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74-540: The first large peat -fired thermal power station in Russia was built on a location about 80 km away from Moscow , in the place of the current city of Elektrogorsk , during 1912-1914. It was called Elektroperedacha (literally " electric power transmission "), and the settlement around the station (future Elektrogorsk) acquired this name, Elektroperedacha, as well. Today the station is called GRES-3 or Elektrogorskaya GRES . The abbreviations below are commonly used in

148-467: A carbon sink in regard to the global carbon cycle , playing a role in biogeochemistry , climate change mitigation , and constructing global climate models . Microorganisms play an important role in breaking down carbon in the soil. Changes in their activity due to rising temperatures could possibly influence and even contribute to climate change. Human activities have caused a massive loss of soil organic carbon. For example, anthropogenic fires destroy

222-538: A European network" ( Ecological Indicators 24, pp. 439–450), a comparison of national data with modelled data is performed. The LUCAS soil organic carbon data are measured surveyed points and the aggregated results at regional level show important findings. Finally, a new proposed model for estimation of soil organic carbon in agricultural soils has estimated current top SOC stock of 17.63 Gt in EU agricultural soils. This modelling framework has been updated by integrating

296-506: A form of erosion that occur at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat; they sometimes also occur in isolation. Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action

370-577: A result of climate , organisms , parent material , time, and relief. The greatest contemporary influence has been that of humans; for example, carbon in Australian agricultural soils may historically have been twice the present range that is typically 1.6–4.6%. It has long been encouraged that farmers adjust practices to maintain or increase the organic component in the soil. On one hand, practices that hasten oxidation of carbon (such as burning crop stubbles or over-cultivation) are discouraged; on

444-496: A result of peat drainage, the organic carbon—which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater—is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which is released into the atmosphere. The global CO 2 emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries, of which Indonesia , Malaysia and Papua New Guinea are

518-490: A small increase in carbon dioxide uptake, meaning that it contributes to the permafrost carbon feedback . Under 2 °C global warming , 0.7 million km of peatland permafrost could thaw, and with warming of +1.5 to 6 °C a cumulative 0.7 to 3 PgC of methane could be released as a result of permafrost peatland thaw by 2100. The forcing from these potential emissions would be approximately equivalent to 1% of projected anthropogenic emissions. One characteristic of peat

592-539: A tenth of the total permafrost area, and also a tenth (185 ± 66 Gt) of all permafrost carbon, equivalent to around half of the carbon stored in the atmosphere. Dry peat is a good insulator (with a thermal conductivity of around 0.25 Wm K ) and therefore plays an important role in protecting permafrost from thaw. The insulating effect of dry peat also makes it integral to unique permafrost landforms such as palsas and permafrost peat plateaus. Peatland permafrost thaw tends to result in an increase in methane emissions and

666-659: Is Shatura Power Station (peat-fired, planned already in 1914). The first GRES were constructed upon the initiative of power engineer Robert Klasson . Peat Peatlands, particularly bogs , are the primary source of peat; although less common, other wetlands, including fens , pocosins and peat swamp forests , also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants, including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs and sedges . Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows

740-401: Is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO 2 storage than the original peat bog. Soil carbon Soil carbon is the solid carbon stored in global soils . This includes both soil organic matter and inorganic carbon as carbonate minerals . It is vital to the soil capacity in our ecosystem. Soil carbon is

814-487: Is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands. Centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of CO 2 into the atmosphere, and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change . Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including mosses , sedges and shrubs. As it accumulates,

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888-477: Is available in considerable quantities. It is burned to produce heat and electricity . Peat provides around 4% of Finland's annual energy production. Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO 2 annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it

962-956: Is critical for terrestrial organisms and is one of the most important carbon pools, with the majority of carbon stored in forests. Biotic factors include photosynthetic assimilation of fixed carbon, decomposition of biomass, and the activities of diverse communities of soil organisms. Climate, landscape dynamics, fires, and mineralogy are some of the important abiotic factors. Anthropogenic factors have increasingly changed soil carbon distributions. Industrial nitrogen fixation, agricultural practices, and land use and other management practices are some anthropogenic activities that have altered soil carbon. Soil carbon distribution and accumulation arises from complex and dynamic processes influenced by biotic, abiotic, and anthropogenic factors. Although exact quantities are difficult to measure, soil carbon has been lost through land use changes, deforestation, and agricultural practices. While many environmental factors affect

