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64-875: After the Donghu "Eastern Barbarians" were defeated by the Xiongnu around 209 BC, they split into two groups. The northern Donghu became the Xianbei while the southern Donghu living around modern Liaoning became the Wuhuan. According to the Book of Later Han , “the language and culture of the Xianbei are the same as the Wuhuan”. Until 121 BC, the Wuhuan was a tributary of the Xiongnu empire. The Book of Later Han (Ch. 120) says: "From

128-664: A foreign ethnonym * ga , which was borrowed into Old Chinese as 胡 * gâ (> hú ), while an i -suffixed derivative of * ga underlies two Middle Chinese transcriptions: namely, The etymology of ethnonym * ga (> 胡 OC * gâ > Ch. hú ) is unknown. As for * ga' s possibly derivation Qay : Golden (2003) proposes several Mongolic etymologies: ɣai "trouble, misfortune, misery", χai "interjection of grief", χai "to seek", χai "to hew", albeit none compelling. Some dictionaries and scholars (e.g. Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat ) confuse Dōnghú 東胡 with Tungusic peoples , Tonggu 通古. Russian Mongolist Lydia Viktorova states that: This

192-565: A high frequency among Mongols . Genetic data support a close genetic relationship between the Donghu, the ancient Jinggouzi people, and the Xianbei . The closest modern extant people to the historical Donghu are the Oroqen people of Northern China. Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms) Dai , also rendered as Tai and sometimes known in historiography as the Tuoba Dai ( Chinese : 拓跋代 ),

256-733: A more active role in supporting Jin. In 310, Tuoba Yilu aided the Jin Inspector of Bing province , Liu Kun , to quell the rebellion of the Tiefu - Xiongnu chieftain, Liu Hu . Tuoba Yilu and Liu Kun became sworn brothers, and as reward for helping him, Liu Kun petitioned the Jin court to bestow Yilu the title of Duke of Dai. The Tuoba became a vital fighting force for Jin in their war against Han, with Liu Kun being almost entirely dependent on their military strength. Shortly after attaining his fief, Yilu forced Liu Kun to grant him five counties north of

320-675: A powerful state under the leadership of their elected Khan , Tanshihuai. The Book of Jin , published in 648, linked the Donghu and their Xianbei descendants to the Youxiong lineage (有熊氏), associated with the Yellow Emperor and possibly named after the Yellow Emperor's "hereditary principality". However, many non- Han Chinese rulers were claimed to be the Yellow Emperor's descendants, for individual and national prestige. Chinese historian Yu Ying-shih describes

384-555: A proclamation they carve markings on wood ( 刻木為信 - kèmùwéixìn ), even though they have no script, and none of the tribes dare to violate it. Andrew Shimunek (2017) classifies the Wuhuan (or "Awar"/"Avar", per Shimunek's reconstruction) language as the most divergent para-Mongolic language. Donghu people Donghu ( simplified Chinese : 东胡 ; traditional Chinese : 東胡 ; pinyin : Dōnghú ; Wade–Giles : Tung-hu ; IPA : [tʊ́ŋ.xǔ] ; lit.   ' Eastern foreigners or Eastern barbarians ' )

448-756: A reward for helping Liu Kun , the Governor of Bingzhou (并州), fight against the Xiongnu -led Han-Zhao dynasty . The fief was later promoted from a duchy to a principality in 315. Dai was conquered in 376 by the Former Qin dynasty , and its descendants later established the Northern Wei dynasty in 386. In 258, the Tuoba chieftain, Tuoba Liwei led his people to occupy the abandoned Han dynasty city of Shengle in Yunzhong Commandery . He became

512-640: A specific group or tribe, which the records allow us to identify as early steppe nomads. The Hu were the source of the introduction of cavalry in China." Pulleyblank cites Paul Pelliot that the Donghu, Xianbei, and Wuhuan were "proto-Mongols". The Eastern Hu, mentioned in the Shih-chi along with the Woods Hu and the Lou-fan as barbarians to the north of Chao in the fourth century B.C., appear again as one of

