dhikr performed in the form of wird. The target in sufism is to awake the qalb from ghaflah and bond it to almighty Allah , thus achieving eternal peace. The primary, and easiest, way of achieving this is to occupy the qalb with constant dhikr . Dhikr is the easiest and quickest way of bonding
504-502: A bastion of Shia Islam. This process led to hostilities with Iran's Sunni-majority neighbours, most notably the Ottoman Empire . The Safavid campaign sought to ensure Twelver dominance among Shia Muslims, particularly with regard to Zaydism and Ismaʿilism —each of which had previously experienced their own eras of sectarian dominance. The political climate of 18th-century Iran, the intellectual history of Twelver Shia Islam, and
630-533: A combination that is still present today. Ismail I shortly afterwards decreed that all mosques in his domain use the Shia version of the Islamic call to prayer. In order to establish the legitimacy of Ali, the first Shia Imam, and his lineage, the additional word in this variant, "I witness that Ali is God's friend," was added. A Shia call to prayer was heard from the minarets (tower of a mosque) of an Islamic state for
756-639: A complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul , including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a hospice with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this period. Opposition to Sufi teachers and orders from more literalist and legalist strains of Islam existed in various forms throughout Islamic history. It took on
882-670: A detailed genealogy was created. This traced the Safavid family's lineage back to the eighth Shia Imam Ali ibn Musa al-Rida , who is buried in the Imam Reza shrine , the most revered location in Safavid Iran. The status of the Safavid family was enhanced due to their connections with Ali and Muhammad's family, as recognized by sources up to the 20th-century. With the goal of promoting Shia Islam and religious unity, Tahmasp I made substantial efforts. In order to undermine Sunni customs,
1008-572: A heavy emphasis on the stories of the Imams' suffering. It was characteristic of their sociocultural stance that they were hostile to Persian literary and artistic endeavors and treated even ordinary Shia Muslims with disrespect. The Shia ulama were seen with significant uncertainty by the Iranian population. They were scorned for their perceived arrogance, hypocrisy, and greed, yet respected for their intricate knowledge and esteemed position, all of which
1134-640: A lineage that connected them to the Imams, the Safavids also emphasized their Persian genealogical heritage through this narrative. The Reformation in northern and central Europe and the Counter-Reformation that followed it are comparable to the state-sponsored Shia Islam that resulted from the advent of the Safavids and the Sunni response to it. The split that resulted between the Sunnis and Shias
1260-619: A major intellectual hub of the Shia world, and instead the shrine cities in Iraq ( Najaf , Karbala , Kadhimiya , and Samarra ) received more attention. Even after two centuries of Persianization , the cultural orientation of the Shia ulama remained largely unchanged. Masquerading with their madrasa (religious school) education, they displayed an anti-intellectual attitude through a strong focus on hadith , conservatism , ritualistic practices in Shia Islam, opposition against diversity, and
1386-511: A martyrdom and sorrow cult since its founding. Additionally, it has sparked a number of messianic groups that have had a significant impact on Islamic history. One of these groups was the Safavid order , who endorsed Twelver Shia Islam . The early Safavid order initially appeared to had Sunni beliefs. Their primary supporters, Turkoman tribes who practiced a popular form of Shia Islam, are reported to have influenced them to adopt Shia Islam under
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#17327764564851512-457: A network of regional ties separate from the Safavid state proved challenging for them. The Amilis were also active in the internal Turkmen-Persian tensions that frequently erupted during and after Ismail I's reign. Despite their resistance, the Qizilbash chiefs and Arab ulama could not prevent the indigenous Persian element from gaining prominence. They were ultimately compelled to adhere to
1638-483: A number of churches in Georgia to mosques. Approximately 30,000 Georgian prisoners were forced into becoming Muslims between 1614 and 1616. Abbas I did not have a consistent policy towards non-Muslims in his empire. Instead, he adjusted his approach based on the specific historical situations and what was politically beneficial at the time. Only once, when Abbas I was visiting Talish , is it documented that he permitted
1764-545: A particularly violent form in the 18th century with the emergence of the Wahhabi movement . Around the turn of the 20th century, Sufi rituals and doctrines also came under sustained criticism from modernist Islamic reformers , liberal nationalists, and, some decades later, socialist movements in the Muslim world. Sufi orders were accused of fostering popular superstitions, resisting modern intellectual attitudes, and standing in
1890-446: A reaction against the expansion of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri . Although Sufis were opposed to dry legalism , they strictly observed Islamic law and belonged to various schools of Islamic jurisprudence and theology . Although the overwhelming majority of Sufis, both pre-modern and modern, remain adherents of Sunni Islam , certain strands of Sufi thought transferred over to
2016-738: A wide range of meanings, by both proponents and opponents of Sufism. Classical Sufi texts, which stressed certain teachings and practices of the Quran and the sunnah (exemplary teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad ), gave definitions of tasawwuf that described ethical and spiritual goals and functioned as teaching tools for their attainment. Many other terms that described particular spiritual qualities and roles were used instead in more practical contexts. Some modern scholars have used other definitions of Sufism such as "intensification of Islamic faith and practice" and "process of realizing ethical and spiritual ideals". The term Sufism
2142-462: Is a mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic purification , spirituality , ritualism , and asceticism . Practitioners of Sufism are referred to as "Sufis" (from صُوفِيّ , ṣūfīy ), and historically typically belonged to "orders" known as tariqa (pl. ṭuruq ) - congregations formed around a grand wali who would be
2268-634: Is because it can accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical . The life of the Algerian Sufi master Abdelkader El Djezairi is instructive in this regard. Notable as well are the lives of Amadou Bamba and El Hadj Umar Tall in West Africa , and Sheikh Mansur and Imam Shamil in the Caucasus . In the twentieth century, some Muslims have called Sufism a superstitious religion which holds back Islamic achievement in
