Total Information Awareness ( TIA ) was a mass detection program by the United States Information Awareness Office . It operated under this title from February to May 2003 before being renamed Terrorism Information Awareness .
112-398: Based on the concept of predictive policing , TIA was meant to correlate detailed information about people in order to anticipate and prevent terrorist incidents before execution. The program modeled specific information sets in the hunt for terrorists around the globe. Admiral John Poindexter called it a " Manhattan Project for counter-terrorism ". According to Senator Ron Wyden , TIA was
224-432: A data modeling construct for the relational model, and the difference between the two has become irrelevant. The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing . The new computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE . The dBASE product was lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne Ratliff , the creator of dBASE, stated: "dBASE
336-484: A 1962 report by the System Development Corporation of California as the first to use the term "data-base" in a specific technical sense. As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman , author of one such product,
448-432: A T-shaped path from various angles. The University of Southampton 's Department of Electronics and Computer Science was developing an "automatic gait recognition" system and was in charge of compiling a database to test it. The University of Texas at Dallas was compiling a database to test facial systems. The data included a set of nine static pictures taken from different viewpoints, a video of each subject looking around
560-597: A campaign to terminate TIA's implementation, claiming that it would "kill privacy in America" because "every aspect of our lives would be catalogued". The San Francisco Chronicle criticized the program for "Fighting terror by terrifying U.S. citizens". Still, in 2013 former Director of National Intelligence James Clapper lied about a massive data collection on US citizens and others. Edward Snowden said that because of Clapper's lie he lost hope to change things formally. Predictive policing Predictive policing
672-404: A company often contracted out by the government for work on defense projects. TIA was officially commissioned during the 2002 fiscal year . In January 2002 Poindexter was appointed Director of the newly created Information Awareness Office division of DARPA, which managed TIA's development. The office temporarily operated out of the fourth floor of DARPA's headquarters, while Poindexter looked for
784-531: A conceptual method by which the government could sift through massive amounts of data becoming available via digitization and draw important conclusions. TIA was proposed as a program shortly after the September 11 attacks in 2001, by Rear Admiral John Poindexter . A former national security adviser to President Ronald Reagan and a key player in the Iran–Contra affair , he was working with Syntek Technologies,
896-440: A custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. Since DBMSs comprise a significant market , computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans. Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that they support (such as relational or XML ),
1008-426: A database containing criminal records, a phone call database and a foreign intelligence database. The Web is considered an "unstructured public data source" because it is publicly accessible and contains many different types of data—blogs, emails, records of visits to websites, etc.—all of which need to be analyzed and stored efficiently. Another goal was to develop "a large, distributed system architecture for managing
1120-443: A database management system. Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be classified into four main functional groups: Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database model . "Database system" refers collectively to the database model, database management system, and database. Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold
1232-404: A database. One way to classify databases involves the type of their contents, for example: bibliographic , document-text, statistical, or multimedia objects. Another way is by their application area, for example: accounting, music compositions, movies, banking, manufacturing, or insurance. A third way is by some technical aspect, such as the database structure or interface type. This section lists
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#17327837290521344-543: A different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R. Though Oracle V1 implementations were completed in 1978, it was not until Oracle Version 2 when Ellison beat IBM to market in 1979. Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres, which is now known as PostgreSQL . PostgreSQL is often used for global mission-critical applications (the .org and .info domain name registries use it as their primary data store , as do many large companies and financial institutions). In Sweden, Codd's paper
1456-463: A different type of entity . Only in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus applications). By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing applications, and as of 2018 they remain dominant: IBM Db2 , Oracle , MySQL , and Microsoft SQL Server are the most searched DBMS . The dominant database language, standardized SQL for
1568-423: A few of the adjectives used to characterize different kinds of databases. Connolly and Begg define database management system (DBMS) as a "software system that enables users to define, create, maintain and control access to the database." Examples of DBMS's include MySQL , MariaDB , PostgreSQL , Microsoft SQL Server , Oracle Database , and Microsoft Access . The DBMS acronym is sometimes extended to indicate
1680-623: A place to permanently house TIA's researchers. Soon Project Genoa was completed and its research moved on to Genoa II . Late that year, the Information Awareness Office awarded the Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) a $ 19 million contract to develop the "Information Awareness Prototype System", the core architecture to integrate all of TIA's information extraction, analysis, and dissemination tools. This