576-809: A specific proto-Mongolian people, now differentiated as the Eastern Hu 東胡, from whom the Xianbei 鮮卑 and the Wuhuan 烏桓 later emerged. The Dōnghú later divided into the Wuhuan in the Yan Mountains and Xianbei in the Greater Khingan Range : the Wuhuan are ancestors of the Kumo Xi , while the Xianbei are ancestors of the Khitan and the Mongols . Another people of Donghu descent were

640-611: A term for miscellaneous hu (雜胡; zahu ) tribes with Donghu backgrounds. Under the Dai and early Northern Wei dynasty, "Wuhuan" was used to refer to migrants of any ethnicity living under the ruling Tuoba clan. The Tiefu and Dugu tribes, who were a mix of the Xiongnu and Xianbei people, were also referred to as "Wuhuan". Many of the Wuhuan families in the 4th century had adopted Han Chinese surnames such as Wang (王), Zhang (張) and Lü (呂), although non-Chinese surnames like Kunuguan (庫傉官) also existed. They notably served as auxillaries for

704-519: A vassal to the Cao Wei and its successor, Western Jin and subjugated neighbouring tribes to expand his power. The Jin, fearing the Tuoba's growing influence, sowed discord among the tribe's chieftains to weaken them. After Tuoba Luguan became chieftain in 294, he decided to split the Tuoba domain into west, central and east between him and his nephews. The split lasted a decade before the western Tuoba chieftain, Tuoba Yilu , reunified them in 307. At

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768-889: A wide territory. Their fragmentation, however, could be turned, when the need arose, into a superior form of political organization (a "state"). This explains why hu appears often preceded by a qualifier that we may take for a specific ethnic group, as with the Lin Hu and the Tung Hu. Whether or not it had originally been an ethnonym, such a designation had been lost by the Warring States period . In modern Standard Chinese usage hú has lost its original meaning although it still appears in words like èrhú 二胡 (lit. "two foreign") "Chinese two-string fiddle", hútáo 胡桃 ("foreign peach") " walnut ", and húluóbō 胡萝卜 ("foreign radish") " carrot ". The modern pronunciation Dōnghú differs from

832-519: Is "Eastern Barbarians" (e.g., Watson, di Cosmo, Pulleyblank, and Yu), and the partial translation "Eastern Hu" is occasionally used (Pulleyblank). Note that "Eastern Barbarians" is also a translation for Dōngyì 東夷, which refers to "ancient peoples in eastern China, Korea, Japan, etc." Chinese Sinocentrism differentiates the Huáxià 華 夏 "Chinese" and the Yì 夷 "barbarians, non-Chinese, foreigner": this

896-462: Is due to the insufficient amount of materials and partly due to the mistakes made. For example, the phonetic identification of the ancient people of the Donghu (Eastern Hu) with the Tungus, made at the beginning of the 19th century by Abel-Rémusat only on the principle of sound similarity between Donghu and Tungus. This led to the fact that for a long time all the descendants of the Donghu were considered

960-596: Is now Beijing ), defeated the Donghu after having gained the esteem of the Donghu and learning their battle tactics. In 273 BC (26th year of King Huiwen ) Zhao defeated the Donghu. In 265 BC Li Mu of the Zhao state, one of the four most prominent generals of the Warring States period, defeated the Donghu after stopping a major Xiongnu invasion. By the time of the rule of the Xiongnu Chanyu Touman (c. 220 BCE to 209 BCE), "the Donghu were very powerful and

1024-590: Is referred to as the Huá–Yì distinction . Many names besides Hu originally had pejorative "barbarian" meanings, for instance Nanman 南蠻 ("southern barbarians") and Beidi 北狄 ("northern barbarians"). Edwin G. Pulleyblank explains: At the dawn of history we find the Chinese, self-identified by such terms as Hsia and Hua, surrounded and interspersed by other peoples with whom they were frequently in conflict and whom they typically looked down upon as inferior beings in