2394-668: Is described, as implied by his trust in the Sunni grand vizier Fath-Ali Khan Daghestani , his interest when visiting to the churches of New Jolfa , as well as the numerous decrees ( farman ) he declared, which protected the Christian population of Iran and allowed missionaries to perform their work. Soltan Hoseyn's reign marked an improvement over his father's regarding the status of European missionaries. The clerics, who held influence over Soltan Hoseyn, were permitted to pursue their dogmatic plans, such as their anti-Sufi policies and taking action against non-Shias. These actions included
2520-496: Is established. It is through Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Ali is regarded as one of the major figures amongst the Sahaba who have directly pledged allegiance to Muhammad, and Sufis maintain that through Ali, knowledge about Muhammad and a connection with Muhammad may be attained. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith , which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Muhammad said, "I am
2646-404: Is not a distinct sect, as is sometimes erroneously assumed, but a method of approaching or a way of understanding the religion, which strives to take the regular practice of the religion to the "supererogatory level" through simultaneously "fulfilling ... [the obligatory] religious duties" and finding a "way and a means of striking a root through the 'narrow gate' in the depth of the soul out into
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#17327764564852772-411: Is over their hands. Then whosoever breaks his pledge, breaks it only to his own harm, and whosoever fulfils what he has covenanted with God, He will bestow on him a great reward. — [Translation of Quran 48:10 ] Sufis believe that by giving bayʿah (pledging allegiance) to a legitimate Sufi Shaykh , one is pledging allegiance to Muhammad; therefore, a spiritual connection between the seeker and Muhammad
2898-471: Is prominently depicted in Persian literature. Nevertheless, the Safavid shahs, from Tahmasp I to Soltan Hoseyn, approved of the ulama' s conservatism. The ulama became very wealthy due to the Safavids' vast endowments for religious learning, particularly under Abbas I, but that also made them further subordinate to the state's interests. There were occasional quarrels, for instance, about wine drinking and
3024-534: Is similar to the Protestant-Catholic split that accelerated the formation of nation-states in Europe. The emergence of the Safavid state and its adoption of Shia Islam as the official faith was a pivotal moment that significantly affected both Iran and the surrounding Sunni-majority regions. The conversion to a state-sponsored religion, in this case Shia Islam, provided the bond required to hold together
3150-459: Is the first Shia Imam ) and continues through his descendants of his union with Muhammad's daughter Fatima . The twelfth and last Shia Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi , left no offspring. In 873, he either vanished or hid himself. He is regarded by Shia Muslims as the Mahdi ( Messiah ), and they eagerly await his return to establish what they consider rightful Shia rule. Shia Islam has been infused with
3276-517: Is usually defined by their relationship to governments. Turkey, Persia and The Indian Subcontinent have all been a center for many Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi were closely affiliated with the Ottoman Janissaries and are the heart of Turkey's large and mostly liberal Alevi population. They have spread westwards to Cyprus , Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina , Kosovo , and, more recently, to
3402-526: The Buyid ruler Mu'izz al-Dawla ( r. 945–967 ), Ashura had been introduced to the festivities surrounding Nowruz and Mehragan . The creation of several customs ascribed to Shia Imams from the Buyid to the Safavid eras gave Nowruz religious legitimacy. According to historical accounts, the majority of Iranians celebrated Nowruz, even in the face of opposition from Islamic fundamentalists. The belief that
3528-628: The Hejaz , present day Saudi Arabia and that it has existed as a practice of Muslims from the earliest days of Islam, even predating some sectarian divides. Sufi orders are based on the bayah ( Arabic : بَيْعَة , lit. 'pledge') that was given to Muhammad by his Ṣahabah . By pledging allegiance to Muhammad, the Sahabah had committed themselves to the service of God. Verily, those who give Bay'âh (pledge) to you (O Muhammad) they are giving Bay'âh (pledge) to God . The Hand of God
3654-915: The Islamic prophet Muhammad . Within the Sufi tradition, the formation of the orders did not immediately produce lineages of master and disciple. There are few examples before the eleventh century of complete lineages going back to the Prophet Muhammad. Yet the symbolic importance of these lineages was immense: they provided a channel to divine authority through master-disciple chains. It was through such chains of masters and disciples that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to both general and special devotees. These orders meet for spiritual sessions ( majalis ) in meeting places known as zawiyas , khanqahs or tekke . They strive for ihsan (perfection of worship), as detailed in
3780-590: The Mamluks and then the Ottomans, they found a benefactor in Ismail I and a place of luxury and esteem in Safavid Iran. The Amilis (and Arab scholars from other regions) were intentionally placed in important religious and quasi-administrative positions by the early Safavid Shahs, so that they could spread their well-defined Islamic creed rooted in the Shia school of thought ( madhhab ). Popular amongst Shia scholars,
3906-522: The Naqshbandi order, who trace their original precepts to Muhammad through Abu Bakr . However, it was not necessary to formally belong to a tariqa. In the Medieval period, Sufism was almost equal to Islam in general and not limited to specific orders. Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders ( tariqa , pl. tarîqât ) in
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4032-734: The Qadiriyya order was Hanbali , with its founder, Abdul-Qadir Gilani , being a renowned jurist; the Chishtiyya was Hanafi ; the Shadiliyya order was Maliki ; and the Naqshbandiyya order was Hanafi . Thus, it is precisely because it is historically proven that "many of the most eminent defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, such as Abdul-Qadir Gilani , Ghazali , and the Sultan Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn ( Saladin ) were connected with Sufism" that