1036-551: Is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland , peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period. For industrial uses, companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed. In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors. The most essential property of peat

1110-423: Is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed. Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis , and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat. Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil

1184-712: Is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0.81 and 2.57 gigatonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons; 0.80 and 2.53 billion long tons) of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998. More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above

1258-436: Is fixed in the soil by plant uptakes. This accounts for the majority of the soil organic matter (SOM) in the ground, and creates a large storage pool (around 1500 Pg) for carbon in just the first few meters of soil and 20-40% of that organic carbon has a residence life exceeding 100 years. Soil organic carbon is divided between living soil biota and dead biotic material derived from biomass. Together these comprise

1332-563: Is higher in silt and clay sized fractions than in sand sized fractions, and is generally highest in the clay sized fractions. Organic carbon is vital to soil capacity to provide edaphic ecosystem services . The condition of this capacity is termed soil health , a term that communicates the value of understanding soil as a living system as opposed to an abiotic component . Specific carbon related benchmarks used to evaluate soil health include CO 2 release, humus levels, and microbial metabolic activity. The exchange of carbon between soils and

1406-474: Is important for calculating SOC stocks and higher SOC concentrations increase SOC stocks but the effect will be somewhat reduced by the decrease in bulk density. Soil organic carbon increased the cation exchange capacity (CEC), a measure of soil fertility , in sandy soils. SOC was higher in sandy soils with higher pH. found that up to 76% of the variation in CEC was caused by SOC, and up to 95% of variation in CEC

1480-483: Is problematic because it exhibits poor consolidation properties—it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings. In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they say are the same) as the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over 4 million square kilometres [1.5 million square miles] or 3% of

1554-850: Is retained as humus . Cellulose and starches readily degrade, resulting in short residence times. More persistent forms of organic C include lignin, humus, organic matter encapsulated in soil aggregates, and charcoal. These resist alteration and have long residence times. Soil organic carbon tends to be concentrated in the topsoil. Topsoil ranges from 0.5% to 3.0% organic carbon for most upland soils. Soils with less than 0.5% organic C are mostly limited to desert areas. Soils containing greater than 12–18% organic carbon are generally classified as organic soils . High levels of organic C develop in soils supporting wetland ecology , flood deposition , fire ecology , and human activity . Fire derived forms of carbon are present in most soils as unweathered charcoal and weathered black carbon . Soil organic carbon

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1628-506: Is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess water from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself—it is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin. Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew , England, since 2003. While bark or coir -based peat-free potting soil mixes are on

1702-635: Is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria . It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have many other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger ; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants and fishes' reproductive health. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains

1776-769: Is taken. In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for five years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations. In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on

1850-565: Is the average depth of the boreal [northern] peatlands", which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO 2 emissions). Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all soil carbon , which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests, although it covers just 3% of the land's surface. Peat is not a renewable source of energy , due to its extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of 1 mm (0.04 in) per year, and as it

1924-401: Is the bioaccumulation of metals concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern. Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry and peat extraction (i.e. through canals ). This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change. As

1998-407: Is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet , because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the "annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition", but it takes "thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of 1.5 to 2.3 m [4.9 to 7.5 ft], which

2072-601: Is typically 5–50% derived from char, with levels above 50% encountered in mollisol , chernozem , and terra preta soils. Root exudates are another source of soil carbon. 5–20% of the total plant carbon fixed during photosynthesis is supplied as root exudates in support of rhizospheric mutualistic biota . Microbial populations are typically higher in the rhizosphere than in adjacent bulk soil . Soil organic carbon (SOC) concentrations in sandy soils influence soil bulk density which decreases with an increase in SOC. Bulk density

2146-456: The "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making" . This publication aims to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind. In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change , summarising the currently available knowledge on