1792-556: A predictive policing system. Zhejiang and Guangdong had established prediction and prevention of telecommunication fraud through the real-time collection and surveillance of suspicious online or telecommunication activities and the collaboration with private companies such as the Alibaba Group for the identification of potential suspects. The predictive policing and crime prevention operation involves forewarning to specific victims, with 9,120 warning calls being made in 2018 by
1904-458: A result of negative environmental conditions. Artificial intelligence can be used to minimize crime by addressing the identified demands. At the conclusion of intense combat operations in April 2003, Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) were dispersed throughout Iraq’s streets. These devices were deployed to monitor and counteract U.S. military activities using predictive policing tactics. However,
2016-617: A room, a video of the subject speaking, and one or more videos of the subject showing facial expressions. Colorado State University developed multiple systems for identification via facial recognition. Columbia University participated in implementing HumanID in poor weather. The bio-surveillance project was designed to predict and respond to bioterrorism by monitoring non-traditional data sources such as animal sentinels, behavioral indicators, and pre-diagnostic medical data. It would leverage existing disease models, identify abnormal health early indicators, and mine existing databases to determine
2128-724: A series of dedicated nodes . INSCOM was to house TIA's hardware in Fort Belvoir , Virginia . Companies contracted to work on TIA included the Science Applications International Corporation , Booz Allen Hamilton , Lockheed Martin Corporation , Schafer Corporation, SRS Technologies , Adroit Systems, CACI Dynamic Systems, ASI Systems International, and Syntek Technologies. Universities enlisted to assist with research and development included Berkeley , Colorado State , Carnegie Mellon , Columbia , Cornell , Dallas , Georgia Tech , Maryland , MIT , and Southampton . TIA's goal
2240-449: A set of operations based on the mathematical system of relational calculus (from which the model takes its name). Splitting the data into a set of normalized tables (or relations ) aimed to ensure that each "fact" was only stored once, thus simplifying update operations. Virtual tables called views could present the data in different ways for different users, but views could not be directly updated. Codd used mathematical terms to define
2352-424: A shooting may occur, where the next car will be broken into, and who the next crime victim will be. Algorithms are produced by taking into account these factors, which consist of large amounts of data that can be analyzed. The use of algorithms creates a more effective approach that speeds up the process of predictive policing since it can quickly factor in different variables to produce an automated outcome. From
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#17327837290522464-447: A single large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a standardized query language – SQL – had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as SQL/DS , and, later, Database 2 ( IBM Db2 ). Larry Ellison 's Oracle Database (or more simply, Oracle ) started from
2576-452: A strong demand for massively distributed databases with high partition tolerance, but according to the CAP theorem , it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide consistency , availability, and partition tolerance guarantees. A distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time, but not all three. For that reason, many NoSQL databases are using what
2688-454: A time by navigating the links, they would use a declarative query language that expressed what data was required, rather than the access path by which it should be found. Finding an efficient access path to the data became the responsibility of the database management system, rather than the application programmer. This process, called query optimization, depended on the fact that queries were expressed in terms of mathematical logic. Codd's paper
2800-444: A treadmill. Four separate 11-second gaits were tested for each: slow walk, fast walk, inclined, and carrying a ball. The University of Maryland 's Institute for Advanced Computer Studies' research focused on recognizing people at a distance by gait and face. Also to be used were infrared and five-degree-of-freedom cameras. Tests included filming 38 male and 6 female subjects of different ethnicities and physical features walking along
2912-960: Is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency. NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide the same scalable performance of NoSQL systems for online transaction processing (read-write) workloads while still using SQL and maintaining the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system. Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers (see Enterprise software ). Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data, such as engineering data or economic models. Examples include computerized library systems, flight reservation systems , computerized parts inventory systems , and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages in
3024-574: Is claimed to be unbiased data, communities of color and low income are the most targeted. It should also be noted that not all crime is reported, making the data faulty and inaccurate. In 2020, following protests against police brutality , a group of mathematicians published a letter in Notices of the American Mathematical Society urging colleagues to stop work on predictive policing. Over 1,500 other mathematicians joined
3136-515: Is classified by IBM as a hierarchical database . IDMS and Cincom Systems ' TOTAL databases are classified as network databases. IMS remains in use as of 2014 . Edgar F. Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California , in one of their offshoot offices that were primarily involved in the development of hard disk systems. He was unhappy with the navigational model of the CODASYL approach, notably
