Ulfilas ( Greek : Ουλφίλας ; c. 311 – 383), known also as Wulfila(s) or Urphilas , was a 4th-century Gothic preacher of Cappadocian Greek descent. He was the apostle to the Gothic people.
61-727: Ulfila served as a bishop and missionary, participated in the Arian controversy , and is credited with converting the Goths to Christianity as well as overseeing translation of the Bible into the Gothic language . For the purpose of the translation he developed the Gothic alphabet , largely based on the Greek alphabet , as well as Latin and Runic characters. Although the translation of the text into Gothic has traditionally been ascribed to Ulfila, analysis of
122-643: A thermoperipatos , has been identified only in Nicopolis ad Istrum so far, out of all cities in Roman Empire. It occupied a whole insula and was built under Commodus in 184-5 on the ruins of an earlier building. It was probably used for trading and included shops. It was ruined in the 4th c. and another building later built over it. The city was supplied by three aqueducts and had several water wells, many of which have been unearthed in archaeological excavations. The western aqueduct of 25 km length had
183-461: A 4th century letter from his pupil, Auxentius of Durostorum , who wrote it immediately after his death. A summary by Photios I of Philostorgius' Ecclesiastical History is also significant, but references to Ulfila's life are generally scarce, and he was omitted from Jerome 's De Viris Illustribus . Around the year 311, Ulfila was born presumably in what is now modern Romania . He was partially descended from Roman prisoners who were captured in
244-659: A bridge of almost 3 km long and almost 20m tall carrying water over the entire valley of the Rositsa River. Its 2nd century water catchment reservoir is located near the town of Musina in Pavlikeni municipality, to the west of the Roman city, where it still collects water from the karst springs inside the Musina Cave. A large castellum aquae of this aqueduct stands to the west of the city. In 2015 remains of
305-631: A disputation. He likely traveled to the city in 383, although the emperor came to reject the Homoian position. Ulfila soon became ill, died, and was buried soon after, though not before drafting a creed affirming his belief in Homoianism. He was succeeded as bishop by the Gotho-Phrygian Selenas. The traditional date for Ulfila's completion of religious texts for the Goths of Moesia is around 369. Cassiodorus attests that he "invented
366-645: A huge building were revealed which was probably the residence of the agoranomus or curule aedile , a public officer in charge of trade and market operations in Ancient Greek and Roman cities. The obelisk of Quintus Julius, an aristocrat from Nicopolis, still stands to a height of 14m in the countryside near Lesicheri, about 12 km west of the city. Many finds are on display in the Veliko Tarnovo Regional Museum of History. In 2018, archaeologists found an altar dedicated to
427-453: A raid by Goths at Sadagolthina and carried away from Asia Minor . His ancestors were likely kidnapped by Western Goths in 264 or 267 then brought to an area near the Danube river . Prisoners taken in such raids from Anatolia were usually unrepentant Christians, and Ulfila was raised as a Christian in a pagan society. He lived in a diaspora community composed of Cappadocian Christians under
488-585: A similarity with those of the ancient towns in Asia Minor. The agora contained a statue of Trajan on horseback as well as other marble statues and an Ionic colonnade. The city also had a three-nave basilica , a bouleuterion , a temple of Cybele , a small odeon, thermae (public baths) as well as a unique Roman building inscribed with termoperiatos , a heated building with shops and enclosed space for walks and business meetings. Some town houses and buildings have also been excavated. A unique public building,
549-525: A single, imperially approved version of the faith. Ironically, his efforts were the cause of the deep divisions created by the disputes after Nicaea. These disagreements divided the Church into various factions for over 55 years, from the time before the First Council of Nicaea in 325 until after the First Council of Constantinople in 381. There was no formal schism . Inside the Roman Empire,
610-459: A third council, at Constantinople (359), of both the eastern and western bishops, to resolve the split at Seleucia. Acacius and Basil of Ancyra, respectively, again proposed the " like the Father " and " similar substance " views, as were explained at Seleucia. However, Maris of Chalcedon, Eudoxius of Antioch , and the deacons Aëtius of Antioch and Eunomius of Cyzicus proposed a third view which