4158-660: The Sudan are one of the strongest adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and philosophers such as Khoja Akhmet Yassawi , Rumi , and Attar of Nishapur (c. 1145 – c. 1221) greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture in Anatolia , Central Asia , and South Asia . Sufism also played a role in creating and propagating the culture of the Ottoman world, and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia. Between
4284-669: The Timurid period and notably under the Sunni Aq Qoyunlu , Shia Islam was prevalent among the peasantry in various regions of Iran. In major cities, some aristocratic families were also Shia and held important administrative positions. According to Mustawfi, the influence of the Sunni Shafi'i school was evident in almost all the places he described, whether they were populated by Sunni or Shias. According to The Cambridge History of Iran , "this provides evidence to support
4410-481: The harem , the drinking of wine (which was frequently portrayed in art of the time), and, most all, the overlooking of religious rituals in public. Even though seminarians and jurists frequently criticized tea and coffee shops, they continued to be much-liked hangouts for poets and artists as well as hubs of artistic innovation. Instead of mosques and stories of Shia hardship, many Muslims instead chose to go to public spaces and coffee shops, so that they could listen to
4536-574: The modern era and attacks from fundamentalist Islamic movements (such as Salafism and Wahhabism ), Sufism has continued to play an important role in the Islamic world . It has also influenced various forms of spirituality in the West and generated significant academic interest. The Arabic word tasawwuf ( lit. ' 'Sufism' ' ), generally translated as Sufism, is commonly defined by Western authors as Islamic mysticism. The Arabic term Sufi has been used in Islamic literature with
4662-502: The qalb to almighty Allah. The greatest merit of the wird of dhikr is that Allah Himself remembers the servant who remembers Him exclusively and in the Divine Presence. The wird is present in the practice of murids , saliks and wasils under different genres: Sufism Sufism ( Arabic : الصوفية , romanized : al-Ṣūfiyya or Arabic : التصوف , romanized : al-Taṣawwuf )
4788-529: The sadarat and acted as custodians for shrines. The Mar'ashis from Mazandaran particularly benefited from this development. Since their descendant Mir-i Buzurg had established his rule in Amol and its environs, they ruled autonomously in the area until their conquest by the Safavids in the early 16th-century. The Sunni Ottomans in the west and the Sunni Uzbek tribes in the east were especially angered by
4914-432: The "damned" beliefs. Even when bolstered by the holy status of the hadith, social control measures were not fully formed until the rise of Majlesi. Judiciaries often and thoroughly criticized music and dancing, whether performed for entertainment or at Sufi gatherings, because they were still popular forms of artistic expression and pastime. They also denounced breaking traditional sexual standards, women stepping outside of
5040-688: The "main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization" of mystical practice in Islam, and "the interiorization and intensification of Islamic faith and practice". The original meaning of ṣūfī seems to have been "one who wears wool ( ṣūf )", and the Encyclopaedia of Islam calls other etymological hypotheses "untenable". Woolen clothes were traditionally associated with ascetics and mystics. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. Another explanation traces
5166-439: The 13th and 16th centuries, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Renaissance" whose physical artifacts survive. In many places a person or group would endow a waqf to maintain a lodge (known variously as a zawiya , khanqah , or tekke ) to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also pay for
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5292-550: The 1550s. In recent scholarship, greater attention has been given to the increasing influence of the Mazandarani religious elite within the Safavid state, a subject historically overshadowed by the focus on theologians from Jabal Amil. During the 1550s and 1560s, Safavid Iran was dominated by a large number of Sayyids and theologians from Mazandarani centres such as Astarabad . In addition to producing many works on exegesis , hagiography , and law, they held prominent posts like
5418-524: The Amilis acting as their representatives, the Safavids significantly shaped Iranian legal and doctrinal traditions and altered the political landscape of Iranian society. In the 1530s and 1540s, the Safavid household was under heavy influence by the Uskuya sayyids of Tabriz. A new network of sayyids, mostly from Mazandaran, rose to prominence in politics and administration with the capital shift to Qazvin in
5544-422: The Amilis were supported by the Safavids so that they could provide their rule with legitimacy. The Amilis were strangers to Iran, did not speak Persian, and were unfamiliar with the customs and traditions of their new home. This was in contrast to the native Shia ulama of Iran, or those Sunni jurists and dignitaries who converted to Shia Islam under pressure or to preserve their advantages. Therefore, establishing
5670-558: The Hamadaniyyah (after Sayyid Ali Hamadani [d. 1384]), the Naqshbandiyya (after Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari [d. 1389]). Contrary to popular perception in the West, however, neither the founders of these orders nor their followers ever considered themselves to be anything other than orthodox Sunni Muslims, and in fact all of these orders were attached to one of the four orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam. Thus,
5796-403: The Imams were through their mother related to the last Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III ( r. 632–651 ) became a source of pride for Persian Shias as Shia Islam spread throughout Iran. Whether this assertion was true or not, it became popular over time. Shia tradition claims that Ali al-Sajjad was said to have been proud of being the son of the Persian princess Shahrbanu . By constructing
5922-401: The Medieval period Sufism and Islam were more or less the same. In modern scholarly usage, the term serves to describe a wide range of social, cultural, political and religious phenomena associated with Sufis. Sufism has been variously defined as "Islamic mysticism ", "the mystical expression of Islamic faith", "the inward dimension of Islam", "the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam",
6048-427: The Safavid capital of Qazvin , the sermons of the scholar Makhdum Sharifi Shirazi gathered a large audience. The pro-Sunni actions that Ismail performed are attributed by Safavid records to Makhdum Sharifi Shirazi. According to Shia literature, Makhdum Sharifi Shirazi is the archenemy of Shia Islam, influencing Ismail II. Makhdum Sharifi Shirazi was the grandson of Tahmasp I's vizier Qadi Jahan Qazvini and claimed