1088-514: The American Journal of Physical Anthropology detected the paternal haplogroup C2b1a1b among the Xianbei and Rouran . This lineage has also been found among the Donghu. Haplogroup C2b1a1b has a high frequency among Mongols . The ethnic composition of the Donghu people remains unclear. It is suggested that the majority was of Mongolic and Tungusic origins, and that they stood in contact with other Steppe nomadic entities, such as

1152-530: The American Journal of Physical Anthropology in August 2018 detected the paternal haplogroup C2b1a1b among the Xianbei and Rouran . This lineage has also been found among remains associated with the Donghu people. The authors of the study suggested that haplogroup C2b1a1b was an important lineage among the Donghu, and that the Rouran were paternally descended from the Xianbei and Donghu. Haplogroup C2b1a1b has

1216-721: The Di barbarians and drove them into the region west of the Yellow River between the Yun and Luo rivers; there they were known as the Red Di and the White Di. Shortly afterwards, Duke Mu of Qin, having obtained the services of You Yu, succeeded in getting the eight barbarian tribes of the west to submit to his authority. Thus at this time there lived in the region west of Long the Mianzhu,

1280-477: The Later Zhao dynasty , whose people referred to Dai at the time as a "queendom" (女國). Heru began exercising power in 324 and moved the capital to Mount Dongmugen (東木根山; northwest of present-day Xinghe County , Inner Mongolia ), but he soon died in 325 and was succeeded by his brother, Tuoba Hena . In 327, threatened by Later Zhao, Hena shifted the capital again to Daning . Throughout his rule, Hena's claim to

1344-540: The Old Chinese pronunciation, which roughly dates from the Warring States period (476–221 BCE) when Donghu was first recorded. Old Chinese reconstructions of Dōnghú include * Tûngɣâg , * Tungg'o , * Tewnggaɣ , * Tongga , and * Tôŋgâ > * Toŋgɑ . William H. Baxter and Laurent Sagart (2014) reconstruct the Old Chinese ancestor of 胡 Hú as *[g]ˤa. Recently, Christopher Atwood reconstructs

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1408-508: The Rouran ( Proto-Mongolic tribe). In the past, scholars such as Fan Zuoguai and Han Feimu also mistakenly thought that Jurchens (ancestors of the Manchus ) descended from the Donghu. In 1980, Russian scholar Lydia Leonidovna Viktorova criticized the 19th century phonetic identification of the ancient people of the Donghu (Eastern Hu) with the Tungus. A genetic study published in

1472-503: The Upper Xiajiadian culture , characterized by the practice of agriculture and animal husbandry supplemented by handicrafts and bronze art. Through the use of cavalry and bronze weaponry in warfare, the Donghu apparently dominated over the Xiongnu on their west. Although "Upper Xiajiadian" is indeed frequently attributed to the Donghu, such attribution remains uncertain given the lack of details in Chinese sources about what

1536-612: The Xiongnu and the Saka people further West. The Donghu were ethnically related to the Xianbei , Jinggouzi and Rouran , which are described as either Proto-Mongols or Para-Mongols. While often being referred as tribal confederation, they may rather be an only loosely united group of nomadic tribes "that occupied territories between the Mongolian steppes and the Great Xing'an Mountains of China". A genetic study published in

1600-635: The Xiongnu , who were then ruled by Touman chanyu , once expelled by Qin general Meng Tian north from the Ordos Loop , yet able to regain their territory following the Qin Empire's collapse. All Hu workmen were famed for their skills at making bows and carts even without specialization. The peoples categorized as the Five Barbarians, or "Five Hu", were the Xiongnu , Jie , Xianbei , Di , and Qiang . Of these five ethnic groups,

1664-613: The Yuezhi were likewise flourishing." When the Xiongnu crown prince Modu Chanyu killed his father Touman (in 209 BCE) and took the title of Chanyu, the Donghu thought that Modu feared them, and they started to ask for tribute from the Xiongnu, his best horses and even a consort of Modu's. Modu conceded. Not satisfied with this they asked for some of the Xiongnu territories. This enraged Modu who attacked and soundly defeated them, killing their ruler, taking his subjects prisoner, and seizing their livestock, before turning west to attack and defeat