3248-436: Is designed to link items relating potential "terrorist" groups and scenarios, and to learn patterns of different groups or scenarios to identify new organizations and emerging threats. Wargaming the asymmetric environment (WAE) focused on developing automated technology that could identify predictive indicators of terrorist activity or impending attacks by examining individual and group behavior in broad environmental context and
3360-583: Is no other comparably comprehensive and institutionalized system of citizen assessment in the West. The increase in collecting and assessing aggregate public and private information by China’s police force to analyze past crime and forecast future criminal activity is part of the government’s mission to promote social stability by converting intelligence-led policing (i.e. effectively using information) into informatization (i.e. using information technologies) of policing. The increase in employment of big data through
3472-615: Is operated by the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission . In Europe there has been significant pushback against predictive policing and the broader use of artificial intelligence in policing on both a national and European Union level. The Danish POL-INTEL project has been operational since 2017 and is based on the Gotham system from Palantir Technologies . The Gotham system has also been used by German state police and Europol . Predictive policing has been used in
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3584-462: Is organized. Because of the close relationship between them, the term "database" is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it. Outside the world of professional information technology , the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index) as size and usage requirements typically necessitate use of
3696-421: Is still pursued in certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle ( Exadata ). IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in the early 1970s. The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in
3808-404: Is the basis of query optimization. There is no loss of expressiveness compared with the hierarchic or network models, though the connections between tables are no longer so explicit. In the hierarchic and network models, records were allowed to have a complex internal structure. For example, the salary history of an employee might be represented as a "repeating group" within the employee record. In
3920-529: Is the usage of mathematics, predictive analytics , and other analytical techniques in law enforcement to identify potential criminal activity. A report published by the RAND Corporation identified four general categories predictive policing methods fall into: methods for predicting crimes, methods for predicting offenders, methods for predicting perpetrators' identities, and methods for predicting victims of crime. Predictive policing uses data on
4032-667: The Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the Database Task Group within CODASYL , the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL . In 1971, the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the CODASYL approach , and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market. The CODASYL approach offered applications
4144-599: The Michigan Terminal System . The system remained in production until 1998. In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made to build database systems with integrated hardware and software. The underlying philosophy was that such integration would provide higher performance at a lower cost. Examples were IBM System/38 , the early offering of Teradata , and the Britton Lee, Inc. database machine. Another approach to hardware support for database management
4256-471: The NSA call database , internet histories, or bank records). EELD was designed to design systems with the ability to extract data from multiple sources (e.g., text messages, social networking sites, financial records, and web pages). It was to develop the ability to detect patterns comprising multiple types of links between data items or communications (e.g., financial transactions, communications, travel, etc.). It
4368-608: The School of Computer Science ) worked on dynamic face recognition. The research focused primarily on the extraction of body biometric features from video and identifying subjects from those features. To conduct its studies, the university created databases of synchronized multi-camera video sequences of body motion, human faces under a wide range of imaging conditions, AU coded expression videos, and hyperspectal and polarimetric images of faces. The video sequences of body motion data consisted of six separate viewpoints of 25 subjects walking on
4480-702: The United States Senate voted to limit TIA by restricting its ability to gather information from emails and the commercial databases of health, financial and travel companies. According to the Consolidated Appropriations Resolution, 2003, Pub. L. No. 108-7, Division M, § 111(b) passed in February, the Defense Department was given 90 days to compile a report laying out a schedule of TIA's development and
4592-482: The University of California, Berkeley were given grants to work on TIDES. Communicator was to develop "dialogue interaction" technology to enable warfighters to talk to computers, such that information would be accessible on the battlefield or in command centers without a keyboard-based interface. Communicator was to be wireless, mobile, and to function in a networked environment. The dialogue interaction software
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4704-626: The War on Terror . In October 2005, the SAIC signed a $ 3.7 million contract for work on Topsail. In early 2006 a spokesman for the Air Force Research Laboratory said that Topsail was "in the process of being canceled due to lack of funds". When asked about Topsail in a Senate Intelligence Committee hearing that February, both National Intelligence Director John Negroponte and FBI Director Robert Mueller said they did not know