6174-591: The Safavid support of Shia Islam. The Sunni ulama were called upon to answer to the challenge posed by the rise of Twelver Shia Islam. They published polemics , issued fatwas , and exchanged letters with the Shia ulama and rulers. Instead of supporting Shia Islam and the Safavids, many Sunnite scholars in Iran relocated to India, Arabia, the Ottoman Empire, and Central Asia . The jurists' attacks on philosophers diminished much of their influence. Relegated to
6300-404: The Safavids, the majority of the population in Iran were adherents of Sunni Islam. The influence of its Shafi'i school was evident in most of the country, whether they were populated by Sunni or Shias. Over the course of three centuries, the Safavids (who were Twelver Shias ) heavily persecuted Sunni Muslims, Jews , Christians , and other religious groups, eventually transforming Iran into
6426-812: The Shia Islamic customs that had been practiced since the early Safavid era. These included the customary insulting of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, as well as the slander of Muhammad's wife Aisha . This resulted in an uprising in Qazvin, led by Ismail II's maternal uncle Amir Khan II Mawsellu. Ismail II also had the names of the Shia Imams removed from the walls of the primary congregational mosque in Qazvin. Abd-al-Ali ibn Nur-al-Din Ali al-Karaki and Sayyed Hosayn Karaki, two prominent Shia clerics in Qazvin, faced persecution, humiliation, and were ultimately forced to leave
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#17327764564856552-521: The Shia sect as the official religion of their empire, marking a significant turning point in Islamic history , which had been universally dominated by the Sunni sect until that period. It also marked a significant turning point in Iranian history , having been the nation's first demographic change since the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century. As a direct result of the Safavid conversion campaign,
6678-533: The Shia sect of Islam remains dominant among the populations of Iran and Azerbaijan . After the Islamic prophet Muhammad died in 632, a group of followers (Shia) of his cousin Ali proclaimed the latter as the legitimate heir and caliph . But the hopes of this group were not achieved for thirty years, during which time Abu Bakr , Umar , and Uthman —three of the Prophet's Companions —became caliphs. Sunni Islam
6804-627: The Shia society. Shia Islam shaped both private and public aspects of life. In private, it influenced practices like prayer, fasting, and cleansing , as well as rules about cleanliness and gender roles according to the sharia law. Publicly, it impacted community activities such as Friday prayers, charitable endowments, and the observance of Muharram mourning rituals. According to the Cambridge History of Iran , "the modern originality of Persian Shi'ism has its roots" in Tahmasp I. Through
6930-502: The Sufism of Imam Junayd of Baghdad in doctrines, manners and [spiritual] purification." Current Sufi orders include Madariyya Order , Alians , Bektashi Order , Mevlevi Order , Ba 'Alawiyya , Chishti Order , Jerrahi , Naqshbandi , Mujaddidi , Ni'matullāhī , Qadiriyya , Qalandariyya , Sarwari Qadiriyya , Shadhiliyya , Suhrawardiyya , Saifiah (Naqshbandiah), and Uwaisi . The relationship of Sufi orders to modern societies
7056-598: The United States, via Albania . Sufism is popular in such African countries as Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Sudan, Morocco, and Senegal , where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam. Sufism is traditional in Morocco, but has seen a growing revival with the renewal of Sufism under contemporary spiritual teachers such as Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi . Mbacke suggests that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal
7182-557: The Ustajlu-Shamlu and Takkelu-Turkaman Qizilbash factions, which were competing for regency, Tahmasp I had to work carefully with the Shia jurists. As he became more self-reliant, he diminished the importance of the Qizilbash's messianic beliefs and enhanced the role of the ulama (clergyhood) in Twelver Shia Islam. The religious rites and customs that would later become unique to Shia Islam started to be embraced by
7308-405: The ambits of Shia Islam during the late medieval period. This particularly happened after the Safavid conversion of Iran under the concept of Irfan . Important focuses of Sufi worship include dhikr , the practice of remembrance of God. Sufis also played an important role in spreading Islam through their missionary and educational activities. Despite a relative decline of Sufi orders in
7434-529: The cities of Shiraz and Isfahan , which had been conquered by the Safavids in 1503. Ismail I's conquest of Isfahan led to a large number of Sunnis being killed, supposedly as revenge for the Aq Qoyunlu's killing of many Shia citizens of the city. During his journey to Isfahan in 1524, the Portuguese traveler António Tenreiro, described witnessing bones protruding from the ground, which he believed to be
7560-484: The city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate." Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf . Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as Sheikh of the principals and practices of Tasawwuf . Historian Jonathan A.C. Brown notes that during the lifetime of Muhammad, some companions were more inclined than others to "intensive devotion, pious abstemiousness and pondering
7686-418: The city. During debates, Ismail II actively supported Sunni arguments against the Shia ulama multiple times, thus weakening their standing and making them targets of mockery. Although the Shia ulama stayed out of Ismail II's way, they privately opposed his policies. Ismail II's pro-Sunni policies led to the royal family and Qizilbash poisoning the opium he consumed on 24 November 1577, leading to his death
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#17327764564857812-403: The disregard of superstitious and religious behaviors. Rituals like bodily cleansing, an obsession with impurities, and detailed rules for prayer and fasting were, in the jurists' view, essential to true faith and used to control the public. As the moral police of the state, the ulama controlled education and free time, encouraged faithfulness, and reinforced the gap between the "saved" Shia and
7938-493: The divine mysteries" more than Islam required, such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari . Hasan al-Basri , a tabi ', is considered a "founding figure" in the "science of purifying the heart". Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history , partly as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri . Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than