1728-617: The Dependent State of Liaodong, and Wuyan in Youbeiping. In 187 Qiuliju joined the rebellion of Zhang Chun. Following the defeat of Zhang Chun in 188, Qiuliju attacked Gongsun Zan but was defeated. In 190 he surrendered to Liu Yu and died in 193. Qiuliju's son Louban was too young to succeed him so his cousin Tadun became acting guardian. In 195 Tadun, Nanlou and Supuyan supported Yuan Shao against Gongsun Zan. In 207 Tadun

1792-515: The Di were farmers who may have spoken a Sino-Tibetan or Turkic language . The traditional explanation, going back to the second-century Han dynasty scholar Cui Hao 崔浩 is that the Donghu were originally located "east of the Xiongnu " who were one of the "Five Barbarians" ( Hú ). Modern Chinese apologetics suggests that "Donghu" was a transcription of an endonym and did not literally mean "Eastern Barbarian". The usual English translation of Dōnghú

1856-441: The Donghu exactly were, beyond a name ( Donghu , Eastern Hu , ie "Eastern mounted nomads") and the account of their destruction by the Xiongnu . The (ca. 109–91 BCE) Shiji section on Xiongnu history first records the Donghu during the era of Duke Wen of Jin (r. 697–628 BCE) and Duke Mu of Qin (r. ca. 659–621 BCE). At this time Qin and Jin were the most powerful states in China. Duke Wen of Jin expelled

1920-773: The Donghu. The Tung-hu peoples were probably a tribal federation founded by a number of nomadic peoples, including the Wu-huan and Hsien-pi. After its conquest of the Hsiung-nu, the federation apparently ceased to exist. Throughout the Han period, no trace can be found of activities of the Tung-hu as a political entity. Di Cosmo says the Chinese considered the Hu 胡 as "a new type of foreigner", and believes, "This term, whatever its origin, soon came to indicate an 'anthropological type' rather than

1984-798: The Hunrong, and the Diyuan tribes. North of Mts. Qi and Liang and the Jing and Qi rivers lived the Yiqu, Dali, Wuzhi, and Quyuan tribes. North of Jin were the Linhu (Forest Barbarians) and the Loufan, while north of Yan lived the Donghu (Eastern Barbarians) and Shanrong (Mountain Barbarians), each of them with their own chieftains. From time to time they would have gatherings of a hundred or so men, but no one tribe

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2048-731: The Jin during the War of the Eight Princes and Upheaval of the Five Barbarians before eventually becoming subjects of the Sixteen Kingdoms in the north. Many of the Wuhuan became leaders of fortified settlements (塢堡; wubao ) and assisted the Later Yan dynasty in their war of restoration in the late 380s. By the late Northern Wei period, the Wuhuan had fully assimilated with the Han Chinese and sinicizing Xianbei. Part of

2112-479: The Tiefu tribe, who vacillated between fealty and hostility towards Dai. Shiyiqian repeatedly defeated the Tiefu, but in 376, their chieftain, Liu Weichen persuaded the Former Qin to launch a campaign against Dai. During the campaign, Tuoba Jin (拓跋斤), the son of Tuoba Gu who resented that he did have the same power as his father after his death, had Shiyiqian and many of his sons assassinated. Former Qin capitalized on

2176-440: The Wu-huan to the south. By the end of the first century B.C. these more specific names had supplanted the older generic term. Pulleyblank also writes that although there is now archaeological evidence of the spread of pastoral nomadism based on horse riding from Central Asia into Mongolia and farther east in the first half of the first millennium B.C.E., as far as we have evidence it did not impinge on Chinese consciousness until

2240-521: The Wuhuan also became known as the Kumo Xi , or the Tatabi, who were finally absorbed by the Khitans in the 10th century. The Book of Later Han (Ch. 120) records: The Wuhuan are skilled in mounted archery. They engage in hunting animals and birds. They nomadise from place to place in search of grass and water. Without permanent settlements they live in round yurts ( 穹廬 - qiónglú ). The entrance of