4816-521: The Zhongshan police force along with direct interception of over 13,000 telephone calls and over 30,000 text messages in 2017. Substance-related crime is also investigated in Guangdong, specifically the Zhongshan police force who were the first city in 2017 to utilize wastewater analysis and data models that included water and electricity usage to locate hotspots for drug crime. This method led to
4928-434: The database models that they support. Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s. These model data as rows and columns in a series of tables , and the vast majority use SQL for writing and querying data. In the 2000s, non-relational databases became popular, collectively referred to as NoSQL , because they use different query languages . Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data accessed through
5040-471: The hierarchical model and the CODASYL model ( network model ). These were characterized by the use of pointers (often physical disk addresses) to follow relationships from one record to another. The relational model , first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd , departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for
5152-514: The "biggest surveillance program in the history of the United States". Congress defunded the Information Awareness Office in late 2003 after media reports criticized the government for attempting to establish "Total Information Awareness" over all citizens. Although the program was formally suspended, other government agencies later adopted some of its software with only superficial changes. TIA's core architecture continued development under
5264-622: The 1980s and early 1990s. The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming , saw a growth in how data in various databases were handled. Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects . That is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data. This allows for relations between data to be related to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields. The term " object–relational impedance mismatch " described
5376-626: The AI-powered mobile application 'Trinetra' for facial recognition and criminal tracking. Predictive policing faces issues that affect its effectiveness. Obioha mentions several concerns raised about predictive policing. High costs and limited use prevent more widespread use, especially among poorer countries. Another issue that affects predictive policing is that it relies on human input to determine patterns. Flawed data can lead to biased and possibly racist results. Technology cannot predict crime, it can only weaponize proximity to policing. Though it
5488-517: The Carceral State, the data entered into predictive policing algorithms to predict where crimes will occur or who is likely to commit criminal activity, tends to contain information that has been impacted by racism. For example, the inclusion of arrest or incarceration history, neighborhood of residence, level of education, membership in gangs or organized crime groups, 911 call records, among other features, can produce algorithms that suggest
5600-528: The Department of Defense involving a proposal to reward investors who predicted terrorist attacks, Poindexter resigned from office on 29 August. On September 30, 2003, Congress officially cut off TIA's funding and the Information Awareness Office (with the Senate voting unanimously against it) because of its unpopular perception by the general public and the media. Senators Ron Wyden and Byron Dorgan led
5712-684: The Netherlands . In the United States , the practice of predictive policing has been implemented by police departments in several states such as California, Washington, South Carolina, Alabama, Arizona, Tennessee, New York, and Illinois. In New York, the NYPD has begun implementing a new crime tracking program called Patternizr . The goal of the Patternizr was to help aid police officers in identifying commonalities in crimes committed by
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#17327837290525824-534: The Santa Cruz City Council voted in favor of a complete ban on the use of predictive policing technology. Accompanying the ban on predictive policing, was a similar prohibition of facial recognition technology . Facial recognition technology has been criticized for its reduced accuracy on darker skin tones - which can contribute to cases of mistaken identity and potentially, wrongful convictions . In 2019, Michael Oliver, of Detroit, Michigan ,
5936-628: The University of Michigan began development of the MICRO Information Management System based on D.L. Childs ' Set-Theoretic Data model. MICRO was used to manage very large data sets by the US Department of Labor , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , and researchers from the University of Alberta , the University of Michigan , and Wayne State University . It ran on IBM mainframe computers using
6048-539: The ability to navigate around a linked data set which was formed into a large network. Applications could find records by one of three methods: Later systems added B-trees to provide alternate access paths. Many CODASYL databases also added a declarative query language for end users (as distinct from the navigational API ). However, CODASYL databases were complex and required significant training and effort to produce useful applications. IBM also had its own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS
6160-438: The actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large-volume transaction processing environments . DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications . DBMSs may be built around
6272-469: The arrest of 341 suspects in 45 different criminal investigations by 2019. In China , Suzhou Police Bureau has adopted predictive policing since 2013. During 2015–2018, several cities in China have adopted predictive policing. China has used predictive policing to identify and target people for sent to Xinjiang internment camps . The integrated joint operations platform (IJOP) predictive policing system
6384-542: The available database technology at the time was insufficient for storing and organizing such enormous quantities of data. So they developed techniques for virtual data aggregation to support effective analysis across heterogeneous databases, as well as unstructured public data sources, such as the World Wide Web . "Effective analysis across heterogenous databases" means the ability to take things from databases which are designed to store different types of data—such as