8064-466: The domain of the pure arid unimprisonable Spirit which itself opens out on to the Divinity." Academic studies of Sufism confirm that Sufism, as a separate tradition from Islam apart from so-called pure Islam , is frequently a product of Western orientalism and modern Islamic fundamentalists . As a mystic and ascetic aspect of Islam, it is considered as the part of Islamic teaching that deals with
8190-575: The earliest scholars to be called by the term being Abu Hashim al-Kufi, Jabir ibn Hayyan and Abdak al-Sufi. Later individuals included Hatim al-Attar, from Basra, and Al-Junayd al-Baghdadi . Others, such as Al-Harith al-Muhasibi and Sari al-Saqati , were not known as Sufis during their lifetimes, but later came to be identified as such due to their focus on tazkiah (purification). Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarani , Hasan of Basra , Harith al-Muhasibi , Abu Nasr as-Sarraj and Said ibn al-Musayyib . Ruwaym , from
8316-417: The early Middle Ages. The term tariqa is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ḥaqīqah (ultimate truth). A tariqa has a murshid (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The members or followers of a tariqa are known as murīdīn (singular murīd ), meaning "desirous", viz. "desiring
8442-596: The early medieval period onwards, when it began to permeate nearly all major aspects of Sunni Islamic life in regions stretching from India and Iraq to the Balkans and Senegal . The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa and Asia. The Senussi tribes of Libya and
8568-787: The early teachers, as well as Abdul-Qadir Gilani , Hammad, Abu al-Bayan and others of the later masters— that they do not permit the followers of the Sufi path to depart from the divinely legislated command and prohibition. Al-Ghazali narrates in Al-Munqidh min al-dalal : The vicissitudes of life, family affairs and financial constraints engulfed my life and deprived me of the congenial solitude. The heavy odds confronted me and provided me with few moments for my pursuits. This state of affairs lasted for ten years, but whenever I had some spare and congenial moments I resorted to my intrinsic proclivity. During these turbulent years, numerous astonishing and indescribable secrets of life were unveiled to me. I
8694-458: The exception of the writings of Husayn ibn Abd al-Samad. There was a greater push to expand and preserve Shia tradition under Abbas I the Great . Shia tradition was the subject of writings by authors such as Baha al-Din al-Amili , Mir Damad , and Sayyed Ahmad Alavi . A new Persian translation of Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni 's influential Usul al-Kafi fi 'Ilm al-Din was also published during
8820-455: The fall of the Safavid government, the Afghans were unable to establish a permanent state, and especially undermine the dominance of Shia Islam in Iran. Shia Islam continued to thrive in Iran as a distinctive, almost national belief system, even after more than thirty years of limited state backing. However, due in large part to the destruction caused by the Afghans, Isfahan lost its appeal as
8946-590: The fields of science and technology. A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi order, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the Swedish -born wandering Sufi Ivan Aguéli . René Guénon , the French scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth century and
9072-568: The final Shi'itization of the nation were all greatly influenced by Majlesi. In addition to marking the start of a genuinely Iranian expansion within Twelver Shia Islam, Majlesi was also a foreshadowing of the Twelver Shia Imams establishing the Islamic Republic of Iran in the late 20th-century. The Sunni Kurdish revolt in 1704 may have been due to Soltan Hosayn's anti-Sunni policies. The increasing persecution of Sunnites
9198-451: The final Shi'itization of the nation were all greatly influenced by the Shaykh al-Islam Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi . In addition to marking the start of a genuinely Iranian expansion within Twelver Shia Islam, Majlesi was also a foreshadowing of the Twelver Shia Imams establishing the Islamic Republic of Iran in the late 20th-century. Through their actions, the Safavids were able to establish
9324-468: The first time since the 11th-century. Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman were also ordered to be openly insulted by Ismail I's subjects according to a royal proclamation that stated, "Whoever disobeys, he is to beheaded." Ismail I implemented significant reforms in the Persian court and its administrative branches, and to achieve his aims he relied on the Qizilbash , a group of Turkoman soldiers. In addition to
9450-501: The following day. Ismail II was succeeded by Tahmasp's eldest son Mohammad Khodabanda ( r. 1578–1587 ), under whom Twelver Shia Islam was restored as the official religion of the realm. By the end of the 16th-century, Sunni Islam had virtually disappeared from the central Safavid provinces, only remaining on the outskirts of the realm. Some of the leaders in Ardalan and Kurds around Kermanshah also became Shia Muslims, but
9576-552: The forced conversion of Zoroastrians , turning their temple in Isfahan into a mosque, exacting jizya (poll tax) from Jews and Christians, and making it illegal for non-Shias to go outside during rain for fear that they might pollute Shias. In most cases these laws were avoided through bribery, or in other occasions through other means, such as when Maryam Begum interceded on the behalf of the Armenians of New Jolfa. Nevertheless,
9702-445: The government employed religious propagandists, which also lessened the Qizilbash's power. Tahmasp I implemented a strict code of ethics in the 1530s, but it is still unclear if it was consistently observed in urban as well as rural areas. Although there is little information on the behavior of the overall populace, royal courts are recorded to have served as performing venues for popular music and secular and romantic poetry. Tahmasp I
9828-442: The government had the most substantial consequences, as it alienated the many Sunnis of the country, most of whom inhabited its frontiers. The Shaykh al-Islam Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi had a strong influence over Soltan Hoseyn, who frequently sought his advice, maintained constant communication, and asked him to write religious treatises. The political climate of 18th-century Iran, the intellectual history of Twelver Shia Islam, and
9954-590: The idea of a Mahdi. Little is known about the religion situation across various cities and provinces in 15th-century Iran. A description of it appears from the earlier century by Hamdallah Mustawfi in his Nuzhat al-Qulub , which The Cambridge History of Iran describes as "fairly accurate." Mustawfi wrote that Sunni populations were dominant in major cities, while Twelver Shia Islam was concentrated in regions like Gilan , Mazandaran , Ray , Varamin , Qom , Kashan , Khuzestan , and Sabzevar in Khorasan . In