2304-570: The Wuhuan instead, defeated them and beheaded three of their kings. In 71 BC, the Wuhuan joined the Han, Dingling, and Wusun to defeat the Xiongnu. In 7 AD, the Han convinced the Wuhuan to stop sending tribute to the Xiongnu, who immediately attacked and defeated the Wuhuan. In 49 AD, Hedan, the Wuhuan elder of the Liaoxi district, came to the Han court with 922 other chieftains and "paid tribute" to Emperor Guangwu of Han with slaves, cattle, horses, bows and tiger, leopard and sable skins. In 58 AD,

2368-581: The Xianbei chieftain Pianhe attacked and killed Xinzhiben, a Wuhuan leader causing trouble in Yuyang Commandery . In 109 AD, the Wuhuan joined the Xianbei in attacking Wuyuan Commandery and defeated local Han forces. In 168 AD, the Wuhuan established some degree of independence under their own leaders. The largest of these groups were led by Nanlou in Shanggu, Qiuliju in Liaoxi, Supuyan in

2432-455: The Xiongnu and Xianbei were nomadic peoples from the northern steppes . The ethnic identity of the Xiongnu is uncertain, but the Xianbei appear to have been Mongolic. The Jie , another pastoral people, may have been a branch of the Xiongnu, who may have been Yeniseian or Indo-Scythian . The Di and Qiang were from the highlands of western China. The Qiang were predominantly herdsmen and spoke Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) languages , while

2496-472: The Yuezhi (c. 177 BCE). This caused disintegration in the Donghu federation. Thereafter, the Wuhuan moved to Mt. Wuhuan and engaged in continuous warfare with the Xiongnu on the west and China on the south. As they came to be worn out from the lengthy battles, the Xianbei preserved their strengths by moving northward to Mt. Xianbei. When the Han dynasty vassal king Lu Wan defected to the Xiongnu in 195 BC he

2560-416: The ancestors of the Tungus." This "chance similarity in modern pronunciation", writes Pulleyblank, "led to the once widely held assumption that the Eastern Hu were Tungusic in language. This is a vulgar error with no real foundation." Among the northern ethnic groups, the Donghu was the earliest to evolve into a state of civilization and first developed bronze technology. Their culture was associated with

2624-508: The chieftains acclaimed his cousin, Tuoba Yulü as the new prince. During his reign, Yulü further weakened the Tiefu and expanded his territory by conquering the former lands of the Wusun in the west and the lands west of the Mohe people in the east. However, in 321, he was assassinated by Pugen's widow, Lady Qi , who installed her son, Tuoba Heru to the throne. As regent, Lady Qi submitted to

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2688-700: The confusion and captured Yunzhong, thus ending the Dai. Former Qin treated the defeated Tuoba clan kindly, and he allowed Shiyiqian's grandson, Tuoba Gui to live with the Dugu tribe in the old Dai territory. In 386, taking advantage of Former Qin's rapid decline that followed the Battle of Fei River , Tuoba Gui restored his family's state. Though he initially claimed the Prince of Dai title, he changed it to Prince of Wei later that year, and his state would become known in history as

2752-412: The first peoples whom the Hsiung-nu conquered in establishing their empire. Toward the end of the Former Han, as the Hsiung-nu empire was weakening through internal dissension, the Eastern Hu became rebellious. From then on they played an increasingly prominent role in Chinese frontier strategy as a force to play off against the Hsiung-nu. Two major divisions are distinguished, the Hsien-pei to the north and

2816-410: The last remnants of their power for good. The Xianbei people quickly filled in the power vacuum left behind by the Wuhuan. The Wuhuan gradually lost their cultural identity as they integrated with the Han Chinese, Xianbei and other surrounding ethnic groups. They continued to appear during the Jin dynasty and Sixteen Kingdoms period in the 4th century, but at this point, the word "Wuhuan" had become

2880-458: The law. His territory supposedly spanned from the Yemaek in the east to the Fergana in the west, and from the Yin Mountains in the south to the northern edge of the desert. Shiyiqian had an army of 100,000 strong, and in 340, he moved the capital back to Shengle. He entered into a marriage alliance with the Former Yan , though relations were tense at times, leading to clashes between the two sides. Throughout his rule, he also had to deal with