6496-455: The bio-surveillance project). A set of audit logs were to be kept, which would track whether innocent Americans' communications were getting caught up in relevant data. The term total information awareness was first coined at the 1999 annual DARPAtech conference in a presentation by the deputy director of the Office of Information Systems Management, Brian Sharkey. Sharkey applied the phrase to
6608-702: The code name "Basketball". According to a 2012 New York Times article, TIA's legacy was "quietly thriving" at the National Security Agency (NSA). TIA was intended to be a five-year research project by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ). The goal was to integrate components from previous and new government intelligence and surveillance programs, including Genoa , Genoa II , Genisys, SSNA, EELD, WAE, TIDES, Communicator, HumanID and Bio-Surveillance, with data mining knowledge gleaned from
6720-521: The concerns of communities, wisely allocate resources to times and places, and prevent victimization. Police may also use data accumulated on shootings and the sounds of gunfire to identify locations of shootings. The city of Chicago uses data blended from population mapping crime statistics to improve monitoring and identify patterns. Rather than predicting crime, predictive policing can be used to prevent it. The "AI Ethics of Care " approach recognizes that some locations have greater crime rates as
6832-791: The database. The sum total of the database, the DBMS and the associated applications can be referred to as a database system . Often the term "database" is also used loosely to refer to any of the DBMS, the database system or an application associated with the database. Small databases can be stored on a file system , while large databases are hosted on computer clusters or cloud storage . The design of databases spans formal techniques and practical considerations, including data modeling , efficient data representation and storage, query languages , security and privacy of sensitive data, and distributed computing issues, including supporting concurrent access and fault tolerance . Computer scientists may classify database management systems according to
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#17327837290526944-496: The effort. Reports began to emerge in February 2006 that TIA's components had been transferred to the authority of the NSA. In the Department of Defense appropriations bill for the 2004 fiscal year, a classified annex provided the funding. It was stipulated that the technologies were limited for military or foreign intelligence purposes against non-U.S. citizens. Most of the original project goals and research findings were preserved, but
7056-554: The extensive areas covered by these IEDs made it impractical for Iraqi forces to respond to every American presence within the region. This challenge led to the concept of Actionable Hot Spots—zones experiencing high levels of activity yet too vast for effective control. This situation presented difficulties for the Iraqi military in selecting optimal locations for surveillance, sniper placements, and route patrols along areas monitored by IEDs. The roots of predictive policing can be traced to
7168-579: The fact that they are both African-American which makes it more likely that the facial recognition technology will make an identification error. With regards to predictive policing technology, the mayor of Santa Cruz, Justin Cummings, is quoted as saying, “this is something that targets people who are like me,” referencing the patterns of racial bias and discrimination that predictive policing can continue rather than stop. For example, as Dorothy Roberts explains in her academic journal article, Digitizing
7280-655: The huge volume of raw data input, analysis results, and feedback, that will result in a simpler, more flexible data store that performs well and allows us to retain important data indefinitely". Scalable social network analysis (SSNA) aimed to develop techniques based on social network analysis to model the key characteristics of terrorist groups and discriminate them from other societal groups. Evidence extraction and link discovery (EELD) developed technologies and tools for automated discovery, extraction and linking of sparse evidence contained in large amounts of classified and unclassified data sources (such as phone call records from
7392-400: The inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database tables. Object databases and object–relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL. On the programming side, libraries known as object–relational mappings (ORMs) attempt to solve
7504-507: The intended use of allotted funds or face a cutoff of support. The report arrived on May 20. It disclosed that the program's computer tools were still in their preliminary testing phase. Concerning the pattern recognition of transaction information, only synthetic data created by researchers was being processed. The report also conceded that a full prototype of TIA would not be ready until the 2007 fiscal year. Also in May, Total Information Awareness
7616-430: The lack of a "search" facility. In 1970, he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks . In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea
7728-462: The mid-1990s PGIS has been introduced into the Chinese public security industry to empower law enforcement by promoting police collaboration and resource sharing. The current applications of PGIS are still contained within the stages of public map services, spatial queries , and hot spot mapping. Its application in crime trajectory analysis and prediction is still in the exploratory stage; however,
7840-576: The model: relations, tuples, and domains rather than tables, rows, and columns. The terminology that is now familiar came from early implementations. Codd would later criticize the tendency for practical implementations to depart from the mathematical foundations on which the model was based. The use of primary keys (user-oriented identifiers) to represent cross-table relationships, rather than disk addresses, had two primary motivations. From an engineering perspective, it enabled tables to be relocated and resized without expensive database reorganization. But Codd