2220-619: The European Soil Database in combination with associated databases on land cover , climate, and topography . The modelled data refer to carbon content (%) in the surface horizon of soils in Europe. In an inventory on available national datasets, seven member states of the European Union have available datasets on organic carbon. In the article "Estimating soil organic carbon in Europe based on data collected through

2294-819: The Falkland Islands and Indonesia ( Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya ( West Kalimantan ) and Sumatra ). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) per year. A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands. About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry . Under certain conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time. Peat can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally, peat

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2368-566: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's good practice guidance. Tropical deforestation represents nearly 25% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions worldwide. Deforestation, forest degradation, and changes in land management practices can cause releases of carbon from soil to the atmosphere. For these reasons, reliable estimates of soil organic carbon stock and stock changes are needed for Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and GHG reporting under

2442-996: The West Siberian Lowland , the Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Mackenzie River Valley. There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. The world's largest tropical peatland is located in Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo). In addition, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern Patagonia / Tierra del Fuego ) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape. Peat can be found in New Zealand , Kerguelen ,

2516-401: The atmosphere , and 600 GtC in all living organisms . The oceanic pool of carbon accounts for 38,200 GtC. About 60 GtC/yr accumulates in the soil. This 60 GtC/yr is the balance of 120 GtC/yr contracted from the atmosphere by terrestrial plant photosynthesis reduced by 60 GtC/yr of plant respiration . An equivalent 60 GtC/yr is respired from soil, joining

2590-404: The soil food web , with the living component sustained by the biotic material component. Soil biota includes earthworms , nematodes , protozoa , fungi , bacteria and different arthropods . Detritus resulting from plant senescence is the major source of soil organic carbon. Plant materials, with cell walls high in cellulose and lignin , are decomposed and the not- respired carbon

2664-597: The tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as by the antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan. A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark. Having been discovered in 1950 after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, he was exhumed for scientific purposes and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC. Before that, another bog body, the Elling Woman , had been discovered in 1938 in

2738-437: The 2,700 Gt of carbon stored in soils worldwide, 1550 GtC is organic and 950 GtC is inorganic carbon, which is approximately three times greater than the current atmospheric carbon and 240 times higher compared with the current annual fossil fuel emission. The balance of soil carbon is held in peat and wetlands (150 GtC), and in plant litter at the soil surface (50 GtC). This compares to 780 GtC in

2812-459: The 60 GtC/yr plant respiration to return to the atmosphere. Climate change is a leading factor in soil formation as well as in its development of chemical and physical properties. Therefore, changes in climate will impact the soil in many ways that are still are not fully understood, but changes in fertility, salinity , moisture . temperature , SOC, sequestration , aggregation etc. are predicted. In 1996, Least-Limiting Water Range (LLWR)

2886-595: The UNFCCC. The government of Tanzania —together with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the financial support of the government of Finland —have implemented a forest soil carbon monitoring program to estimate soil carbon stock, using both survey and modelling-based methods. West Africa has experienced significant loss of forest that contains high levels of soil organic carbon. This

2960-548: The West Siberian peatland. Palsa mires have a rich bird life and are an EU-red listed habitat, and in Canada riparian peat banks are used as maternity sites for polar bears. Natural peatlands also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants. For more on biological communities, see wetland , bog or fen . Around half of the area of northern peatlands is permafrost -affected, and this area represents around

3034-415: The abbreviation has lost its literal meaning, and the term refers to a high-power (thousands of megawatt ) thermal power station of condenser type. The term TEC or TETs ( Russian : ТЭЦ, теплоэлектроцентраль ) refers to combined heat and power plants . The Soviet GOELRO plan of 1920s provided for construction of several GRES (along with 20 TEC and 10 hydroelectrostations , the best known among them

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3108-493: The atmosphere is a significant part of the world carbon cycle. Carbon, as it relates to the organic matter of soils, is a major component of soil and catchment health. Several factors affect the variation that exists in soil organic matter and soil carbon; the most significant has, in contemporary times, been the influence of humans and agricultural systems. Although exact quantities are difficult to measure, human activities have caused massive losses of soil organic carbon. First