2944-477: The mountain ranges. In 312, after Liu Kun lost his capital, Jinyang , Yilu sent his forces to successfully reclaim it for him. For his services, the Jin court elevated Yilu's title to Prince of Dai and allowed him to grant offices to his subordinates in 315. Yilu showed preference towards his younger son, Tuoba Biyan (拓跋比延), which upset his older son, Tuoba Liuxiu (拓跋六脩). In 316, after Liuxiu refused to take orders from his father, Yilu led his troops to attack him but

3008-431: The northern Chinese border in order to use them to keep watch of the Xiongnu. The chieftains of the Wuhuan paid annual visits to the Han capital Chang'an and were given rewards. In 78 BC, the Wuhuan looted the tombs of the Xiongnu chanyus. The outraged Xiongnu rode east and defeated them. Fan Minyou was sent with 20,000 men to aid the Wuhuan. However he arrived too late and the Xiongnu were out of his reach so he attacked

3072-411: The northward push of the state of Zhao 趙 to the edge of the steppe in present Shanxi province shortly before the end of the fifth century B.C.E. brought them into contact with a new type of horse-riding “barbarian” that they called Hu 胡. … In Han times the term Hu was applied to steppe nomads in general but especially to the Xiongnu who had become the dominant power in the steppe. Earlier it had referred to

3136-421: The other hand can create their own separate tribes, so the original tribe does not bear responsibility for them. Whoever is brave, strong and able to deal with contentious cases of litigation are chosen to be elders ( 大人 - dàren ). The office of elder is not hereditary. Each nomadic community has its own small commander ( 帥 - shuài ). A community is composed of a hundred to a thousand yurts. When an elder makes

3200-414: The same way the Hellenes looked down on the barbaroi and, indeed, as human we-groups have always looked down on their neighbors. The historian Nicola di Cosmo concludes: We can thus reasonably say that, by the end of the fourth century B.C., the term "Hu" applied to various ethnic groups (tribes, groups of tribes, and even states) speaking different languages and generally found living scattered across

3264-461: The term Xīhú meaning "Western barbarians" ( Chinese : 西胡 , meaning "non-Chinese peoples in the west" and Five Barbarians 五胡 ( Wǔ Hú ) "five northern nomadic tribes involved in the Uprising of the Five Barbarians (304–316 CE)". Hill (2009:59) translates Xīhú as "Western Hu" and notes: The term hu 胡 was used to denote non- Han Chinese populations. It is, rather unsatisfactorily, commonly translated as 'barbarian'. While sometimes it

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3328-520: The throne was challenged by Tuoba Yihuai , Tuoba Yulü's son who had escaped the aftermath of his father's death and went into exile. In 329, Hena fled to the Yuwen tribe after the Dai chiefs replaced him with Yihuai, but in 335, he was welcomed back and reinstated as Yihuai lost support. Yihuai fled to the Later Zhao, and in 337, he returned to Dai with an army and reclaimed the throne at Shengle. Before his death in 338, Tuoba Yihuai ordered his chieftains to welcome back his brother, Tuoba Shiyiqian , who

3392-475: The time that Modu Shanyu crushed them the Wuhuan became weak. They were kept in constant subjugation to the Xiongnu and were forced to pay annual taxes of cow, horse and sheep skins. If anybody did not pay this tax his wife and children were taken from him." In 121 BC, the Han dynasty general Huo Qubing defeated the eastern wing of the Xiongnu. He then settled the Wuhuan in five commanderies ( Shanggu , Yuyang , Youbeiping , Liaoxi and Liaodong ) created on

3456-401: The time, the Western Jin was undergoing the upheaval of the Five Barbarians . The Xiongnu of Shanxi established the Han-Zhao state and posed a threat to the Jin in northern China. The earliest involvement of the Tuoba in the conflict was in 304, when the central and western Tuoba provided reinforcements to Jin against the Han. It was not until after Tuoba Yilu's reunification that they took