671-637: Is God the Father, who is also the God of our God); and in one Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, as Christ said after his resurrection to his apostles : "And behold, I send the promise of my Father upon you; but tarry ye in the city of Jerusalem, until ye be clothed with power from on high" (Luke 24:49) and again "But ye shall receive power, when the Holy Ghost is come upon you" ( Acts 1:8 ); being neither God (the Father) nor our God (Christ), but
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#1732772454167732-576: Is known about his life in Moesia, but he resumed preaching and likely exercised the office of chorepiscopus (Greek: χώρα) . Most of his theological works, including the translation of the Bible from Greek into Gothic, were likely to have been produced in this period. He seemed to have remained the temporal and spiritual leader of the Christian Goths in Nicopolis, possibly exerting influence beyond
793-541: Is traditionally said that 318 bishops came to Nicaea to attend the council, though others suggest figures from 250-300. The vast majority of those bishops were from the East. Italy, Spain, Gaul, North Africa, Persia, and Scythia each sent one bishop. Pope Sylvester I , himself too aged to attend, sent two priests as his delegates. Arius himself attended the council as well as the young deacon Athanasius, who attended as an assistant to Alexander of Alexandria and who would become
854-428: The Gothic alphabet and oversaw the translation of the Bible from Greek to Gothic , which was performed by a group of scholars. The classical town was planned according to the orthogonal system. The network of streets, the forum surrounded by an Ionic colonnade and many buildings, a two-nave room later turned into a basilica and other public buildings have been uncovered. The rich architectures and sculptures show
915-505: The Homoian view, Acacius of Caesarea declared that the Son was " like the Father ". But Basil of Ancyra and his party, following a (Homoiousian) Creed of Antioch from 341, declared that the Son was of " similar substance " to the Father. The majority at Seleucia accepted the " similar substance " view and deposed the opposing party. Constantius did not accept this outcome and requested
976-585: The Roxolani and also later victories in 105. It was named Ulpia Nicopolis in his honour using his family name, or nomen . However the name Nicopolis ad Haemum was used in Ptolemy's Geographia dating from before 130. Trajan clearly intended it to become a magnificent city which is gradually being verified. The monumental character of the city however dates mainly to Hadrian and Antoninus Pius (138–161) and inscriptions found are no earlier than 136 when
1037-519: The Severan dynasty (193–235). In 198 CE, Septimius Severus and Caracalla sent a letter to the city, thanking its leaders and inhabitants for their festival celebrating the emperors' victory over the Parthians and for sending a substantial monetary gift. This gesture may have been aimed at gaining favor and securing additional privileges, such as the status of neokoros . However from about 212
1098-579: The Thervingi between the Olt , Dniester , and Danube. It is believed that he was Cappadocian Greek on his maternal line and of Gothic descent through his father. Ulfila was either raised by Goths in his childhood as a captive or was born in captivity to Cappadocian parents. No sources exist concerning Ulfila's education. However, he was a lector in a church in Gothia by age thirty, which required study of
1159-633: The Trinitarian faction ultimately gained the upper hand through the Edict of Thessalonica , issued on 27 February AD 380, which made Nicene Christology the state religion of the Roman Empire , and through strict enforcement of that edict. However, outside the Roman Empire, Arianism and other forms of Unitarianism continued to be preached for some time (without the blessing of the Empire), but it
1220-553: The 'see', or ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The Homoousians taught that the Son is of the same substance as the Father, i.e. both uncreated. The Sabellian form had been condemned as heresy in the 3rd century by Pope Calixtus. The Athanasian form would be declared orthodox at the Council of Constantinople in 383, and has become the basis of most of modern trinitarianism . According to the historian Socrates of Constantinople , Marcellus of Ancyra and Photinus taught "that Christ
1281-473: The Alexandrian diocese . By the time Bishop Alexander finally acted against his presbyter, Arius's doctrine had spread far beyond his own see; it had become a topic of discussion—and disturbance—for the entire Church. The Church was now a powerful force in the Roman world, with Constantine I having legalized it in 313 through the Edict of Milan . "Constantine desired that the church should contribute to