3182-522: The bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production. Most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age . Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year. The estimated carbon content is 415 gigatonnes (457 billion short tons) (northern peatlands), 50 Gt (55 billion short tons) ( tropical peatlands ) and 15 Gt (17 billion short tons) (South America). Peat material

3256-550: The capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket . The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010. In June 2019, despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place, peat fires in the Arctic emitted 50 megatonnes (55 million short tons; 49 million long tons) of CO 2 , which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions. The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect. Peat "hags" are

3330-428: The concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981. In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed

3404-407: The fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/CO 2 -eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/CO 2 -eq./yr, the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton), the world's second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland CO 2 (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total CO 2 emissions from

3478-603: The ground. In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades . Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization. In the summer of 2010, an unusually high heat wave of up to 40 °C (104 °F) ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering

3552-820: The interpretation of what constitutes soil health; nonetheless, several benefits are proposed in the following points: Forest soils constitute a large pool of carbon. Anthropogenic activities such as deforestation cause releases of carbon from this pool, which may significantly increase the concentration of greenhouse gas (GHG) in the atmosphere . Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), countries must estimate and report GHG emissions and removals, including changes in carbon stocks in all five pools (above- and below-ground biomass, dead wood, litter, and soil carbon) and associated emissions and removals from land use, land-use change and forestry activities, according to

3626-604: The land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from

3700-509: The main source of water for large cities, including Dublin. Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages , being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour. Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires. Peat

3774-681: The names of power stations. The term GRES ( Russian : ГРЭС ( Г осударственная Р айонная Э лектро с танция) , lit.   'State Regional Power Station', Ukrainian : ДРЕС , romanized :  DRES ) refers to a condenser type electricity-only thermal power station introduced in the Soviet Union which still exist in Russia and other former Soviet republics. The Russian abbreviation ГРЭС stands for Государственная районная электростанция, or "state-owned district power plant" (often abbreviated in English as SDPP ). Over time

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3848-475: The other hand, incorporation of organic material (such as in manuring ) has been encouraged. Increasing soil carbon is not a straightforward matter; it is made complex by the relative activity of soil biota, which can consume and release carbon and are made more active by the addition of nitrogen fertilizers . The most homogeneous and comprehensive data on the organic carbon/matter content of European soils remain those that can be extracted and/or derived from

3922-540: The peat archives. In Quaternary Palaeoecology , first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place." Scientists continue to compare modern mercury (Hg) accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate

3996-433: The peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges and raised bogs . The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins , which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring

4070-683: The potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury, for example. Over the years, different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100–150 years, have been used, including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb, the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-SMS), and more recently the initial penetration (IP). Naturally mummified human bodies, often called " bog bodies " have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by

4144-441: The presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer. Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering

4218-545: The reconstruction of past environments and the study of land-use changes. Peat is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world, but this is being banned in some places. By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world. Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal , particularly low-grade coal such as lignite . The peatland ecosystem covers 3.7 million square kilometres (1.4 million square miles) and

4292-614: The rewetting of peatlands and revegetation of native species. This acts to mitigate carbon release in the short term before the new growth of vegetation provides a new source of organic litter to fuel the peat formation in the long term. UNEP is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia. Latvia has been the biggest exporter of peat in the world by volume, providing more than 19.9% of the world's volume, followed only by Canada with 13% in 2022. In 2020, Latvia exported 1.97 million tons of peat, followed by Germany with 1.5 and Canada with 1.42 million tons. Nevertheless, although first in

4366-625: The rise, particularly in the UK, peat is still used as raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States. Peatland can also be an essential source of drinking water , providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs . In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are

4440-628: The same bog about 60 metres (200 ft) from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was a ritual sacrifice. In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits. The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example, whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands, whilst Siberian cranes nest in

4514-435: The soil erosion component to estimate the lateral carbon fluxes. Much of the contemporary literature on soil carbon relates to its role, or potential, as an atmospheric carbon sink to offset climate change . Despite this emphasis, a much wider range of soil and catchment health aspects are improved as soil carbon is increased. These benefits are difficult to quantify, due to the complexity of natural resource systems and