7952-660: The most valuable early indicators for abnormal health conditions. As a "virtual, centralized, grand database", the scope of surveillance included credit card purchases, magazine subscriptions, web browsing histories, phone records, academic grades, bank deposits, gambling histories, passport applications, airline and railway tickets, driver's licenses, gun licenses, toll records, judicial records, and divorce records. Health and biological information TIA collected included drug prescriptions, medical records, fingerprints, gait, face and iris data, and DNA . TIA's Genisys component, in addition to integrating and organizing separate databases,
8064-592: The motivation of specific terrorists. Translingual information detection, extraction and summarization (TIDES) developed advanced language processing technology to enable English speakers to find and interpret critical information in multiple languages without requiring knowledge of those languages. Outside groups (such as universities, corporations, etc.) were invited to participate in the annual information retrieval , topic detection and tracking, automatic content extraction, and machine translation evaluations run by NIST . Cornell University , Columbia University , and
8176-432: The over-policing of minority or low-income communities. Database In computing , a database is an organized collection of data or a type of data store based on the use of a database management system ( DBMS ), the software that interacts with end users , applications , and the database itself to capture and analyze the data. The DBMS additionally encompasses the core facilities provided to administer
8288-554: The pattern crimes. In India, various state police forces have adopted AI technologies to enhance their law enforcement capabilities. For instance, the Maharashtra Police have launched Maharashtra Advanced Research and Vigilance for Enhanced Law Enforcement (MARVEL) , the country's first state-level police AI system, to improve crime prediction and detection. Additionally, the Uttar Pradesh Police utilize
8400-471: The police geographical information system (PGIS) is within China’s promise to better coordinate information resources across departments and regions to transform analysis of past crime patterns and trends into automated prevention and suppression of crime. PGIS was first introduced in 1970s and was originally used for internal government management and research institutions for city surveying and planning. Since
8512-536: The policy approach of social governance, in which leader of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping announced at a security conference in 2016 is the Chinese regime’s agenda to promote a harmonious and prosperous country through an extensive use of information systems. A common instance of social governance is the development of the social credit system , where big data is used to digitize identities and quantify trustworthiness. There
8624-471: The predictions the algorithm generates, they should be coupled with a prevention strategy, which typically sends an officer to the predicted time and place of the crime. The use of automated predictive policing supplies a more accurate and efficient process when looking at future crimes because there is data to back up decisions, rather than just the instincts of police officers. By having police use information from predictive policing, they are able to anticipate
8736-623: The privacy protection mechanics were abandoned. Genoa II , which focused on collaboration between machines and humans, was renamed "Topsail" and handed over to the NSA's Advanced Research and Development Activity , or ARDA (ARDA was later moved to the Director of National Intelligence 's control as the Disruptive Technologies Office ). Tools from the program were used in the war in Afghanistan and other parts of
8848-538: The private sector to create a resource for the intelligence , counterintelligence , and law enforcement communities. These components consisted of information analysis, collaboration, decision-support tools, language translation, data-searching, pattern recognition , and privacy-protection technologies. TIA research included or planned to include the participation of nine government entities: INSCOM , NSA , DIA , CIA , CIFA , STRATCOM , SOCOM , JFCOM , and JWAC . They were to be able to access TIA's programs through
8960-465: The program could be abused by government authorities as part of their practice of mass surveillance in the United States . In an op-ed for The New York Times , William Safire called it "the supersnoop's dream: a Total Information Awareness about every U.S. citizen". Hans Mark , a former director of defense research and engineering at the University of Texas , called it a "dishonest misuse of DARPA ". The American Civil Liberties Union launched
9072-427: The program's status. Negroponte's deputy, former NSA director , Michael V. Hayden , said, "I'd like to answer in closed session." The Information Awareness Prototype System was reclassified as "Basketball" and work on it continued by SAIC, supervised by ARDA. As late as September 2004, Basketball was fully funded by the government and being tested in a research center jointly run by ARDA and SAIC. Critics allege that
9184-488: The promotion of informatization of policing has encouraged cloud-based upgrades to PGIS design, fusion of multi-source spatiotemporal data, and developments to police spatiotemporal big data analysis and visualization. Although there is no nationwide police prediction program in China, local projects between 2015 and 2018 have also been undertaken in regions such as Zhejiang , Guangdong , Suzhou , and Xinjiang , that are either advertised as or are building blocks towards
9296-417: The proposed boycott. Some applications of predictive policing have targeted minority neighborhoods and lack feedback loops. Cities throughout the United States are enacting legislation to restrict the use of predictive policing technologies and other “invasive” intelligence-gathering techniques within their jurisdictions. Following the introduction of predictive policing as a crime reduction strategy, via