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#17327724541671342-615: The Bible and prepared him as a translator. Since services were rendered in the Gothic language, he may have already had both the ability to translate and read. According to Philostorgius, he was sent by the Goths during the reign of Constantine I as an ambassador to the Roman Empire, where he was consecrated as the bishop of Gothia by the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia . The Romans saw Ulfila as pontifex ipseque primas (bishop and tribal leader); Constantius II supposedly described him as
1403-470: The Danube area. The larger area of the extensive ruins (21.55 hectares) of the classical Nicopolis was not reoccupied. The south wall of the old city was reconstructed as the north wall of the new one. Its towers were built upon destroyed and abandoned buildings, and ornamented stone blocks from their facades were used in the new structures. The towers were about 15m in front of the 10m high wall. The outside of
1464-487: The Father, therefore the time obviously was when He was not, and hence He was a finite being." According to some accounts in the hagiography of Saint Nicholas , debate at the council became so heated that at one point, he slapped Arius in the face. The majority of the bishops at the council ultimately agreed upon a creed, known thereafter as the Nicene Creed formulated at the first council of Nicaea. It included
1525-452: The Gothic letters and translated the divine scriptures into that language". Walafrid Strabo wrote that "(a team of) scholars translated the sacred books". There is no primary evidence to support the traditional assumption that Ulfila translated the Bible into Gothic; the brief mentions of Ulfila as a translator in the works of ancient historians count only as circumstantial evidence. Authoritative scholarly opinion, based on rigorous analysis of
1586-541: The Roman frontier into Gothia as well. He also engaged in theological debates and subscribed to Homoeanism , which became established at the 357 Council of Sirmium . Ulfila was present at the Council of Constantinople in 360, where he endorsed the council's creed and represented the Moesian Goths as their leader. The Roman emperors during the tenure of his bishopric were generally sympathetic to Arianism, though
1647-591: The Son ("only-begotten"), who was begotten before time and created the world, and the Holy Spirit, proceeding from the Father and the Son: I, Ulfila, bishop and confessor, have always so believed, and in this, the one true faith, I make the journey to my Lord; I believe in one God the Father, the only unbegotten and invisible, and in his only-begotten son, our Lord and God, the designer and maker of all creation, having none other like him (so that one alone among all beings
1708-421: The Son of God was a Creature, made from nothing; and that he was God's First Production, before all ages. And he argued that everything else was created through the Son. Thus, said Arius, only the Son was directly created and begotten of God; furthermore, there was a time that He had no existence. He was capable of His own free will, said Arius, and thus "were He in the truest sense a son, He must have come after
1769-516: The bishop Alexander of Alexandria , when Arius formulated the following syllogism : "If the Father begat the Son, he that was begotten had a beginning of existence: hence it is that there was when the Son was not. It follows then of necessity that he had his existence from the non-existence". Bishop Alexander of Alexandria was criticised for his slow reaction against Arius. Like his predecessor, Dionysius, he has been charged with vacillation. According to Eusebius 's work, The Life of Constantine ,
1830-481: The champion of the Nicene Creed and spend most of his life battling Arianism and other form of Unitarianism . Also there were Eusebius of Caesarea and Eusebius of Nicomedia . Before the main conclave convened, Hosius initially met with Alexander and his supporters at Nicomedia . The council was presided over by the emperor himself, who participated in and even led some of its discussions. Those who upheld
1891-594: The controversy had spread from Alexandria into almost all the African regions, and was considered a disturbance of the public order by the Roman Empire. Constantine the Great (Constantine I) sent two letters to Arius and Bishop Alexander, asking the religious leaders to stop the controversy. The ongoing controversy led to Constantine's oversight of the First Council of Nicaea. Arianism would not be contained within