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4588-511: The state whilst 23% belong to the municipalities Bogs in Latvia are considered important habitats due to their ecological values, and up to 128,000 hectares, or 40% of the areas in the territory, are protected by environmental laws. The most famous national parks and reserves are the Ķemeri National Park , Cenas tīrelis and Teiči Nature Reserve . The climate, geography and environment of Finland favours bog and peat bog formation. Thus, peat

4662-605: The top layer of the soil, exposing soil to excessive oxidation. Soil carbon is present in two forms: inorganic and organic. Soil inorganic carbon consists of mineral forms of carbon, either from weathering of parent material , or from reaction of soil minerals with atmospheric CO 2 . Carbonate minerals are the dominant form of soil carbon in desert climates . Soil organic carbon is present as soil organic matter . It includes relatively available carbon as fresh plant remains and relatively inert carbon in materials derived from plant remains: humus and charcoal . Soil carbon

4736-513: The topic. In 2010, IPS presented a " Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management ", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making. Peat extraction is forbidden in Chile since April 2024. Often, restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover. Rehabilitation projects undertaken in North America and Europe usually focus on

4810-425: The total stored carbon in terrestrial ecosystems, in general, primary production and decomposition are the main drivers in balancing the total amount of stored carbon on land. Atmospheric CO 2 is taken up by photosynthetic organisms and stored as organic matter in terrestrial ecosystems. Although exact quantities are difficult to measure, human activities have caused substantial losses of soil organic carbon. Of

4884-410: The tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions. A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP, based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4.23 million square kilometres (1.63 million square miles) approximately 2.84% of

4958-812: The water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Utricularia (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily , toothache grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence and absence of fire. The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than 50 billion tonnes (55 billion short tons; 49 billion long tons) of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels. Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040. It

5032-770: The water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins . Peat is widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids . Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries, including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds , poultices and suspension baths . Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described

5106-436: The world by volume, in monetary terms, Latvian comes second in the world behind Canada . As an example, Latvia's income from exports was US$ 237 million. Latvia's peat deposits have been estimated to equal 1.7 billion tons. Latvia, as Finland due its climate has several peat bogs, which account for 9.9% of the country's territory. More than two thirds of the licensed areas for peat extraction are state-owned; 55% belong to

5180-479: The world land area. In Europe, peatlands extend to about 515,000 km (199,000 sq mi). About 60% of the world's wetlands are made of peat. Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include

5254-466: The worldwide 500,000 km of degraded peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires), which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions. Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain. Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present. Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by

5328-447: Was attributed to SOC and pH. Soil organic matter and specific surface area has been shown to account for 97% of variation in CEC whereas clay content accounts for 58%. Soil organic carbon increased with an increase in silt and clay content. The silt and clay size fractions have the ability to protect SOC in soil aggregates. When organic matter decomposes, the organic matter binds with silt and clay forming aggregates. Soil organic carbon

5402-770: Was created to quantify the physical changes in soil. This indicator measures changes in available water capacity , soil structure , air filed porosity, soil strength, and oxygen diffusion rate. Changes in LLWR are known to alter ecosystems but it's to a different capacity in each region. For example, in polar regions where temperatures are more susceptible to drastic changes, melting permafrost can expose more land which leads to higher rates of plant growth and eventually, higher carbon absorption. In contrast, tropical environments experience worsening soil quality because soil aggregation levels decrease with higher temperatures. Soil also has carbon sequestration abilities where carbon dioxide

5476-684: Was the use of fire , which removes soil cover and leads to immediate and continuing losses of soil organic carbon. Tillage and drainage both expose soil organic matter to oxygen and oxidation. In the Netherlands , East Anglia , Florida , and the California Delta , subsidence of peat lands from oxidation has been severe as a result of tillage and drainage. Grazing management that exposes soil (through either excessive or insufficient recovery periods) can also cause losses of soil organic carbon. Natural variations in soil carbon occur as

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