10080-569: The internalization of Islam. According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development. Other practitioners have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened. Later developments of Sufism occurred from people like Dawud Tai and Bayazid Bastami . Early on Sufism
10206-779: The knowledge of knowing God and loving God". Over the years, Sufi orders have influenced and been adopted by various Shi'i movements, especially Isma'ilism , which led to the Safaviyya order's conversion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam and the spread of Twelverism throughout Iran. Prominent tariqa include the Ba 'Alawiyya , Badawiyya , Bektashi , Burhaniyya , Chishti , Khalwati , Kubrawiya , Madariyya , Mevlevi , Muridiyya , Naqshbandi , Nimatullahi , Qadiriyya , Qalandariyya , Rahmaniyya , Rifa'i , Safavid , Senussi , Shadhili , Suhrawardiyya , Tijaniyyah , Uwaisi and Zahabiya orders. Existing in both Sunni and Shia Islam, Sufism
10332-427: The last in a chain of successive teachers linking back to Muhammad , with the goal of undergoing tazkiya (self purification) and the hope of reaching the spiritual station of ihsan . The ultimate aim of Sufis is to seek the pleasure of God by endeavoring to return to their original state of purity and natural disposition, known as fitra . Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history , partly as
10458-414: The later 16th century, which was greatly influenced by Twelver Shia Islam. The dynastic and political goals of the shahs had become more clear. Clerical Shia Islam was started to be adopted by the elites who had previously resisted it. In order to gain authority and instill public compliance to clerical decisions across different ethnic and social groups, the Amilis would borrow aspects of Iran's culture. With
10584-585: The laws of the transforming Safavid state, which was changing from a messianic crusade to a bureaucratic state. An Iranian imperial empire was envisioned when the Safavids began their campaign of conquest and Shia Islam conversion. During the first half of the 16th-century, three prominent Amili scholars of the made significant contributions to the advancement of the Safavid religious hierarchy and clerical leadership. This includes al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki (died 1533), Husayn ibn Abd al-Samad (died 1576), and Husayn al-Mujtahid (died 1592/93). Among them, al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki
10710-455: The leadership of Khvajeh Ali Safavi (died 1427). Their beliefs had little in common with orthodox Twelver Shia Islam, having originated in a frontier area where ancient beliefs mingled with mystical and millenarian components. The order grew more violent under Shaykh Junayd (died 1460), adopting an extreme brand of Shia Islam that included shamanic and animal-based components, such as the belief in metempsychosis and reincarnation, as well as
10836-546: The learned and the lay, would seek benefit from it," in a deliberate attempt to provide an example of Persianized Shia Islam to the Iranians. The works that Abbas I commissioned catered to a broad audience, in contrast to the expert texts written by the ulama . Jame-e Abbasi marked a turning point in the spread of Shia legal literature by promoting unification throughout the realm. Around 1614, Abbas I appears to have forced Christians and Jews to convert to Islam and converted
10962-493: The lexical root of the word to ṣafā ( صفاء ), which in Arabic means "purity", and in this context another similar idea of tasawwuf as considered in Islam is tazkiyah ( تزكية , meaning: self-purification), which is also widely used in Sufism. These two explanations were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari (d. 322 AH), who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity." Others have suggested that
11088-473: The majority of Kurds remained Shafi'i Muslims. There were also some Kurds who continued to adhere to Yarsanism . The northern coast of the Persian Gulf , along with much of Larestan , also remained Shafi'i Muslims, likely due to the area's long-standing trade connections with India and Arabia. During the reign of Ismail I and Tahmasp I, there was minimal interest in collections of Shia tradition, with
11214-494: The modern world, the classical interpretation of Sunni orthodoxy, which sees in Sufism an essential dimension of Islam alongside the disciplines of jurisprudence and theology , is represented by institutions such as Egypt 's Al-Azhar University and Zaytuna College , with Al-Azhar's current Grand Imam Ahmed el-Tayeb recently defining "Sunni orthodoxy" as being a follower "of any of the four schools of [legal] thought ( Hanafi , Shafi’i , Maliki or Hanbali ) and ... [also] of
11340-471: The names in the chain but only the names of major Sufi Saints). Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam Following their rise to power in Iran in the 16th century, the Safavid dynasty initiated a campaign of forced conversion against the Iranian populace, seeking to create a demographic environment in which Shia Islam would replace Sunni Islam as the nation's religious majority. Prior to
11466-708: The narration of the Persian epic poem Shahnameh by storytellers. Stories of the adventures of Rostam , such as his fight with the Div-e Sepid on Mount Damavand , as well as the romance about the Sasanian ruler Khosrow II ( r. 590–628 ) and princess Shirin by Nizami Ganjavi , were among the tales they could hear. The Arab Shia scholars of Jabal Amil in Southern Lebanon proved to be eager allies and supporters for Ismail I and his advisors. After years of persecution in their own country by
11592-408: The office of sadr , Tahmasp I consistently advocated for the goals the sayyids (descendants of Muhammad), whom he trusted deeply. To counter accusations of heresy from their Sunni neighbors, the Safavid shahs sought to enhance their legitimacy by modifying their lineage. Even though Ismail I and possibly his father Shaykh Haydar claimed to be descendants of Ali, it was during Tahmasp I's reign that
11718-496: The open practice of Sunnism. He rejected suggestions to convert the locals to Shia Islam, citing their prior military assistance to his family as justification. Even though some parts of Talish did eventually convert to Shia Islam, it most likely did not happen until the 19th-century. The religiosity of Soltan Hoseyn ( r. 1694–1722 ) is implied through the numerous awqaf (charitable endowment under Islamic law) he gifted. He may not have been as intolerant as he commonly
11844-483: The outskirts of the madrasa, philosophy was restricted to tiny and insignificant groups that did not make new ideas. The traditions of the imams, which Majlesi romanticized into a sentimentalized Islam, came to take the lead role instead, thus discouraging creativity. In order to avoid criticism, the School of Isfahan had to be purposefully cryptic, which made it difficult to understand for most followers. Later followers of