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1952-602: The council, including Maris and Eudoxius, agreed to a fourth view, namely the homoian (" like the Father ") view that was already agreed to at Ariminum. They made only minor modifications to the Ariminum creed. After the Council of Constantinople, the homoian bishop Acacius deposed and banished several homoiousian bishops, including Macedonius I of Constantinople , Basil, Eustathius, Eleusius of Cyzicus , Dracontius of Pergamum , Neonas of Seleucia , Sophronius of Pompeiopolis , Elpidius of Satala and Cyril of Jerusalem . At
2013-511: The emperor. However, Constantine soon found reason to suspect the sincerity of these three, for he later included them in the sentence pronounced on Arius. In 358, the emperor Constantius II requested two councils, one of the western bishops at Ariminum (now Rimini in Northern Italy ) and one of the eastern bishops at Nicomedia . In 359, the western council met at Ariminum. Ursacius of Singidunum and Valens of Mursa , following
2074-490: The era's Moses and he was additionally compared to the prophet Elijah . His first journey to Constantinople was made between 332 and 337 for the purpose of accompanying a Gothic delegation, and he possibly lived in the city for a time with Aoric . His consecration took place in either 336 or 341. Ulfila would master both Greek and Latin during his life, and as bishop he wrote theological and exegetical treatises in both languages. In 341, he returned to Gothia, spending
2135-447: The following seven years working to explain and confirm the doctrine of Arianism among existing adherents and the unconverted. His pursuits were abruptly ended in 348, when a Thervingian iudex began the persecution of Christians in the area. The exact catalyst of the persecution is unknown. Ulfila and his followers were expelled and fled to the Roman provinces, where they were accepted by Constantius II. Ulfila then established himself in
2196-459: The honorary title Ulpia was no longer used in public inscriptions which is believed to be a result of Caracalla 's displeasure with the city after his visit there in 211–212. Caracalla closed the mint and it lost its status of civitas stipendaria as well as its economic prosperity. After his death the city organised games for the new emperor and as a result it seems that the city regained its civic status, though not its full name, and re-opened
2257-479: The linguistic properties of the Gothic text, holds that the Gothic Bible was authored by a group of translators. This does not rule out the possibility that, while overseeing the translation of the Bible, Ulfila was one of several translators. The Creed of Ulfila concludes a letter praising him written by his foster son and pupil Auxentius of Durostorum . It distinguishes God the Father ("unbegotten") from God
2318-454: The minister of Christ... subject and obedient in all things to the Son; and the Son, subject and obedient in all things to God who is his Father... (whom) he ordained in the Holy Spirit through his Christ. Maximinus, a 5th-century Arian theologian, copied Auxentius's letter, among other works, into the margins of one copy of Ambrose 's De Fide ; there are some gaps in the surviving text. Arian controversy The Arian controversy
2379-803: The mint, issuing coins bearing images of its public buildings. In 250 near the city, emperor Decius defeated the Goths under Cniva at the Battle of Nicopolis ad Istrum . Nicopolis grew further as a major urban centre under Emperor Diocletian 's (284–305) reforms. Nevertheless at least the north wing of the agora was damaged during the 3rd century. Under Constantine from 306 the damaged northern agora buildings were replaced by two built with opus mixtum masonry, divided into three aisles by rows of large pillars, which may well have been horrea (warehouses), given that other nearby cities (e.g. Tropaeum and Zaldapa ) also received horrea rather than basilicas in
2440-549: The mountains near Nicopolis in Moesia Inferior , with no evidence that he would ever return north of the Danube. He had been the only religious and political leader of Christian Goths at the time of the expulsion, after which he held the honorary title of confessor . His followers were shepherds, and their descendants remained 200 years later in Nicopolis as a poor and docile community. For 33 years Ulfila continued to serve as bishop and attended church councils. Little
2501-464: The name Ulpia Nicopolis ad Istrum was in use. The new agora included a monumental ionic stoa and a sumptuous hall of unknown function. The city was ransacked by the Costoboci in 170-171, a tribe from today’s Western Ukraine, shortly after which the city walls were built. Many buildings were excluded from the walled area from this time. The city prospered again in the 2nd and 3rd centuries under