3520-472: The western Linhu (林胡, "Forest Hu"), were mentioned as a non-Chinese people who were neighbors of Zhao and skilled at mounted archery (a military tactic which King Wuling of Zhao would later adopt). However, the term Hu can also refer to a variety of different races and different ethnic groups. It was used by Han Chinese to describe anyone who is not of ethnic Han Chinese descent and were considered barbarians: for example, Sima Qian also used Hu to call

3584-420: The yurt faces the sun (south). They eat meat and drink kumiss ( 酪 - lào ). They make clothes from fine wool ( máocuì - 毛毳 ). Youthfulness and strength are held in esteem among them while old age and weakness are not. They are brave and valorous by nature. In anger they kill each other but nobody harms mothers, because the continuation of their progeny depends on their mothers. Fathers and elder brothers on

3648-415: Was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Tuoba clan of Xianbei descent, during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms (although it is not listed as one of the 16). It existed from AD 310 to 376, with its capital at Shengle (near modern Horinger County of Hohhot , Inner Mongolia , China). The name "Dai" originated when Tuoba Yilu was appointed the Duke of Dai (代公) by the Western Jin dynasty in 310, as

3712-463: Was a tribal confederation of " Hu " (胡) nomadic people that was first recorded from the 7th century BCE and was taken over by the Xiongnu in 150 BCE. They lived in northern Hebei , southeastern Inner Mongolia and the western part of Liaoning , Jilin and Heilongjiang along the Yan Mountains and Greater Khingan Range . The Classical Chinese name Chinese : 東 胡 literally means "Eastern Barbarians". The term Dōnghú contrasts with

3776-418: Was capable of unifying the others under a single rule. In 307 BC King Wuling of Zhao (born 356 BC, reigned 325-299 BC), a contemporary of Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), instituted a military reform called "Hu clothes, Cavalry archery" after having been repeatedly harassed earlier in his reign by Donghu horse-archers. In 300 BCE Qin Kai , a general taken hostage from the state of Yan (whose capital "Ji"

3840-428: Was created King of Donghu (東胡王) by the Xiongnu. This Kingdom of Donghu fiefdom lasted until 144 BC when Lu Wan's grandson Lu Tazhi defected back to the Han dynasty. The Wuhuan (southern Donghu) inhabitants of the fiefdom continued as vassals of the Xiongnu until 121 BC. Gradually the name Donghu stopped being used. In the 1st century, the Xianbei (northern Donghu) defeated the Wuhuan and northern Xiongnu, and developed into

3904-431: Was defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain and died in battle. After their defeat many of the Wuhuan surrendered to Cao Cao and served as part of Cao Cao's cavalry forces. Louban and Supuyan fled to Gongsun Kang , who killed them. Cao Cao divided the Wuhuan into three groups situated in Dai Commandery . The chieftains Nengchendi and Pufulu continued to cause trouble until 218 when Cao Zhang destroyed

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3968-515: Was hostage in Later Zhao, and acclaim him as the new prince. Many of them preferred his other brother, Tuoba Gu (拓跋孤), but Gu personally went to Zhao and brought Shiyiqian back to Dai. Shiyiqian ascended the throne north of Fanji (繁畤; in present-day Fanshi County , Shanxi ), and he willingly split his domain with Tuoba Gu. During Shiyiqian's reign, the Dai enjoyed a lengthy period of prosperity and reached its peak. Shiyiqian set up various new offices to handle separate administrative duties and codified

4032-401: Was killed in battle. Dai was thrown into a state of confusion, with its people suspecting and killing one another or fleeing the state. Yilu's nephew, Tuoba Pugen killed Liuxiu and proclaimed himself the new Prince of Dai, but he was unable to quickly resolve the crisis. Tuoba Pugen died shortly after, and while his unnamed son succeeded him, he too would die later that same year. Therefore,

4096-405: Was used in this general way to describe people of non-Han descent, and carried the same negative overtones of the English term, this was not always the case. Most frequently, it was used to denote people, usually of Caucasoid or partial Caucasoid appearance, living to the north and west of China. (2009:453) In 307 BCE, the 胡 Hú proper, encompassing both the eastern Dōnghú (東胡, "Eastern Hu") and

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