11970-486: The path of the Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings. Ibn Taymiyya's Sufi inclinations and his reverence for Sufis like Abdul-Qadir Gilani can also be seen in his hundred-page commentary on Futuh al-ghayb , covering only five of the seventy-eight sermons of the book, but showing that he considered tasawwuf essential within the life of the Islamic community. In his commentary, Ibn Taymiyya stresses that
12096-429: The patronage of such practices prohibited in Islam as music and painting, or about the deviant sexual habits of the royal family, but these were not serious enough to cause a refit between the religious establishment and its royal benefactor. Sometimes, disagreements emerged over practices such as wine consumption, the support of activities prohibited in Islam like music and painting, and the atypical sexual behaviors within
12222-530: The philosophy of Mulla Sadra chose to emphasize traditional and pious aspects, neglecting the original and creative parts. Under the Safavids, jointly celebrating Nowruz (Iranian New Year) and Ashura (mourning the death of the third Shia Imam Husayn ibn Ali ) gained prominence and built the groundwork for the Iranian-Shia identity that persisted for more than 500 years. Since in 963 in Baghdad under
12348-418: The populace was met with severe repercussions. Thousands, maybe even 20,000, of Sunnis were killed at Tabriz when there first appeared opposition to the Safavids' forcible conversion. Once their Sunni religious leadership was frightened or, more commonly, killed, the populace (primarily Shafi'is), would usually cooperate. Ismail I put to death several Sunni judges, preachers, and officials who were protesting in
12474-493: The popular studies of writers like Idries Shah are continuously disregarded by scholars as conveying the fallacious image that "Sufism" is somehow distinct from "Islam". Nile Green has observed that, in the Middle Ages, Sufism more or less was Islam . Historically, Sufism became "an incredibly important part of Islam" and "one of the most widespread and omnipresent aspects of Muslim life" in Islamic civilization from
12600-582: The present day. All these orders were founded by a major Islamic scholar, and some of the largest and most widespread included the Suhrawardiyya (after Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi [d. 1168]), Qadiriyya (after Abdul-Qadir Gilani [d. 1166]), the Rifa'iyya (after Ahmed al-Rifa'i [d. 1182]), the Chishtiyya (after Moinuddin Chishti [d. 1236]), the Shadiliyya (after Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili [d. 1258]),
12726-461: The primacy of the sharia forms the soundest tradition in tasawwuf , and to argue this point he lists over a dozen early masters, as well as more contemporary shaykhs like his fellow Hanbalis , al-Ansari al-Harawi and Abdul-Qadir, and the latter's own shaykh, Hammad al-Dabbas the upright. He cites the early shaykhs (shuyukh al-salaf) such as Al-Fuḍayl ibn ‘Iyāḍ , Ibrahim ibn Adham , Ma`ruf al-Karkhi , Sirri Saqti , Junayd of Baghdad, and others of
12852-472: The progressively intolerant environment caused by these measures decreased the loyalty of the non-Shias towards the Safavid government. Due to increased taxes and endangerment by a law that permitted the family member of an apostate to gain their belongings, several wealthy Armenians withdrew much of their financial assets and left for the Italian cities of Venice and Rome . The anti-Sunni policies pursued by
12978-444: The prominent Sunni scholar al-Sharif al-Jurjani as his ancestor. The study of tradition and Quranic interpretation was Makhdum Sharifi Shirazi's primary education. Building a strong relationship with Ismail II, he was appointed as the co- sadr (highest religious authority) with Shah Enayatollah Esfahani, who had previously served as the military chaplain under Tahmasp I. Ismail II worked with Makhdum Sharifi Shirazi to undo some of
13104-474: The purification of the inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Tasawwuf is regarded as a science of the soul that has always been an integral part of Orthodox Islam. In his Al-Risala al-Safadiyya , ibn Taymiyyah describes the Sufis as those who belong to
13230-436: The reign of Abbas I. The juridical encyclopedia that was most widely used was Jame-e Abbasi by Baha al-Din al-Amili, which Abbas I had ordered. It covered topics such as Islamic customs, the correct birth and death dates of the Imams, monetary donations, sales, marriage, divorce, vows, atonement, and criminal law. Abbas I instructed that Jame-e Abbasi be delivered in "a clear, comprehensible language in order that all people,
13356-463: The remains of 5,000 individuals who had been burned alive by the Safavids. 4,000 members of the order of Sheykh Abueshaq Kazeruni were killed by Ismail I in Fars , and the tombs of their shaykhs in the area were demolished. Despite the violence caused by Ismail I and his successors, the Safavid dynasty managed to unify the diverse local dynasties, ethnicities, and cultures that had divided Iran since
13482-560: The risky actions of the Qizilbash under Ismail I's command, his support of Arab Shia jurists, initially from northern Syria and then from southern Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula , enhanced his anti-Sunni policies. Prior to this, "even the basics of the Shia law were not known; nor were the rules and rituals of the rightful Twelver Shia sect," according to the Safavid-era historian Hasan Beg Rumlu , who almost lived during
13608-487: The royal family. Nevertheless, these disagreements were insufficient to cause a significant breach between the monarchy and the ulama . The ulama opposed other beliefs such as Agnosticism , Sufi orders like the Qalandariyya , mystics, philosophers, Sunni Islam, Judaism , Zoroastrianism, and Christianity . The ulama considered deviation from religious norms to be sinful and unsafe, especially if it resulted in
13734-464: The same period as Ismail I. Ismail I used many tactics early in his reign to establish his authority and convert his subjects to Shia Islam, with the aim of creating a Shia state and society. He used intimidation and coercion, possibly more out of pragmatism than faith, to wage war against his numerous opponents to the east and west. Additionally, by assigning clerics as delegates to the recently captured areas, he expanded Shia Islam. Any opposition from
13860-472: The second generation of Sufis in Baghdad, was also an influential early figure, as was Junayd of Baghdad; a number of early practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of the two. Historically, Sufis have often belonged to "orders" known as tariqa (pl. ṭuruq ) – congregations formed around a grand master wali who will trace their teaching through a chain of successive teachers back to