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2562-455: The new creed drafted at Sirmium (359), proposed that, " according to the scriptures ," the Son was " like the Father ." This is known as the Homoian view which held that the Bible does not reveal whether the Son is of the same substance as the Father and we, therefore, should not speculate about such things. This view is in opposition to the " of the same substance " (Homoousios) view of the Nicene Creed. The council, including some supporters of
2623-399: The notion that Christ was co-eternal and con-substantial with the Father were led by the young archdeacon Athanasius. Those who instead insisted that the Son of God came after God the Father in time and substance, were led by Arius the presbyter. For about two months, the two sides argued and debated, with each appealing to Scripture to justify their respective positions. Arius maintained that
2684-399: The older creed, accepted this proposal. After the council, Pope Liberius condemned the creed of Ariminum, while his rival, Pope Felix II , supported it. An earthquake struck Nicomedia , and in 359 the eastern council met at Seleucia Isauria instead. The council was bitterly divided and procedurally irregular, and the two parties met separately and reached opposing decisions. Following
2745-465: The same period. These horrea probably formed part of the large supply network for the Danube army helped by building a large number of horrea in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries. In 447, the town was destroyed by Attila's Huns . Perhaps it was already abandoned before the early 5th century. In about the middle of 5th century after the Huns' invasion, new high and strong walls were built adjoining
2806-641: The same time, Acacius also deposed and banished the Anomoean deacon Aëtius. In 360, Acacius appointed Eudoxius of Antioch to replace Macedonius and Athanasius of Ancyra to replace Basil, as well as Onesimus of Nicomedia to replace Cecropius, who had died in the earthquake at Nicomedia. In 361, Constantius died and Julian became sole Roman emperor. Julian demanded the restoration of several pagan temples which Christians had seized or destroyed. According to Philostorgius , pagans killed George of Laodicea , bishop of Alexandria , allowing Athanasius to reclaim
2867-631: The scriptures," without speaking of substance. Several members of the other schools, such as Hosius of Cordoba and Aëtius, also accepted certain Homoian formulae. The Heteroousians taught that the Son is of a different substance from the Father, i.e. created. Arius had taught this early in the controversy, and Aëtius would teach the later Anomoean form. Many critics of the "Nicene" Creed cannot be clearly associated with one school, often due to lack of sources, or due to contradictions between sources. Nicopolis ad Istrum Nicopolis ad Istrum ( Greek : Νικόπολις ἡ πρὸς Ἴστρον ) or Nicopolis ad Iatrum
2928-774: The situation changed near the end of his life. In 380, Theodosius I issued a law against heresy, supported the First Council of Nicaea , and deposed the Arian Demophilus of Constantinople in favor of orthodoxy. The next year, he confiscated all church property belonging to heretics and banned all heterodox religious meetings. After the convocation of the Second Ecumenical Council , the Arian bishops Palladius of Ratiaria and Secundianus of Singidunum were anathematized. Ulfila would journey with them to Constantinople upon being ordered by Theodosius to attend
2989-467: The social and moral strength of the empire, religious dissension was a menace to the public welfare." Consequently, the emperor had taken a personal interest in several ecumenical issues, including the Donatist controversy in 316. He also wanted to bring an end to the Arian dispute. To this end, the emperor sent bishop Hosius of Corduba to investigate and, if possible, resolve the controversy. Hosius
3050-402: The southern wall of the old city. It seems that by then the old walls were in poor condition and repairing them was not viable. Moreover, their considerable length of 1.8 km required more defenders than were available. The new city had an area of 1/4 of the original city enclosing little more than military buildings and churches, following a very common trend for the cities of that century in
3111-511: The text of the Gothic Bible indicates the involvement of a team of translators, possibly under his supervision. Ulfila is mentioned by the orthodox Catholics Socrates of Constantinople , Sozomen , and Theodoret , in addition to the Eunomian historian Philostorgius . He is also mentioned by the Gothic historian Jordanes , although the writer said comparatively little of him. The dominant and most important account of Ulfila's life comes from