9408-480: The relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided. As well as identifying rows/records using logical identifiers rather than disk addresses, Codd changed the way in which applications assembled data from multiple records. Rather than requiring applications to gather data one record at
9520-599: The relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models. Object databases were developed in the 1980s to overcome the inconvenience of object–relational impedance mismatch , which led to the coining of the term "post-relational" and also the development of hybrid object–relational databases . The next generation of post-relational databases in the late 2000s became known as NoSQL databases, introducing fast key–value stores and document-oriented databases . A competing "next generation" known as NewSQL databases attempted new implementations that retained
9632-419: The relational model, the process of normalization led to such internal structures being replaced by data held in multiple tables, connected only by logical keys. For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach, all of this data would be placed in a single variable-length record. In
9744-455: The relational/SQL model while aiming to match the high performance of NoSQL compared to commercially available relational DBMSs. The introduction of the term database coincided with the availability of direct-access storage (disks and drums) from the mid-1960s onwards. The term represented a contrast with the tape-based systems of the past, allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing . The Oxford English Dictionary cites
9856-484: The results of an algorithm created through the use of the software PredPol, the city of Santa Cruz, California experienced a decline in the number of burglaries reaching almost 20% in the first six months the program was in place. Despite this, in late June 2020 in the aftermath of the murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis, Minnesota along with a growing call for increased accountability amongst police departments,
9968-414: The same offenders or same group of offenders. With the help of the Patternizr, officers are able to save time and be more efficient as the program generates the possible "pattern" of different crimes. The officer then has to manually search through the possible patterns to see if the generated crimes are related to the current suspect. If the crimes do match, the officer will launch a deeper investigation into
10080-623: The same problem. XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based on XML document attributes. XML databases are mostly used in applications where the data is conveniently viewed as a collection of documents, with a structure that can vary from the very flexible to the highly rigid: examples include scientific articles, patents, tax filings, and personnel records. NoSQL databases are often very fast, do not require fixed table schemas, avoid join operations by storing denormalized data, and are designed to scale horizontally . In recent years, there has been
10192-582: The technology progress in the areas of processors , computer memory , computer storage , and computer networks . The concept of a database was made possible by the emergence of direct access storage media such as magnetic disks , which became widely available in the mid-1960s; earlier systems relied on sequential storage of data on magnetic tape . The subsequent development of database technology can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure: navigational , SQL/ relational , and post-relational. The two main early navigational data models were
10304-404: The times, locations and nature of past crimes to provide insight to police strategists concerning where, and at what times, police patrols should patrol, or maintain a presence, in order to make the best use of resources or to have the greatest chance of deterring or preventing future crimes. This type of policing detects signals and patterns in crime reports to anticipate if crime will spike, when
10416-423: The type(s) of computer they run on (from a server cluster to a mobile phone ), the query language (s) used to access the database (such as SQL or XQuery ), and their internal engineering, which affects performance, scalability , resilience, and security. The sizes, capabilities, and performance of databases and their respective DBMSs have grown in orders of magnitude. These performance increases were enabled by
10528-410: The underlying database model , with RDBMS for the relational , OODBMS for the object (oriented) and ORDBMS for the object–relational model . Other extensions can indicate some other characteristics, such as DDBMS for a distributed database management systems. The functionality provided by a DBMS can vary enormously. The core functionality is the storage, retrieval and update of data. Codd proposed
10640-455: The use of a "database management system" (DBMS), which is an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information
10752-460: The use of a "language" for data access , known as QUEL . Over time, INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard. IBM itself did one test implementation of the relational model, PRTV , and a production one, Business System 12 , both now discontinued. Honeywell wrote MRDS for Multics , and now there are two new implementations: Alphora Dataphor and Rel. Most other DBMS implementations usually called relational are actually SQL DBMSs. In 1970,
10864-443: Was ICL 's CAFS accelerator, a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage. However, this idea
10976-803: Was intelligence analysis to assist human analysts. It was designed to support both top-down and bottom-up approaches; a policymaker could hypothesize an attack and use Genoa to look for supporting evidence of it or compile pieces of intelligence into a diagram and suggest possible outcomes. Human analysts could then modify the diagram to test various cases. Genoa was independently commissioned in 1996 and completed in 2002 as scheduled. While Genoa primarily focused on intelligence analysis, Genoa II aimed to provide means by which computers, software agents, policymakers, and field operatives could collaborate. Genisys aimed to develop technologies that would enable "ultra-large, all-source information repositories". Vast amounts of information were to be collected and analyzed, and