13986-415: The specific dhikr recited on these occasions. An initiate murid is given the secret wird of the Sufi order upon completion of training, transferring the spiritual power of the silsila of transmission from the founder of the order and Muhammad , to the initiate. Taking wird is equivalent to full initiation into the Sufi tariqa . Wird is like a spiritual medication taken by the murid every day under
14112-537: The supposition that the religious situation in Persia had a certain homogeneity". During the reign of the first Safavid shah (king), Ismail I , the military, political, and religious goals of the Safavids became unified. In 1501, he proclaimed himself the King of Kings and the creator of a new Shia state, thus creating a strong ideological foundation. This choice also merged the political and religious spheres in Iran,
14238-537: The teachings and beliefs thoroughly and to perform rituals in a structured and organized way. The Amilis constructed new connections and provided relevant explanations for how interpreting the past in Twelver Shia history. A process of Persianization across different social classes and within government structures accompanied the spread of Shia Islam, thus shaping a unique form of Iranian Shia Islam. Several interconnected elements were prominent in Safavid society by
14364-527: The time of the Turco-Mongol ruler Timur ( r. 1370–1405 ) a century earlier. The Safavids revitalized the Guarded Domains of Iran , a concept formed by a feeling of territorial and political uniformity in a society with shared cultural elements such as the Persian language, monarchy, and Shia Islam. In 1524, Ismail I was succeeded by his son Tahmasp I ( r. 1524–1576 ). It
14490-502: The very survival of the orders and traditional Sufi lifestyle appeared doubtful to many observers. However, defying these predictions, Sufism and Sufi orders have continued to play a major role in the Muslim world, also expanding into Muslim-minority countries. Its ability to articulate an inclusive Islamic identity with greater emphasis on personal and small-group piety has made Sufism especially well-suited for contexts characterized by religious pluralism and secularist perspectives. In
14616-405: The way of progressive reforms. Ideological attacks on Sufism were reinforced by agrarian and educational reforms, as well as new forms of taxation, which were instituted by Westernizing national governments, undermining the economic foundations of Sufi orders. The extent to which Sufi orders declined in the first half of the 20th century varied from country to country, but by the middle of the century
14742-402: The word comes from the term Ahl al-Ṣuffa ("the people of the suffah or the bench"), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of dhikr , one of the most prominent companion among them was Abu Hurayra . These men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis. The current consensus is that Sufism emerged in
14868-503: Was convinced that the group of Aulia (holy mystics) is the only truthful group who follow the right path, display best conduct and surpass all sages in their wisdom and insight. They derive all their overt or covert behaviour from the illumining guidance of the holy Prophet, the only guidance worth quest and pursuit. In the eleventh-century, Sufism, which had previously been a less "codified" trend in Islamic piety, began to be "ordered and crystallized" into orders which have continued until
14994-408: Was during his rule that Shia Islam in Iran solidified itself. Under Tahmasp I, clerical power was strengthened, and Shia legal scholars, Arab emigrants, and local Iranians gained powerful positions in the government and society. Their rise as an interest group was not much due to the jurists' own efforts but more due to circumstances during Tahmasp I's early reign. Because of the ongoing conflict between
15120-535: Was eventually represented by these caliphs. Their adherents claimed that they represented the Sunnah ("the right path"), that the vast majority of Muslims believed in. This was opposed by Ali and his followers, who also objected to the ways that Umar and Uthman had spread Islam in ways that were not consistent with the sayings of Muhammad and the Quran. According to Shia Islam , the lineage of authority starts with Ali (who
15246-437: Was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of Sufism as the essence of Islam, but also pointed to the universality of its message. Spiritualists, such as George Gurdjieff , may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims. Here is a chart to explain the spiritual chain of major Sufi Orders and how it connects to Prophet Muhammad. (The chart doesn't include all
15372-410: Was known for its strict adherence to the sunnah , for example it was reported Bastami refused to eat a watermelon because he did not find any proof that Muhammad ever ate it. According to the late medieval mystic, the Persian poet Jami , Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah (died c. 716) was the first person to be called a "Sufi". The term also had a strong connection with Kufa , with three of
15498-625: Was one of the factors that led to the Afghan rebellion by the Ghilzai leader Mirwais Hotak . A few years prior to the start of the rebellion, Mirwais Hotak was able to obtain a fatwa in Mecca that authorized revolt against Safavid rule as a religious obligation. When the Afghans invaded Iran, the Shafi'ites of Larestan and other Sunnis somewhat accepted them, probably due to their shared beliefs. Despite
15624-411: Was originally introduced into European languages in the 18th century by Orientalist scholars, who viewed it mainly as an intellectual doctrine and literary tradition at variance with what they saw as sterile monotheism of Islam. It was often mistaken as a universal mysticism in contrast to legalistic orthodox Islam. In recent times, Historian Nile Green has argued against such distinctions, stating, in
15750-450: Was succeeded by his son Ismail II ( r. 1576–1577 ), who immediately decided to overturn many of the religious policies established by his father and grandfather. He opted for a kinder approach toward Sunnis and attempted to halt the anti-Sunni propaganda that had gained popularity under his father. There are several theories about why Ismail II tried to bring back Sunni Islam. The country still had many followers of Sunni Islam. In
15876-426: Was the most powerful Amili court scholar. As an innovator, he faced challenging duties and, through his successful approval of how different laws were to be interpreted, provoked opposition from Arab and Persian ulama as well as controversy among the elite. The Amilis, like other state-appointed officials, perceived themselves collectively as guardians of an established orthodoxy. They encouraged people to understand
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