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#17327724541673172-421: The wall was rendered with mortar with incised grooves imitating massive stone blocks. The old south gate later also underwent a major reconstruction to compensate for higher surrounding terrain as the gate was situated in a hollow. The town became an episcopal centre during the early Byzantine period. The names of two of the early bishops of the city are known: Marcellus (in 451) and Amantius (in 518). The city
3233-468: The word homoousios , meaning "consubstantial", or "same in essence ", which was incompatible with Arius' beliefs. On June 19, 325, council and emperor issued a circular to the churches in and around Alexandria: Arius and two of his unyielding partisans (Theonas and Secundus) were deposed and exiled to Illyricum , while three other supporters— Theognis of Nicaea , Eusebius of Nicomedia and Maris of Chalcedon—affixed their signatures solely out of deference to
3294-569: Was a Roman and Early Byzantine town. Its ruins are located at the village of Nikyup , 20 km north of Veliko Tarnovo in northern Bulgaria . The town reached its zenith during the reigns of Hadrian , the Antonines and the Severan dynasty . Archaeological excavations are continuing to reveal more of the city. The site was placed on the Tentative List for consideration as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1984. The site
3355-417: Was a mere man." Their opponents associated the teachings of Marcellus of Ancyra and Photinus of Sirmium with those of Sabellius and Paul of Samosata , which had been widely rejected before the controversy. The Homoiousian school taught that the Son is of a similar substance to the Father but not the same. The Homoians taught that the Son is similar to the Father, either "in all things" or "according to
3416-443: Was a series of Christian disputes about the nature of Christ that began with a dispute between Arius and Athanasius of Alexandria , two Christian theologians from Alexandria, Egypt . The most important of these controversies concerned the relationship between the substance of God the Father and the substance of His Son. Emperor Constantine , through the Council of Nicaea in 325, attempted to unite Christianity and establish
3477-556: Was armed with an open letter from the Emperor: "Wherefore let each one of you, showing consideration for the other, listen to the impartial exhortation of your fellow-servant." As the debate continued to rage despite Hosius' efforts, Constantine in AD 325 took an unprecedented step: he called an ecumenical council at Nicaea composed of church prelates from all parts of the empire to resolve this issue, possibly at Hosius' recommendation. It
3538-627: Was at the junction of the Iatrus ( Yantra ) and the Rositsa rivers, where the Roman army under Emperor Trajan had been amassed in readiness for the attack in the winter of 101–2 to the Roxolani tribe from north of the Danube and who were allied to the Dacians . The city was founded by Trajan around 102–106, as indicated on Trajan’s Column , in memory of his victory in the Dacian Wars over
3599-624: Was destroyed by the Avars and Slavs in the late 7th c. during the Avar–Byzantine wars . A small Bulgarian settlement later arose upon its ruins (9th–14th century). Nicopolis ad Istrum can be said to have been the birthplace of Germanic literary tradition. In the 4th century, the Gothic bishop, missionary and translator Ulfilas (Wulfila) obtained permission from Emperor Constantius II to immigrate with his flock of converts to Moesia and settle near Nicopolis ad Istrum in 347–348. There, he devised
3660-614: Was eventually killed off. The modern Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church , as well as most other modern Christian sects, have generally followed the Trinitarian formulation, though each has its own specific theology on the matter. The early history of the controversy must be pieced together from about 35 documents found in various sources. The Trinitarian historian Socrates of Constantinople reports that Arius first became controversial under
3721-399: Was similar to Arius' teachings, namely that the Son was of " a dissimilar substance " from the Father. The Heteroousians (" dissimilar substance ") won the victory over the other two views in an initial debate. However, Constantius was not willing to accept this outcome either. He intervened and banished Aëtius; one of the leading proponents of the " dissimilar substance " view. After this,
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