11088-538: Was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360 . IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed: the term was popularized by Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation The Programmer as Navigator . IMS
11200-528: Was a key component of HumanID, because it could be employed on low-resolution video feeds and therefore help identify subjects at a distance. They planned to develop a system that recovered static body and stride parameters of subjects as they walked, while also looking into the ability of time-normalized joint angle trajectories in the walking plane as a way of recognizing gait. The university also worked on finding and tracking faces by expressions and speech. Carnegie Mellon University 's Robotics Institute (part of
11312-412: Was also read and Mimer SQL was developed in the mid-1970s at Uppsala University . In 1984, this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise. Another data model, the entity–relationship model , emerged in 1976 and gained popularity for database design as it emphasized a more familiar description than the earlier relational model. Later on, entity–relationship constructs were retrofitted as
11424-781: Was also started on foreign-language computer interaction for use in coalition operations. Live exercises were conducted involving small unit logistics operations with the United States Marines to test the technology in extreme environments. The human identification at a distance (HumanID) project developed automated biometric identification technologies to detect, recognize and identify humans at great distances for "force protection", crime prevention, and "homeland security/defense" purposes. The goals of HumanID were to: A number of universities assisted in designing HumanID. The Georgia Institute of Technology 's College of Computing focused on gait recognition . Gait recognition
11536-403: Was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done. The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and closing files, and managing space allocation." dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in
11648-461: Was done through its consulting arm, Hicks & Associates, which employed many former Defense Department and military officials. TIA's earliest version employed software called "Groove", which had been developed in 2000 by Ray Ozzie . Groove made it possible for analysts from many different agencies to share intelligence data instantly, and linked specialized programs that were designed to look for patterns of suspicious behavior. On 24 January 2003,
11760-422: Was more interested in the difference in semantics: the use of explicit identifiers made it easier to define update operations with clean mathematical definitions, and it also enabled query operations to be defined in terms of the established discipline of first-order predicate calculus ; because these operations have clean mathematical properties, it becomes possible to rewrite queries in provably correct ways, which
11872-422: Was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker . They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways, including
11984-404: Was renamed Terrorism Information Awareness in an attempt to stem the flow of criticism on its information-gathering practices on average citizens. At some point in early 2003, the National Security Agency began installing access nodes on TIA's classified network. The NSA then started running stacks of emails and intercepted communications through TIA's various programs. Following a scandal in
12096-565: Was to interpret dialogue's context to improve performance, and to automatically adapt to new topics so conversation could be natural and efficient. Communicator emphasized task knowledge to compensate for natural language effects and noisy environments. Unlike automated translation of natural language speech, which is much more complex due to an essentially unlimited vocabulary and grammar, Communicator takes on task-specific issues so that there are constrained vocabularies (the system only needs to be able to understand language related to war). Research
12208-490: Was to organize the data as a number of " tables ", each table being used for a different type of entity. Each table would contain a fixed number of columns containing the attributes of the entity. One or more columns of each table were designated as a primary key by which the rows of the table could be uniquely identified; cross-references between tables always used these primary keys, rather than disk addresses, and queries would join tables based on these key relationships, using
12320-406: Was to revolutionize the United States' ability to detect, classify and identify foreign terrorists and decipher their plans, thereby enabling the U.S. to take timely action to preempt and disrupt terrorist activity. To that end, TIA was to create a counter-terrorism information system that: Unlike the other program components, Genoa predated TIA and provided a basis for it. Genoa's primary function
12432-415: Was to run an internal "privacy protection program". This was intended to restrict analysts' access to irrelevant information on private U.S. citizens, enforce privacy laws and policies, and report misuses of data. There were also plans for TIA to have an application that could "anonymize" data, so that information could be linked to an individual only by court order (especially for medical records gathered by
12544-530: Was wrongfully accused of larceny when his face registered as a “match” in the DataWorks Plus software to the suspect identified in a video taken by the victim of the alleged crime. Oliver spent months going to court arguing for his innocence - and once the judge supervising the case viewed the video footage of the crime, it was clear that Oliver was not the perpetrator. In fact, the perpetrator and Oliver did not resemble each other at all - except for
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